Editing Pitkern

{{Short description|Language spoken on Pitcairn Islands}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2021}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Pitkern
| altname          = Pitkern–Norfolk <br /> Pitcairn–Norfolk
| states           = [[Norfolk Island]], [[Pitcairn Islands]], [[New Zealand]]
| region           = 
| ethnicity        = [[Pitcairn Islanders]]
| speakers         = ca. 400 Pitcairn-Norfolk<!--the 66 in Australia are not L1 speakers per Ethn.-->
| date             = 2008
| ref              = e18
| refname          = Pitcairn-Norfolk
| speakers2        = 36 on Pitcairn (2002)
| familycolor      = Creole
| fam1             = English–Tahitian [[Creole language|creole]]
| fam2             = Pitkern–[[Norfuk language|Norfuk]]
| nation           = {{flag|Pitcairn Islands}}
| dia1             = [[Norfuk language|Norfuk]]
| map2             = Lang Status 80-VU.svg
| mapcaption2      = {{center|{{small|Pitcairn is classified as Vulnerable by the [[UNESCO]] ''[[Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]]''}}}}
| iso3             = pih
| ietf             = pih-PN
| iso3comment      = Pitcairn-Norfolk
| glotto           = pitc1234
| glottoname       = Pitcairn-Norfolk
| lingua           = 52-ABB-dd
| script = [[Latin script|Latin]] ([[Norfolk/Pitcairnese alphabet]])
}}

'''Pitkern''', also known as '''Pitcairn-Norfolk''' or '''Pitcairnese''', is a language spoken on [[Pitcairn Islands|Pitcairn]] and [[Norfolk Island|Norfolk]] islands. It is a mixture of [[English language|English]] and [[Tahitian language|Tahitian]], and has been given many classifications by scholars, including [[Cant (language)|cant]], [[patois]], and [[English-based creole languages|Atlantic]] creole.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Mühlhäusler|first=Peter|date=2011-07-01|title=Some notes on the ontology of Norf'k|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0388000111000386|journal=Language Sciences|series=Linguistics Out of Bounds: Explorations in Integrational Linguistics in Honour of Roy Harris on his 80th Birthday|language=en|volume=33|issue=4|pages=673–679|doi=10.1016/j.langsci.2011.04.022|issn=0388-0001|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Although spoken on [[Pacific Ocean]] islands, it has been described as an Atlantic or semi-Atlantic creole due to the lack of connections with other [[English-based creole]]s of the Pacific.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Pitkern and Norfolk revisited | doi = 10.1017/S0266078403003092 | last = Avram | first = Andrei A. | volume =  19 | date = 2003 | publisher = Cambridge University Press
| journal = English Today
}}</ref> There are fewer than 50 speakers on Pitcairn Island, a number which has been steadily decreasing since 1971.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Avram|first=Andrei A.|date=2003-07-14|title=Pitkern and Norfolk revisited|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0266078403003092/type/journal_article|journal=English Today|language=en|volume=19|issue=3|pages=44–49|doi=10.1017/S0266078403003092|s2cid=144835575|issn=0266-0784|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kallgard |first=Anders |date=1998 |title=A Pitkern Word List |url=https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/253662/1/PL-A91.107.pdf |journal=Papers in Pidgin and Creole Linguistics |volume=5}}</ref>

==History==
Following the [[Mutiny on the Bounty]] on 28 April 1789, the British mutineers stopped at [[Tahiti]] and took 18 Polynesians captive, mostly women, to remote Pitcairn Island and settled there. A pidgin was formed based on English and Tahitian so that the English mutineers could communicate with the Tahitian women they brought to the previously uninhabited Pitcairn Island.<ref name=":0"/> The Pitkern language was influenced by the diverse [[List of dialects of English|English dialects]] and accents of the crew.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mühlhäusler |first=Peter |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781501501418/html?lang=en |title=Pitkern-Norf'k |date=2020-10-12 |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |isbn=978-1-5015-0141-8 |language=en |doi=10.1515/9781501501418|s2cid=226321171 }}</ref> Geographically, the mutineers were drawn from as far as the West Indies, with one mutineer being described as speaking a forerunner of a Caribbean patois. One was a Scot from the [[Isle of Lewis]]. At least one, the leader [[Fletcher Christian]], was a well-educated man, which at the time made a major difference in speech. Both [[Geordie]] and [[West Country English|West Country dialects]] have obvious links to some Pitkern phrases and words, such as ''whettles'', meaning food, from ''victuals''.

