Editing Picture superiority effect

{{Short description|Psychological phenomenon}}
[[File:Visual-Storytelling.jpg|thumb|275x275px|Visual storytelling by Suhani Gowan<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |jstor = 985378|title = The Principle of Associative Symmetry|journal = Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society|volume = 106|issue = 2|pages = 135–163|last1 = Asch|first1 = Solomon E.|last2 = Ebenholtz|first2 = Sheldon M.|year = 1962}}</ref>]]

The '''picture superiority effect''' refers to the phenomenon in which pictures and images are more likely to be remembered than words.<ref name="curran">{{cite journal | last1 = Curran | first1 = T. | last2 = Doyle | first2 = J. | year = 2011 | title = Picture superiority doubly dissociates the ERP correlates of recollection and familiarity | journal = Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience | volume = 23 | issue = 5| pages = 1247–1262 | doi = 10.1162/jocn.2010.21464 | pmid=20350169| s2cid = 6568038 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.708.3705 }}</ref><ref name="shepard">{{cite journal | last1 = Shepard | first1 = R.N. | year = 1967 | title = Recognition memory for words, sentences, and pictures | journal = Journal of Learning and Verbal Behavior | volume = 6 | pages = 156–163 | doi=10.1016/s0022-5371(67)80067-7}}</ref><ref name="McBride">{{cite journal | last1 = McBride | first1 = D. M. | last2 = Dosher | first2 = B.A. | year = 2002 | title = A comparison of conscious and automatic memory processes for picture and word stimuli: a process dissociation analysis | journal = Consciousness and Cognition | volume = 11 | issue = 3| pages = 423–460 | doi=10.1016/s1053-8100(02)00007-7| pmid = 12435377 | s2cid = 2813053 }}</ref><ref name="defeyter">{{cite journal | last1 = Defetyer | first1 = M. A. | last2 = Russo | first2 = R. | last3 = McPartlin | first3 = P. L. | year = 2009 | title = The picture superiority effect in recognition memory: a developmental study using the response signal procedure | journal = Cognitive Development | volume = 24 | issue = 3| pages = 265–273 | doi = 10.1016/j.cogdev.2009.05.002 }}</ref><ref name="whitehouse">{{cite journal | last1 = Whitehouse | first1 = A. J. | last2 = Maybery | first2 = M.T. | last3 = Durkin | first3 = K. | year = 2006 | title = The development of the picture-superiority effect | journal = British Journal of Developmental Psychology | volume = 24 | issue = 4| pages = 767–773 | doi = 10.1348/026151005X74153 }}</ref><ref name="ally gold">{{cite journal | last1 = Ally | first1 = B. A. | last2 = Gold | first2 = C. A. | last3 = Budson | first3 = A. E. | year = 2009 | title = The picture superiority effect in patients with Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment | journal = Neuropsychologia | volume = 47 | issue = 2| pages = 595–598 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2008.10.010 | pmid = 18992266 | pmc = 2763351 }}</ref> This effect has been demonstrated in numerous experiments using different methods. It is based on the notion that "human memory is extremely sensitive to the symbolic modality of presentation of event information."<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dmCLAwAAQBAJ|title=Imagery, Memory and Cognition (PLE: Memory): Essays in Honor of Allan Paivio|last=Yuille|first=John C.|date=2014-05-09|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=9781317685470|language=en}}</ref> Explanations for the picture superiority effect are not concrete and are still being debated, however an evolutionary explanation is that [[Visual perception|sight]] has a long history stretching back millions of years and was crucial to survival in the past, whereas reading is a relatively recent invention, and requires specific cognitive processes, such as decoding symbols and linking them to meaning.

== History ==
[[Allan Paivio]]'s [[dual-coding theory]] is a basis of picture superiority effect. Paivio claims that pictures have advantages over words with regards to coding and retrieval of stored memory because pictures are coded more easily and can be retrieved from symbolic mode, while the dual coding process using words is more difficult for both coding and retrieval. Another explanation of the higher recall in picture superiority is the higher familiarity or frequency of pictured objects (Asch & Ebenholtz, 1962).<ref name=":0" /> According to dual-coding theory (1971, 1986), memory exists either (or both) verbally or through imagery. [[Abstract and concrete|Concrete]] concepts presented as pictures are encoded into both systems; however, [[abstraction|abstract]] concepts are recorded only verbally. In [[psychology]], the effect has implications for [[Social salience|salience]] in [[attribution theory]] as well as the [[availability heuristic]]. It is also relevant to [[advertising]] and [[user interface design]].

