Editing Phono-semantic matching

{{short description|Type of multi-source neologism}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2018}}
{{Sociolinguistics}}
'''Phono-semantic matching''' ('''PSM''') is the incorporation of a [[word]] into one language from another, often creating a [[neologism]], where the word's non-native quality is hidden by replacing it with [[Phonetics|phonetically]] and [[semantic]]ally similar words or roots from the adopting language. Thus the approximate [[sound]] and [[Meaning (linguistic)|meaning]] of the original expression in the source [[language]] are preserved, though the new expression (the PSM – the phono-semantic match) in the target language may sound native.

Phono-semantic matching is distinct from [[calquing]], which includes (semantic) [[translation]] but does not include phonetic matching (i.e., retention of the approximate sound of the [[loanword|borrowed word]] through matching it with a similar-sounding pre-existent word or [[morpheme]] in the target language).

Phono-semantic matching is also distinct from [[homophonic translation]], which retains the sound of a word but not the meaning.

==History==
The term "phono-semantic matching" was introduced by linguist and revivalist [[Ghil'ad Zuckermann]].{{sfn|Zuckermann|2003a}} It challenged [[Einar Haugen]]'s classic [[Morphological typology|typology]] of lexical borrowing (loanwords).{{sfn|Haugen|1950}} While Haugen categorized borrowing into either substitution or importation, camouflaged borrowing in the form of PSM is a case of "simultaneous substitution and importation." Zuckermann proposed a new classification of multisourced neologisms, words deriving from two or more sources at the same time. Examples of such mechanisms are phonetic matching, semanticized phonetic matching and phono-semantic matching.

Zuckermann concludes that [[language planning|language planners]], for example members of the [[Academy of the Hebrew Language]], employ the very same techniques used in [[folk etymology]] by [[laymen]], as well as by religious leaders.{{sfn|Zuckermann|2006}} He urges [[lexicographer]]s and [[etymologist]]s to recognize the widespread phenomena of camouflaged borrowing and multisourced neologization and not to force one source on multi-parental [[lexical item]]s.

==Examples==
===Arabic===
Zuckermann analyses the evolution of the word ''[[artichoke]]''.<ref>{{harvtxt|Zuckermann|2009|page=60}}</ref> Beginning in Arabic {{lang|ar|الخرشوف}} ({{transliteration|ar|ALA|'al-khurshūf}}) "the artichoke", it was adapted into [[Andalusian Arabic]] ''alxarshofa'', then [[Old Spanish]] ''alcarchofa'', then [[Italian language|Italian]] ''alcarcioffo'', then [[Northern Italian]] ''arcicioffo'' > ''arciciocco'' > ''articiocco'', then phonetically realised in English as ''artichoke''. The word was eventually ''phono-semantically matched'' back into colloquial [[Levantine Arabic]] (for example in [[Syria]], [[Lebanon]] and [[Israel]]) as {{lang|ar|أرضي شوكي}} ({{transliteration|ar|ALA|arḍī shawkī}}), consisting of {{lang|ar|أرضي}} ({{transliteration|ar|ALA|arḍī}}) "earthly" and {{lang|ar|شوكي}} ({{transliteration|ar|ALA|shawkī}}) "thorny".

Arabic has made use of phono-semantic matching to replace blatantly imported new terminology with a word derived from an existing [[triliteral root]]. Examples are:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Word !! English meaning !! Unarabicised import !! Arabicised word !! Pre-existing root (meaning)
|-
| technologie (French) || technology || {{lang|ar|تكنولوجيا}} ({{transliteration|ar|ALA|teknolōjyā}}) || {{lang|ar|تقانة}} ({{transliteration|ar|taqānah}}) || t-q-n (skill)
|-
| mitochondrie (French) || mitochondria || {{lang|ar|ميتوكندريا}} ({{transliteration|ar|mītōkondriyah}}) || {{lang|ar|متقدرة}} ({{transliteration|ar|mutaqaddirah}}) || q-d-r (power)
|-
| macchina (Italian) || machine || {{lang|ar|مكينة}} ({{transliteration|ar|makīnah}}) || {{lang|ar|مكنة}} ({{transliteration|ar|makanah}}) || m-k-n (capacity)
|}