The first children born on Pitcairn Island mainly spoke a mixture of non-standard varieties of English and the contact language.<ref name=":0" /> In the 1830s, Pitkern's local prestige increased, and the language started to be used in church and school.<ref name=":0" /> In 1856, 194 residents of Pitcairn Island moved to Norfolk Island, where many residents continued to use Pitkern in their households.<ref name=":0" />

After 1914, the Australian government tried to end the use of Pitkern/Norf'k by restricting its use in public spaces.<ref name=":0" />

==Relationship to Norf'k==
{{More citations needed|section|date=May 2024}}

[[Norfuk language|Norf'k]] is descended predominantly from Pitkern. When the residents of Pitcairn Island moved to Norfolk Island, they brought the language with them.<ref name=":0"/> The language developed and changed over time. The relative ease of travel from English-speaking countries such as [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]] or [[Papua New Guinea]] to Norfolk Island, particularly when compared with that of travel to the Pitcairn Islands, has meant that Norf'k has been exposed to much greater contact with English relative to Pitkern.{{Citation needed|date=November 2021}} The difficulties in accessing the Pitcairn population have meant that a serious comparison of the two languages for mutual intelligibility has proven difficult.

The exact relationship between these two languages is a point of contention for scholars. Some believe that the difference between Pitkern and Norf'k is negligible, while others believe that Standard English is more present in Norf'k than it is in Pitkern.<ref name=":0" />

== Common phrases ==
Pronouns included {{lang|pih|aklen}}, commonly spelled {{lang|pih|uklun}} 'we/us' (or just 'us', with {{lang|pih|wi}} for 'we'); , {{lang|pih|hami}} 'you and I' / 'you and us', and {{lang|pih|yoli}} 'you (plural)'.<ref>Kallgard (1993) Pitcairnese</ref>

{| class=wikitable
|+<ref>{{Citation |last=Kallgard |first=Anders |title=A Pitkern word list |date=1998 |url=https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/handle/1885/253662 |access-date=2024-05-18 |publisher=Pacific Linguistics |language=en |isbn=978-0-85883-474-3}}</ref>
!Pitkern||English
|-
|''Wut a way ye?''||How are you?
|-
|{{lang|pih|About ye gwen?}}||Where are you going?
|-
|{{lang|pih|You gwen whihi up suppa?}}||Are you going to cook supper?
|-
|{{lang|pih|I nor believe.}}||I don't think so.
|-
|{{lang|pih|Ye like-a sum whettles?}}||Would you like some food?
|-
|{{lang|pih|Do' mine.}}||It doesn't matter. I don't mind.
|-
|{{lang|pih|Wa sing yourley doing?}}||What are you doing? What are you up to?
|-
|{{lang|pih|I se gwen ah big shep.}}||I'm going to the ship.
|-
|{{lang|pih|Humuch shep corl ya?}}||How often do ships come here?
|-
|{{lang|pih|Cum yorley sulluns!}}||Come on all you kids!
|-
|{{lang|pih|I se gwen ah nahweh.}}||I'm going swimming.
|-
|{{lang|pih|Lebbe!}}||Let it be!
|-
|''Gude!''||Good!
|-
|''You same as tingi!''
|You beggar!
|-
|''What-thing that?/Wasing daa?''
|What is that?
|-
|''Blue as a pai-pai''
|Very homesick
|}

''Note: Pitkern spelling is not standardised.''