==Related theories==

===Paivio – Dual coding theory===

Picture stimuli have an advantage over word stimuli because they are dually encoded; they generate a verbal and image code, whereas word stimuli only generate a verbal code. Pictures are likely to generate a verbal label, whereas words are not likely to generate image labels.<ref name="McBride"/>

===Nelson – Sensory semantic theory===

Pictures hold two encoding advantages over words. Pictures are perceptually more distinct from one another than words, thus increasing their chance for retrieval. In experiments when similarity among pictures was high, no picture superiority effect was present. Pictures are also believed to assess meaning more directly than words.  Levels of processing theory apply when words and pictures are compared under semantic study instructions (rate the pleasantness of each item), recall is very similar for pictures and words, as both were encoded at deeper levels.<ref name="McBride"/>

Picture superiority results from superior encoding for pictures over words, which facilitates greater recollection of pictures.<ref name="curran"/>

=== Weldon and Roediger-transfer appropriate processing theories ===
Greater overlap of processing at study and test result in increased performance. TAP accounts for picture superiority by an interaction of encoding and retrieval. If items are encoded during a semantic task, performance should be higher for a memory test that relies on concepts related to the items for retrieval than a test that relies on perceptual features.<ref name="McBride"/>

==Evidence==

This effect has been shown to occur in recognition memory tasks, where items studied as pictures are better remembered than items studied as words, even when targets are presented as words during the test phase.<ref name="defeyter"/> Whether the picture superiority effect influences the familiarity and/or recollection processes, according to the dual-process models, thought to underlie recognition memory is not clear.<ref name="curran"/>

In experiments of associative recognition memory, participants studied random concrete word pairs, and line drawing pairs. They had to discriminate between intact and rearranged pairs at test. The picture superiority effect continued to express a strong effect with a greater hit rate for intact picture pairs. This further supports encoding theories<ref name="hockley2008">{{cite journal | last1 = Hockley | first1 = W. E. | year = 2008 | title = The picture superiority effect in associative recognition | journal = Memory & Cognition | volume = 36 | issue = 7| pages = 1351–1359 | doi = 10.3758/MC.36.7.1351 | pmid = 18927048 | doi-access = free }}</ref> More recent research in associative recognition shows support that semantic meaning of nameable pictures is activated faster than that of words, allowing for more meaningful associations between items depicted as pictures to be generated.<ref name="hockley2011">{{cite journal | last1 = Hockley | first1 = W.E. | last2 = Bancroft | first2 = T. | year = 2011 | title = Extensions of the picture superiority effect in associative recognition | journal = Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology | volume = 65 | issue = 4| pages = 236–244 | doi = 10.1037/a0023796 | pmid = 21728402 }}</ref>

Pictures have distinctive features that enable to distinguish pictures from words and such discriminability increase memory ability in comparison with verbal cues (Jenkins, Neale & Deno, 19<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jenkins|first1=Joseph R|last2=Neale|first2=Daniel C|last3=Reno|first3=Stanley L|date=1967|title=Differential memory for picture and word stimuli|journal=Journal of Educational Psychology|doi=10.1037/h0025025|pmid=6079075|volume=58|issue=5|pages=303–307}}</ref> 67). Picture Superiority effect was also evident for memory recall during semantic procession (Childers & Houston, 1984<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Childers|first1=Terry L|last2=Houston|first2=Michael J|year=1984|title=Conditions for a picture-superiority effect on consumer memory|journal=Journal of Consumer Research|doi=10.1086/209001|volume=11|issue=2|page=643|citeseerx=10.1.1.486.9741}}</ref>). Moreover, pictures in pairs or group were better organized in our memory than words thus resulting in superiority in recall (Pavio & Csapo, 1973<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Paivio|first1=Allan|last2=Csapo|first2=Kalman|date=1973|title=Picture superiority in free recall: Imagery or dual coding?|journal=Cognitive Psychology|doi=10.1016/0010-0285(73)90032-7|volume=5|issue=2|pages=176–206}}</ref>). The picture superiority effect is also present in spatial memory, where locations of items and photographs were remembered better than locations of words.<ref name="cattaneo">{{cite journal | last1 = Cattaneo | first1 = Z. | last2 = Rosen | first2 = M. | last3 = Vecchi | first3 = T. | last4 = Pelz | first4 = J. B. | year = 2008 | title = Monitoring eye movements to investigate the picture superiority effect in spatial memory | journal = Perception | volume = 37 | issue = 1| pages = 34–49 | doi = 10.1068/p5623 | pmid = 18399246 | s2cid = 30843136 }}</ref>