===Dutch===
A number of PSMs exist in [[Dutch language|Dutch]] as well. One notable example is {{lang|nl|hangmat}} ("hammock"), which is a modification of Spanish {{lang|es|hamaca}}, also the source of the English word. Natively, the word is transparently analysed as a "hang-mat", which aptly describes the object. Similarly:
* In {{lang|nl|ansjovis}} ("anchovy"), the second part was modified to resemble {{lang|nl|vis}} ("fish"), although the word originates in Spanish ''anchova'';
* In {{lang|nl|scheurbuik}} ("scurvy"), the word parts were modified to resemble {{lang|nl|scheur-}} (stem of {{lang|nl|scheuren}}, tear open) and {{lang|nl|buik}} ("belly, stomach"), although the word originates in Middle Low German {{lang|gml|schorbuck}};
* In {{lang|nl|sprokkelmaand}} (an alternative name for {{lang|nl|februari}}, "February"), the first part was modified to resemble {{lang|nl|sprokkelen}} ("gather wood"), although the word originates in Latin ''spurcalia'';
* In {{lang|nl|zijdenhemdje}} (a variety of apple with a very soft, thin, yellow skin), the word parts were modified to resemble {{lang|nl|zijden}} ("silken") and {{lang|nl|hemdje}} ("shirt; small shirt; vest"), although the word actually denotes the place [[Sydenham, Devon|Sydenham]] where the apple originates.{{sfn|van Dale|2015}}
* Dutch dictionary ''Van Dale'' describes {{lang|nl|balkenbrij}} as a particularly notable example.
* Other examples are {{lang|nl|angstvallig}},{{sfn|Onze Taal - Volksetymologie}} {{lang|nl|dukdalf}}, {{lang|nl|geeuwhonger}},{{sfn|Onze Taal - Volksetymologie}} {{lang|nl|hagedis}}, {{lang|nl|hondsdraf}},{{sfn|Onze Taal - Volksetymologie}} {{lang|nl|penthouse}}, {{lang|nl|rederijker}}, {{lang|nl|rendier}} and {{lang|nl|zondvloed}}.

===English===
A few PSMs exist in English.  The French word {{Wikt-lang|fr|chartreuse}} ("[[Carthusian]] [[monastery]]") was translated to the English ''[[Charterhouse (monastery)|charterhouse]]''. The French word {{Wikt-lang|fr|choupique}}, itself an adaptation of the [[Choctaw language|Choctaw]] name for the [[bowfin]], has likewise been [[Anglicize]]d as {{Wikt-lang|en|shoepike}},<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bowfinanglers.com/ |title=Bowfin Anglers |access-date=2007-07-15 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070712154743/http://www.bowfinanglers.com/ |archive-date=2007-07-12 }}</ref> although it is unrelated to the [[Esox|pikes]].  The French name for the [[Maclura pomifera|Osage orange]], ''{{lang|fr|bois d'arc}}'' ({{abbr|lit.|literally}} "[[Bow (weapon)|bow]]-wood"), is sometimes rendered as "bowdark".{{sfn|Wynia|2011}} {{Dubious span|text=In Canada, the [[cloudberry]] is called "bakeapple" after the French phrase ''baie qu'appelle'' 'the what-do-you-call-it berry'.||reason=The OED disagrees with this etymology, instead saying, "So called with reference to the flavour of the berries".|date=July 2024}}

The second part of the word ''[[muskrat]]'' was altered to match ''[[rat]]'', replacing the original form ''{{linktext|musquash}}'', which derives from an [[Algonquian languages|Algonquian]] (possibly [[Powhatan language|Powhatan]]<ref>{{cite web|work=Online Etymology Dictionary|title=Muskrat|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=muskrat}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=July 2024}}) word, ''muscascus'' (literally "it is red"), or from the [[Abenaki language|Abenaki]] native word ''mòskwas''.