== Excerpts from a transcription of Pitkern ==
The sentences below are excerpted from a longer dialogue held in 1951 between a teenage speaker of Pitkern and A.W. Moverley, a foreigner who worked as a schoolteacher on Pitcairn during the mid-20th century.<ref name=":0"/> The dialogue was recorded by Moverley and later transcribed in the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] by A.C. Gimson, with translations to English provided by Moverley.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Ross|first1=Alan S. C.|title=The Pitcairnese Language|last2=Moverley|first2=A. W.|last3=Schubert|last4=Maude|last5=Flint|last6=Gimson|publisher=Andre Deutsch|year=1964|location=London|pages=121–135}}</ref>
{|
|+
|'''Pitkern transcription'''
|
|{{IPA|wɒtəwɛi}}
|{{IPA|ju}}
|-
|'''English cognates'''
|
|what way
|you
|-
|'''Translation'''
|
|“How are
|you (sg.)?”
|}
<br />
{|
|'''Pitkern transcription'''
|
|{{IPA|ai}}
|{{IPA|filen}}
|{{IPA|sɪkɪ}}
|-
|'''English cognates'''
|
|I
|feeling
|sick
|-
|'''Translation'''
|
|“I’m
|feeling
|sick.”
|}
<br />
{|
|'''Pitkern transcription'''
|
|{{IPA|ai}}
|{{IPA|bɪn}}
|{{IPA|sɔ}}
|{{IPA|sɪns}}
|{{IPA|jɛstəde}}
|{{IPA|ha}}
|{{IPA|ʔʌdəwʌn}}
|{{IPA|ha}}
|{{IPA|ʔʌdəwʌn}}
|-
|'''English cognates'''
|
|I
|been
|sore
|since
|yesterday
|the
|other one
|the
|other one
|-
|'''Translation'''
|
|“I’ve
|been
|ill
| colspan="6" |for the past three days.”
|}
<br />
{|
|'''Pitkern transcription'''
|
|{{IPA|aɪ}}
|{{IPA|sə}}
|{{IPA|brɪŋ}}
|{{IPA|wʌn}}
|{{IPA|a}}
|{{IPA|wækl}}
|{{IPA|lʊŋfə}}
|{{IPA|mi}}
|-
|'''English cognates'''
|
|I
|
|bring
|one
|of
|victuals
|along for
|me
|-
|'''Translation'''
|
|“I’ve
| colspan="2" |brought
| colspan="2" |some
|food
| colspan="2" |for myself with me."
|}
<br />
{|
|'''Pitkern transcription'''
|
|{{IPA|aɪ}}
|{{IPA|bɪn}}
|{{IPA|teʔk}}
|{{IPA|wʌn}}
|{{IPA|aɪ}}
|{{IPA|teɪtə}}
|{{IPA|pilʌ}}
|{{IPA|ɪn}}
|{{IPA|a}}
|{{IPA|plʌnz}}
|{{IPA|lif}}
|-
|'''English cognates'''
|
|I
|been
|take
|one
|I
|tater
|[Tahitian: "type of pudding"]
|in
|a
|plantain's
|leaf
|-
|'''Translation'''
|
|“I’ve
| colspan="2" |brought
| colspan="2" |myself some
|potato
|pie
|in
|a
|banana
|leaf."
|}
<br />
{|
|'''Pitkern transcription'''
|
|{{IPA|jɔːle}}
|{{IPA|maːmuː}}
|-
|'''English cognates'''
|
|you all you<ref>Mühlhäusler, Peter. "The History of writing Pitkern and Norf’k (talk given at the History Society in 2019)." p. 12</ref>
|[Tahitian: "silence"]
|-
|'''Translation'''
|
|“You (pl.)
|be quiet!”
|}
<br />
{|
|'''Pitkern transcription'''
|
|{{IPA|dʌnə}}
|{{IPA|maːlou}}
|-
|'''English cognates'''
|
|do not
|[Tahitian: "obstinate"]
|-
|'''Translation'''
|
|“Don't
|argue!”
|}
<br />
{|
|'''Pitkern transcription'''
|
|{{IPA|jɔːlə}}
|{{IPA|paɪl}}
|{{IPA|e}}
|{{IPA|pipl}}
|{{IPA|kaː}}
|{{IPA|wosiŋ}}
|{{IPA|jɔle}}
|{{IPA|toːkm}}
|{{IPA|əbæʊʔt}}
|-
|'''English cognates'''
|
|you all you
|pile
|of
|people
|can't
|what thing
|you all you
|talking
|about
|-
|'''Translation'''
|
|“You (pl.)
| colspan="3" |lot
|don't know
|what
|you're
|talking
|about."
|}
<br />
{|
|'''Pitkern transcription'''
|
|{{IPA|jɔːle}}
|{{IPA|dʌnə}}
|{{IPA|toːk}}
|-
|'''English cognates'''
|
|you all you
|do not
|talk
|-
|'''Translation'''
|
|"You (pl.)
|stop
|talking!”
|}
<br />
{|
|'''Pitkern transcription'''
|
|{{IPA|jus}}
|{{IPA|ə}}
|{{IPA|get}}
|{{IPA|aʊ}}
|{{IPA|flaʊə}}
|{{IPA|ʔaʊʔt}}
|{{IPA|ʃɛʔp}}
|-
|'''English cognates'''
|
|us
|
|get
|our
|flour
|out
|ship
|-
|'''Translation'''
|
| colspan="2" |"We
|get
|our
|bags of flour
|from
|ships."
|}

==Poetry in Pitkern==
Some poetry exists in Pitkern. The poems of [[Meralda Warren]] are of particular note.

==See also==
* [[Australian English]]
* [[Pitcairn Islands]]
* [[Norfuk language]]

==References==

{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Incubator|pih}}{{Wikivoyage|Norfuk-Pitkern phrasebook}}
* {{cite report |url=http://www.norfolkonlinenews.com/history-of-writing-pitkern-and-norf-k.html |title=History of Writing Pitkern and Norf'k |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191016131318/https://www.norfolkonlinenews.com/history-of-writing-pitkern-and-norf-k.html |archive-date=2019-10-16 |first=Peter |last=Mühlhäusler |date=2019}})
* {{cite book |last1=Ross |first1=Alan Strode Campbell <!-- one person: Alan Strode Campbell Ross--> |first2=A.W. |last2=Moverly |title=The Pitcairnese Language |date=1964 |location=London |publisher=Oxford University Press}}
* {{cite book |title=South Pacific Phrasebook |date=1999 |location=Hawthorn, Victoria, Australia |publisher=Lonely Planet Publications}}

{{Pitcairn}}
{{Oceania topic|Languages of}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pitkern Language}}
[[Category:Languages of Oceania]]
[[Category:English-based pidgins and creoles]]
[[Category:Culture of the Pitcairn Islands]]
[[Category:Society of the Pitcairn Islands]]
[[Category:Languages of the Pitcairn Islands]]
[[Category:Languages of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Cant languages]]
[[Category:Vulnerable languages]]