== Critique ==
The advantage of pictures over words is only evident when visual similarity is a reliable cue; because it takes longer to understand pictures than words (Snodgrass & McCullough, 1986<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Snodgrass|first1=Joan G|last2=McCullough|first2=Brian|date=1987|title=The role of visual similarity in picture categorisation|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition|doi=10.1037/0278-7393.12.1.147|volume=12|issue=1 |pages=147–154|pmid=2949047 |s2cid=234873}}</ref>). Pictures are only superior to words for list learning because differentiation is easier for pictures (Dominowski & Gadlin, 1968<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1037/h0082774 |title = Imagery and paired-associate learning|journal = Canadian Journal of Psychology|volume = 22|issue = 5|pages = 336–348|year = 1968|last1 = Dominowski|first1 = Roger L.|last2 = Gadlin|first2 = Howard}}</ref>). In reverse picture superiority it was observed that learning was much slower when the responses were pictures (Postman, 1978<ref>{{Cite journal |pmid = 632757|year = 1978|last1 = Postman|first1 = L.|title = Picture-word differences in the acquisition and retention of paired associates|journal = Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory|volume = 4|issue = 2|pages = 146–57|doi = 10.1037/0278-7393.4.2.146}}</ref>). Words produced a faster response than pictures and pictures did not have an advantages of having easier access to semantic memory or superior effect over words for dual-coding theory (Amrhein, McDaniel & Waddill 2002<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Amrhein|first1=Paul C|last2=McDaniel|first2=Mark|last3=Waddill|first3=Paula|date=2002|title=Revisiting the picture superiority effect in symbolic comparison: Do pictures provide privileged access?|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition|doi=10.1037/0278-7393.28.5.843|volume=28|issue=5|pages=843–857|pmid=12219794 }}</ref>). Similarly, studies where response time deadlines have been implemented, the reverse superiority effect was reported. This is related to the dual-process model of familiarity and recollection. When deadlines for the response were short, the process of familiarity was present, along with an increased tendency to recall words over pictures. When response deadlines were longer, the process of recollection was being utilized, and a strong picture superiority effect was present.<ref name="boldini">{{cite journal | last1 = Boldini | first1 = A. | last2 = Russo | first2 = R. | last3 = Punia | first3 = S. | last4 = Avons | first4 = S. E. | year = 2007 | title = Reversing picture superiority effect: a speed-accuracy trade-off study of recognition memory | journal = Memory & Cognition | volume = 35 | issue = 1| pages = 113–123 | doi = 10.3758/BF03195948 | pmid = 17533886 | doi-access = free }}</ref> In addition, equivalent response time was reported for pictures and words for intelligence comparison (Paivio & Marschark, 1980<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Paivio|first1=Allan|last2=Marschark|first2=Marc|date=1980|title=Comparative judgements of animal intelligence and pleasantness|journal=Memory & Cognition|doi=10.3758/BF03197550|volume=8|pages=39–48|doi-access=free}}</ref>). Contrary to the assumption that pictures have faster access to the same semantic code than words do; all semantic information is stored in a single system. The only difference is that pictures and words access different features of the semantic code (te Linde, 1982<ref>{{Cite journal|last=te Linde|first=John|date=1982|title=Picture-word difference in decision latency: A test of common-coding assumptions|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition|doi=10.1037/0278-7393.8.6.584|volume=8|issue=6|pages=584–598|pmid=6218223 }}</ref>).