The use of ''[[wiktionary:runagate|runagates]]'' in [[Psalm 68]] of the [[Anglican]] ''[[Book of Common Prayer]]'' derives from phono-semantic matching between Latin {{lang|la|renegatus}} and English ''{{wikt-lang|en|run}} {{wikt-lang|en|agate}}''.{{citation needed|date=July 2024}}

===Finnish===
The [[Finnish language|Finnish]] compound word for "jealous," {{lang|fi|mustasukkainen}}, literally means "black-socked" ({{lang|fi|musta}} "black" and {{lang|fi|sukka}} "sock"). However, the word is a case of a misunderstood loan translation from Swedish {{lang|sv|svartsjuk}} "black-sick". The Finnish word {{lang|fi|sukka}} fit with a close phonological equivalent to the Swedish {{lang|sv|sjuk}}. Similar cases are {{lang|fi|työmyyrä}} "hardworking person", literally "work mole", from {{lang|sv|arbetsmyra}} "work ant", matching {{lang|sv|myra}} "ant" to {{lang|fi|myyrä}} "mole"; and {{lang|fi|liikavarvas}} "[[Corn (medicine)|clavus]]", literally "extra toe", from {{lang|sv|liktå}} < {{lang|sv|liktorn}} "dead thorn", matching {{lang|fi|liika}} "extra" to {{lang|sv|lik}} "dead (archaic)" and {{lang|fi|varvas}} "toe" to {{lang|sv|tå}} < {{lang|sv|torn}} "thorn".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kirlah-kielet.blogspot.com/2008_05_01_archive.html|title=Kielten ihmeellinen maailma: toukokuuta 2008|work=kirlah-kielet.blogspot.com}}</ref><ref>''torn'', in ''Svenska Akademiens Ordbok'' (1940). https://www.saob.se/artikel/?seek=liktorn&pz=1</ref>

===German===
{{harvtxt|Mailhammer|2008}} "applies the concepts of multisourced neologisation and, more generally, camouflaged borrowing, as established by {{harvtxt|Zuckermann|2003a}} to Modern German, pursuing a twofold aim, namely to underline the significance of multisourced neologisation for language contact theory and secondly to demonstrate that together with other forms of camouflaged borrowing it remains an important borrowing mechanism in contemporary German."{{sfn|Mailhammer|2008|page=191}}

===Icelandic===
{{harvtxt|Sapir|Zuckermann|2008}} demonstrate how Icelandic camouflages many English words by means of phono-semantic matching. For example, the Icelandic-looking word ''eyðni'', meaning "AIDS", is a PSM of the English acronym ''AIDS'', using the pre-existent Icelandic verb ''eyða'', meaning "to destroy", and the Icelandic nominal suffix ''-ni''.<ref>{{harvtxt|Sapir|Zuckermann|2008|page=36}}: see also {{lang|zh-hans|爱滋病}} ''{{lang|zh-latn-pinyin|aìzībìng}}'' (lit. "a disease caused by (making) love"), another PSM of ''AIDS'', in this case in [[Standard Chinese]].</ref> Similarly, the Icelandic word ''tækni'', meaning "technology, technique", derives from ''tæki'', meaning "tool", combined with the nominal suffix ''-ni'', but is, in fact, a PSM of the Danish ''teknik'' (or of another derivative of Greek {{lang|grc|τεχνικός}} {{transliteration|grc|tekhnikós}}), meaning "technology, technique". ''Tækni'' was coined in 1912 by Dr Björn Bjarnarson from Viðfjörður in the East of Iceland. It had been in little use until the 1940s, but has since become common, as a lexeme and as an element in new formations, such as ''raftækni'', lit. "electrical technics", i.e. "electronics", ''tæknilegur'' "technical" and ''tæknir'' "technician".<ref>{{harvtxt|Sapir|Zuckermann|2008|pages=37–38}}, cf. {{lang|ar|تقنيّ}} taqni/tiqani (lit. "of perfection, related to mastering and improving"), another PSM of  ''technical'', in this case in Modern Arabic.</ref> Other PSMs discussed in the article are ''beygla'', ''bifra''{{snd}} ''bifrari'', ''brokkál'', ''dapur''{{snd}} ''dapurleiki'' - ''depurð'', ''fjárfesta'' - ''fjárfesting'', ''heila'', ''guðspjall'', ''ímynd'', ''júgurð'', ''korréttur'', ''Létt og laggott'', ''musl'', ''pallborð''{{snd}} ''pallborðsumræður'', ''páfagaukur'', ''ratsjá'', ''setur'', ''staða'', ''staðall''{{snd}} ''staðla''{{snd}} ''stöðlun'', ''toga''{{snd}} ''togari'', ''uppi'' and ''veira''.{{sfn|Sapir|Zuckermann|2008}}

===Japanese===
{{Main|Ateji|jukujikun}}

In modern Japanese, loanwords are generally represented phonetically via [[katakana]]. However, in earlier times loanwords were often represented by [[kanji]] (Chinese characters), a process called {{transliteration|ja|[[ateji]]}} when used for phonetic matching, or {{transliteration|ja|[[jukujikun]]}} when used for semantic matching. Some of these continue to be used; the characters chosen may correspond to the sound, the meaning, or both.

In most cases the characters used were chosen only for their matching sound or only for their matching meaning. For example, in the word {{lang|ja-Hani|寿司}} ([[sushi]]), the two characters are respectively read as {{transliteration|ja|su}} and {{transliteration|ja|shi}}, but the character {{lang|ja-Hani|寿}} means "one's natural life span" and {{lang|ja-Hani|司}} means "to administer", neither of which has anything to do with the food{{snd}} this is {{transliteration|ja|ateji}}. Conversely, in the word {{lang|ja-Hani|煙草}} ({{transliteration|ja|tabako}}) for "[[tobacco]]", the individual kanji respectively mean "smoke" and "herb", which corresponds to the meaning, while none of their possible readings have a phonetic relationship to the word {{transliteration|ja|tabako}}{{snd}} this is {{transliteration|ja|[[jukujikun]]}}.

In some cases, however, the kanji were chosen for both their semantic and phonetic values, a form of phono-semantic matching. A stock example is {{lang|ja-Hani|倶楽部}} ({{transliteration|ja|kurabu}}) for "[[Club (organization)|club]]", where the characters can be interpreted loosely in sequence as "together-fun-place" (which has since been borrowed into Chinese during the early 20th century with the same meaning, including the individual characters, but with a pronunciation that differs considerably from the original English and the Japanese, {{transliteration|zh|jùlèbù}}). Another example is {{lang|ja-Hani|合羽}} ({{transliteration|ja|kappa}}) for the [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] {{lang|pt|capa}}, a kind of [[raincoat]]. The characters can mean "wings coming together", as the pointed {{lang|pt|capa}} resembles a bird with wings folded together.

===Mandarin Chinese===
PSM is frequently used in [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] borrowings.{{sfn|Zuckermann|2003b}}{{sfn|Zuckermann|2004}} An example is the [[Taiwanese Mandarin]] word {{lang|zh-Hant|威而剛}} {{transliteration|zh|wēi'érgāng}}, which literally means "powerful and hard" and refers to [[Viagra]], the drug for treating [[erectile dysfunction]] in men, manufactured by [[Pfizer]].{{sfn|Zuckermann|2003a|page=59}}

Another example is the Mandarin form of [[World Wide Web]], which is  {{transliteration|zh|wàn wéi wǎng}} ({{zh|s=万维网|t={{linktext|萬維網}}}}), which satisfies "www" and literally means "myriad dimensional net".<ref>See [[CEDICT]] or the [http://www.mdbg.net/chindict/chindict.php?page=translate&trst=0&trqs=World+Wide+Web&trlang=&wddmtm=0 MDBG Chinese-English Dictionary].</ref> The English word ''[[hacker (term)|hacker]]'' has been borrowed into Mandarin as {{lang|zh|{{linktext|黑客}}}} ({{transliteration|zh|hēikè}}, "dark/wicked visitor").{{sfn|Gao|2008}}