==With age==

Across the lifespan, a gradual development of the picture superiority effect is evident. Some studies have shown that it appears to become more pronounced with age,<ref name="defeyter"/><ref name="whitehouse"/> while others have found that this effect is also observed among younger children (Whitehouse, Mayber, Durkin, 2006<ref name="whitehouse"/>). However, the major contribution in picture superiority in recognition memory among children was familiarity (Defeyter, Russo & McPartlin, 2009<ref name="defeyter"/>). During childhood, specifically among seven-year-olds, the picture superiority effect is lesser in magnitude than in other age groups.<ref name="whitehouse"/> This could be due to the lack of inner speech among younger children supporting the [[Dual-coding theory|dual coding theory]] of Paivio. In healthy older adults, the picture superiority effect was found to be greater than it was for younger adults, in comparison to recognition for words, which was disadvantaged for older adults.<ref name="allywaring">{{cite journal | last1 = Ally | first1 = B. A. | last2 = Waring | first2 = J. D. | last3 = Beth | first3 = E. H. | last4 = McKeever | first4 = J. D. | last5 = Milberg | first5 = W. P. | last6 = Budson | first6 = A. E. | year = 2008 | title = Aging memory for pictures: using high-density event-related potentials to understand the effect of aging on the picture superiority effect | journal = Neuropsychologia | volume = 46 | issue = 2| pages = 679–689 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2007.09.011 | pmid = 17981307 | pmc = 2271145 }}</ref> In that regard, seniors can benefit from using pictorial information to retain textual information (Cherry et al., 2008<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cherry|first1=Katie E|last2=Hawley|first2=Karri S|last3=Jackson|first3=Erin M|first4=Julia|last4=Volaufova|author4-link=Júlia Volaufová|last5=Su|first5=Joseph|last6=Jazwinski|first6=Michal|date=2008|title=Pictorial superiority effects in oldest-old people|journal=Memory|doi=10.1080/09658210802215534|pmid=18651263|volume=16|issue=7|pages=728–741|pmc=2575043}}</ref>). While memory for words is impaired for older adults, pictures help restore their impaired memory and function properly (Ally et al., 2008<ref name="allywaring"/>). In addition, older adults have shown the same level of capability for identifying correct items in comparison with young adults when items were accompanied with pictures (Smith, Hunt & Dunlap, 2015). In populations with Alzheimer's disease, and other mild cognitive impairments, the picture superiority effect remains evident.<ref name="allymckeever">{{cite journal | last1 = Ally | first1 = B. A. | last2 = McKeever | first2 = J. D. | last3 = Waring | first3 = J. D. | last4 = Budson | first4 = A. E. | year = 2009 | title = Preserved frontalmemorial processing for pictures in patients with mild cognitive impairment | journal = Neuropsychologia | volume = 47 | issue = 10| pages = 2044–2055 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.03.015 | pmid = 19467355 | pmc = 2724267 }}</ref> ERP activity indicates that patients with amnesic mild cognitive impairment utilized frontal-lobe based memory processes to support successful recognition for pictures, which was similar to healthy controls, but not for words.<ref name="allymckeever" />