[[Modern Standard Chinese]] {{lang|zh-Hans|声纳}}/{{lang|zh-Hant|聲納}} {{transliteration|zh|shēngnà}} "[[sonar]]" uses the characters {{lang|zh-Hans|声}}/{{lang|zh-Hant|聲}} {{transliteration|zh|shēng}} "sound" and {{lang|zh-Hans|纳}}/{{lang|zh-Hant|納}} {{transliteration|zh|nà}} "receive, accept". The pronunciations {{transliteration|zh|shēng}} and {{transliteration|zh|nà}} are phonetically somewhat similar to the two syllables of the English word. Chinese has a large number of homo/heterotonal homophonous morphemes, which would have been a better phonetic fit than {{transliteration|zh|shēng}}, but not nearly as good semantically{{snd}} consider the syllable ''{{lang|zh-latn-pinyin|song}}'' (cf. {{lang|zh|送}} {{transliteration|zh|sòng}} 'deliver, carry, give (as a present)', {{lang|zh|松}} {{transliteration|zh|sōng}} 'pine; loose, slack', {{lang|zh-Hans|耸}}/{{lang|zh-Hant|聳}} {{transliteration|zh|sǒng}} 'tower; alarm, attract' etc.), ''{{lang|zh-latn-pinyin|sou}}'' (cf. {{lang|zh|搜}} {{transliteration|zh|sōu}} 'search', {{lang|zh|叟}} {{transliteration|zh|sŏu}} 'old man', {{lang|zh-Hans|馊}}/{{lang|zh-Hant|餿}} {{transliteration|zh|sōu}} 'sour, spoiled' and many others) or ''{{lang|zh-latn-pinyin|shou}}'' (cf. {{lang|zh|收}} {{transliteration|zh|shōu}} 'receive, accept', {{lang|zh|受}} {{transliteration|zh|shòu}} 'receive, accept', {{lang|zh|手}} {{transliteration|zh|shǒu}} 'hand', {{lang|zh|首}} {{transliteration|zh|shǒu}} 'head', {{lang|zh-Hans|兽}}/{{lang|zh-Hant|獸}} {{transliteration|zh|shòu}} 'beast', {{lang|zh|瘦}} {{transliteration|zh|shòu}} 'thin' and so forth).{{sfn|Zuckermann|2003a|page=57}}

According to Zuckermann, PSM in Mandarin is common in:

* brand names, e.g., {{lang|zh-hans|可口可乐}}/{{lang|zh-hant|可口可樂}} {{transliteration|zh|Kěkǒu kělè}}, "[[Coca-Cola]]" translates to "tasty [and] entertaining",<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hXQWEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT84|title = Terminology Translation in Chinese Contexts: Theory and Practice|isbn = 9781000357103|last1 = Li|first1 = Saihong|last2 = Hope|first2 = William|date = 22 February 2021| publisher=Routledge }}</ref> {{lang|zh-hans|可乐}}/{{lang|zh-hant|可樂}} itself genericised to refer to any [[cola]].<ref>{{cite web| url = http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/可樂#Noun |script-title = zh:可樂 - Wiktionary| date=24 April 2021 }}</ref>
* computer [[jargon]], e.g., the aforementioned word for "World Wide Web".
* technological terms, e.g., the aforementioned word for "sonar".
* [[toponyms]], e.g., the name {{lang|zh-hans|白俄罗斯}}/{{lang|zh-Hant|白俄羅斯}} {{transliteration|zh|Bái'èluósī}}, "[[Belarus]]" combines the word {{lang|zh|白}} {{transliteration|zh|Bái}}, "White" with the name {{lang|zh-hans|俄罗斯}}/{{lang|zh-Hant|俄羅斯}} {{transliteration|zh|Èluósī}}, "[[Russia]]", therefore meaning "White Russia" just like the endonym "{{lang|be|Белару́сь}}".

From a monolingual Chinese view, Mandarin PSM is the 'lesser evil' compared with Latin script (in [[digraphic]] writing) or [[code-switching]] (in speech). Zuckermann's exploration of PSM in Standard Chinese and [[Meiji-period]] [[Japanese language|Japanese]] concludes that the [[Written Chinese|Chinese writing system]] is multifunctional: '''pleremic''' ("full" of meaning, e.g., [[logographic]]), '''cenemic''' ("empty" of [[Meaning (linguistics)|meaning]], e.g., phonographic - like a [[syllabary]]), and '''phono-logographic''' (simultaneously cenemic and pleremic). Zuckermann argues that [[Leonard Bloomfield]]'s assertion that "a language is the same no matter what system of writing may be used"{{sfn|Bloomfield|1933}} is inaccurate. "If Chinese had been written [[romanization of Chinese|using roman letters]], thousands of Chinese words would not have been coined, or would have been coined with completely different forms".{{sfn|Zuckermann|2003a|page=255}} Evidence of this can be seen in the [[Dungan language]], a Chinese language that is closely related to Mandarin, but written phonetically in [[Cyrillic script|Cyrillic]], where words are directly borrowed, often from Russian, without PSM.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Mair | first = Victor | author-link = Victor H. Mair | title = Implications of the Soviet Dungan Script for Chinese Language Reform | journal = Sino-Platonic Papers | issue = 18 | date = May 1990 | url = http://www.pinyin.info/readings/texts/dungan.html}}</ref>

A related practice is the [[Transcription into Chinese characters#Translating names|translation of Western names into Chinese characters]].

===Modern Hebrew===
Often in phono-semantic matching, the source language determines both the root word and the noun-pattern. This makes it difficult to determine the source language's influence on the target language [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]]. For example, "the phono-semantic matcher of [[English language|English]] ''dock'' with [[Modern Hebrew|Israeli Hebrew]] {{Script/Hebrew|מבדוק}} ''mivdók'' could have used{{snd}}after deliberately choosing the phonetically and semantically suitable [[triliteral root|root]] ''{{transliteration|he|b-d-q}}'' {{Script/Hebrew|בדק}} meaning 'check' (Rabbinic) or 'repair' (Biblical){{snd}} the noun-patterns ''mi⌂⌂a⌂á'', ''ma⌂⌂e⌂á'', ''mi⌂⌂é⌂et'', ''mi⌂⌂a⌂áim'' etc. (each ⌂ represents a slot where a radical is inserted). Instead, ''mi⌂⌂ó⌂'', which was not highly productive, was chosen because its [o] makes the final syllable of {{Script/Hebrew|מבדוק}} ''mivdók'' sound like English ''dock''."{{sfn|Zuckermann|2009|page=59}}

===Miscellaneous===
The Hebrew name {{lang|he|יְרוּשָׁלַיִם}} (''Yərūšālayim'') for [[Jerusalem]] is rendered as {{lang|grc|Ἱεροσόλυμα}} (''Hierosóluma'') in, e.g. [[Matthew 2:1]]. The first part corresponds to the [[Ancient Greek]] prefix {{lang|grc|ἱερo-}} (''[[wikt:hiero-|hiero-]]''), meaning "sacred, holy".

[[Old High German]] ''widarlōn'' ("repayment of a loan") was rendered as ''widerdonum'' ("reward") in [[Medieval Latin]]. The last part corresponds to the Latin ''donum'' ("gift").<ref>{{Cite OED1 |guerdon|year=1900}}</ref><ref name="Smythe Palmer">{{cite book|last=Smythe Palmer|first=Abram|title=Folk-etymology: A Dictionary of Verbal Corruptions Or Words Perverted in Form Or Meaning, by False Derivation Or Mistaken Analogy|year=1882|publisher=Johnson Reprint}}</ref>{{rp|157}}

''Viagra'', a brand name which was suggested by Interbrand Wood (the consultancy firm hired by Pfizer), is itself a multisourced neologism, based on [[Sanskrit]] {{lang|sa|व्याघ्र}} ''{{IAST|vyāghráh}}'' ("tiger") but enhanced by the words ''vigour'' (i.e. strength) and ''Niagara'' (i.e. free/forceful flow).{{sfn|Zuckermann|2003a|page= 59}}

Other than through [[Sino-Xenic pronunciations|Sinoxenic]] borrowings, [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] employs phono-semantic matching less commonly than Chinese. Examples include {{lang|vi|ma trận}} ("matrix", from the words for "magic" and "battle array"), {{lang|vi|áp dụng}} ("apply", from the words for "press down" and "use"), and {{lang|vi|{{linktext|Huỳnh Phi Long|lang=vi}}}} ([[Huey Long|Huey P. Long]], from "yellow flying dragon", evoking the [[Huey P. Long Bridge (Jefferson Parish)|Huey P. Long Bridge]]).