== Applications ==

* '''Education (language learning)''': Learners can structure a mental model when processing a picture initially so that no further model construction may be required for subsequent processing of a text. Presenting picture before text is beneficial to students with low prior knowledge (Eitel & Scheiter, 2015<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1007/s10648-014-9264-4 |title = Picture or Text First? Explaining Sequence Effects when Learning with Pictures and Text|journal = Educational Psychology Review|volume = 27|pages = 153–180|year = 2015|last1 = Eitel|first1 = Alexander|last2 = Scheiter|first2 = Katharina|s2cid = 145364053}}</ref>). In a similar vein, reading a picture prior to processing textual information improves comprehension levels for students with low prior knowledge (Salmerón, Baccino, Cañas, Madrid, & Fajardo, 2009<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Salmerón|first1=Ladislao|last2=Baccino|first2=Thierry|last3=Cañas|first3=Jose J|last4=Madrid|first4=Rafael I|last5=Fajardo|first5=Inmaculada|date=2009|title=Do graphical overviews facilitate or hinder comprehension in hyptertext?|journal=Computers & Education|volume=53|issue=4|pages=1308–1319|doi=10.1016/j.compedu.2009.06.013|hdl=10630/33087|hdl-access=free}}</ref>). Pictures can be more effective than word translation for language learning when individuals are not overconfident in the mnemonic power of pictures{{Vague|date=July 2016}} (Carpenter & Olson, 2011<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Carpenter|first1=Shana K|last2=Olson|first2=Kellie M|date=2012|title=Are pictures good for learning new vocabulary in a foreign language? Only if you think they are not.|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition|doi=10.1037/a0024828|pmid=21787105|volume=38|issue=1|pages=92–101|s2cid=14999915}}</ref>). If they are overconfident, pictures lose superiority over words.
* '''Health communication''': A study by Ally, Gold and Budson (2009)<ref name="ally gold" /> confirm that picture superiority effect was observed among mild Alzheimer's disease (AD) and amnestic-type mild cognitive impairment (MC). Pictures have a significantly positive effect on four areas of communication: attention, comprehension, recall, and intention/adherence. Health education materials can benefit greatly by adding pictures as pictures can be especially beneficial for people who lack literacy skill (Houts, C.Doak, L.Doak &Loscalzo, 2006<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal | doi=10.1016/j.pec.2005.05.004 |pmid = 16122896|title = The role of pictures in improving health communication: A review of research on attention, comprehension, recall, and adherence|journal = Patient Education and Counseling|volume = 61|issue = 2|pages = 173–190|year = 2006|last1 = Houts|first1 = Peter S.|last2 = Doak|first2 = Cecilia C.|last3 = Doak|first3 = Leonard G.|last4 = Loscalzo|first4 = Matthew J.| s2cid=10527197 }}</ref>). Picture superiority effect can be implemented in creating materials for health communication that inclusion of fearful or disgusting images led to improved recognition memory in comparison with the condition without a presence of image (Leshner, Vultee, Bolls & Moore, 2010<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Leshner|first1=Glenn|last2=Volte|first2=Fred|last3=Bolls|first3=Paul D|last4=Moore|first4=Jensen|date=2010|title=When a fear appeal isn't just a fear appeal: The effects of graphic anti-tobacco messages|journal=Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media|volume=54|issue=3|pages=485–507|doi=10.1080/08838151.2010.498850|s2cid=144001133}}</ref>).
*'''Advertising''': Percy and Rossiter<ref>{{Cite book|title=A theory-based approach to pretesting advertising|last1=Percy|first1=Larry|last2=Rossiter|first2=John R|publisher=WD Wells|year=1997|pages=295}}</ref> (1997, p.&nbsp;295) stated, "The picture is the most important structural element in magazine advertising, for both consumer and business audiences." Visually framed messages were more effective under the condition where the audience was less motivated and had less ability to process information semantically. Visual ads require less exposure than verbal ads for long-term memory effect (Childers & Houston, 1984<ref name=":1" />).  The pictorial component in the ad is more likely to be viewed before words, and it generates an expectation for the verbal component of the ad (Houston, Childers & Heckler, 1987<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Houston|first1=Michael J|last2=Childers|first2=Terry L|last3=Heckler|first3=Susan E|date=1987|title=Picture-word consistency and the elaborative processing of advertisements|journal=Journal of Marketing Research|volume=24|issue=4|pages=359|doi=10.2307/3151383|jstor=3151383}}</ref>). Maximizing the size of pictures regardless of advertising contents will improve attention to the entire advertisement as pictures draw significant attention to baseline in the ads (Pieters & Wedel, 2004<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1509/jmkg.68.2.36.27794 | title=Attention Capture and Transfer in Advertising: Brand, Pictorial, and Text-Size Effects| journal=Journal of Marketing| volume=68| issue=2| pages=36–50| year=2004| last1=Pieters| first1=Rik| last2=Wedel| first2=Michel| s2cid=15259684|author2-link= Michel Wedel}}</ref>).

== Proposed model ==
[[File:Dual coding process.png|thumb|214x214px|Dual coding process by Clark and Paivio (1991)]]
[[File:Picture Superiority Effect final.jpg|centre|thumb|514x514px|Proposed Model of Picture Superiority Effect by Sung Eun Park]]

== Direction for future studies ==
* Clinical setting to evaluate pictures for health communication (Houts, C.Doak, L.Doak &Loscalzo, 2006<ref name=":2" />)
* Empirical studies on simplicity of picture for encoding and decoding the pictorial information

==See also==
* [[A picture is worth a thousand words]]
* [[Memory bias]]
* [[List of cognitive biases]]
* [[Visual rhetoric]]
* [[Dual process theory|Dual process model]]
* [[Infographic]]
* [[Pictogram]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

;Sources
* {{cite journal | last1 = Nelson | first1 = D.L. | last2 = Reed | first2 = U.S. | last3 = Walling | first3 = J.R. | year = 1976 | title = Pictorial superiority effect | journal = Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning & Memory | volume = 2 | issue = 5| pages = 523–528 | doi=10.1037/0278-7393.2.5.523| pmid = 1003125 }}
* Paivio, A. (1971). ''Imagery and verbal processes.'' New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
* Paivio, A. (1986). ''Mental representations: A dual-coding approach.'' New York: Oxford University Press.

[[Category:Cognitive biases]]
[[Category:Memory biases]]
[[Category:Educational psychology]]
[[Category:Psychological effects]]