==Motivations==
According to Zuckermann, PSM has various advantages from the point of view of a [[linguistic purism|puristic]] [[language planning|language planner]]:{{sfn|Zuckermann|2003a}}

* recycling obsolete lexical items
* camouflaging foreign influence (for the native speaker in the future)
* facilitating initial learning ([[mnemonic]]s) (for the contemporary learner/speaker)

Other motivations for PSM include the following:

* playfulness (cf. midrashic tradition of homiletic commentary, cf. the Jewish ''[[pilpul]]'')
* [[Apollonian]]ism (the wish to create order/meaningfulness, cf. folk etymology, etymythology, [[paronymic attraction]])
* [[iconicity]] (the belief that there is something intrinsic about the sound of names; cf. [[phonaesthetics]])
* [[political correctness]] / rejective lexical engineering
* attracting customers (in the case of [[brand names]])

==Expressive loan==
An expressive loan is a loanword incorporated into the expressive system of the borrowing language, making it resemble native words or [[onomatopoeia]]. Expressive loanwords are hard to identify, and by definition, they follow the common phonetic sound change patterns poorly.{{sfn|Laakso|2010}} Likewise, there is a continuum between "pure" loanwords and "expressive" loanwords. The difference to a folk etymology (or an [[eggcorn]]) is that a folk etymology is based on misunderstanding, whereas an expressive loan is changed on purpose, the speaker taking the loanword knowing full well that the descriptive quality is different from the original sound and meaning.

South-eastern [[Finnish language|Finnish]], for example, has many expressive loans. The main source language, [[Russian language|Russian]], does not use the vowels 'y', 'ä' or 'ö' [y æ ø]. Thus, it is common to add these to redescriptivized loans to remove the degree of foreignness that the loanword would otherwise have. For example, ''tytinä'' "[[brawn]]" means "wobblyness",{{clarify|reason=I think it should say "can be analyzed as meaning" rather than "means" since the actually meaning is "brawn", but I don't know Finnish.|date=July 2022}} and superficially it looks like a native construction, originating from the verb ''tutista'' "to wobble" added with a front vowel sound in the [[vowel harmony]]. However, it is expressivized from ''tyyteni'' (which is a confusing word as ''-ni'' is a [[possessive suffix]]), which in turn is a loanword from Russian ''stúden'<nowiki/>''.{{sfn|Jarva|2001}} A somewhat more obvious example is ''tökötti'' "sticky, tarry goo", which could be mistaken as a derivation from the onomatopoetic word ''tök'' (cf. the verb ''tökkiä'' "to poke"). However, it is an expressive loan of Russian ''d'ogot''' "[[tar]]".{{sfn|Jarva|2003}}

==See also==
{{div col}}
* [[Bilingual pun]]
* [[Eggcorn]]
* [[Hybrid word]]
* [[Hobson-Jobson]]
* [[Internationalism (linguistics)|Internationalism]]
* [[Language contact]]
* [[Lexicology]]
* [[Phonestheme]]
* [[Phonosemantics]]
* [[Poetry]]
* [[Portmanteau]]
* [[Word formation]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}
{{Refbegin}}

=== Citations ===
*{{cite book |last=Bloomfield |first=Leonard |date=1933 |title=Language |location=New York |publisher=Henry Holt |page=21 }}
*{{Cite book  |last=van Dale |first=Johan Hendrik |title=Groot woordenboek van de Nederlandse taal |edition=15th |publisher=Van Dale Uitgevers |year=2015 |isbn=9789460772221 |location=Utrecht |language=nl }}
*{{cite web |url=https://onzetaal.nl/taalloket/volksetymologie |title= Onze Taal - Volksetymologie |author=<!--Not stated--> |language=nl |access-date= September 16, 2023}}
* {{cite speech |last=Gao |first=Liwei |year=2008 |title=Language change in progress: evidence from computer-mediated communication|event=20th North American Conference on Chinese Linguistics |location=Ohio State University }}
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{{Refend}}

==External links==
*[https://qz.com/816544/phono-semantic-matching-corporate-branding/ Jane C. Hu, 23 October 2016: LOST IN TRANSLATION: The genius and stupidity of corporate America are on display when companies rebrand for new countries]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Phono-Semantic Matching}}
[[Category:Word coinage]]
[[Category:Linguistic morphology]]
[[Category:Linguistic typology]]
[[Category:Grammar]]
[[Category:Sociolinguistics]]
[[Category:Language contact]]
[[Category:Linguistic purism]]
[[Category:Pidgins and creoles]]
[[Category:Chinese characters]]
[[Category:Semantics]]
[[Category:Hebrew language]]

[[he:גלעד צוקרמן#"תשמו"ץ"]]