Editing Plantago lanceolata

{{Short description|Species of flowering plant in the plantain family Plantaginaceae}}
{{Italic title}}
{{Speciesbox
|name = Ribwort plantain
|image = Ribwort 600.jpg
|genus = Plantago
|species = lanceolata
|authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]
}}

'''''Plantago lanceolata''''' is a species of [[flowering plant]] in the plantain family [[Plantaginaceae]]. It is known by the common names '''ribwort plantain''',<ref name=BSBI07>{{BSBI 2007 |access-date=2014-10-17}}</ref> '''narrowleaf plantain''',<ref>{{PLANTS|id=PLLA|taxon=Plantago lanceolata|access-date=11 November 2017}}</ref> '''English plantain''',<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=plla | title=Plants Profile for Plantago lanceolata (Narrowleaf plantain)}}</ref> '''ribleaf''',{{citation needed|date=April 2016}} '''lamb's tongue''', and '''buckhorn'''.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://vro.agriculture.vic.gov.au/dpi/vro/vrosite.nsf/pages/sip_ribwort |title = Ribwort}}</ref> It is a common [[weed]] on cultivated or disturbed land.

==Description==
[[File:Plantago lanceolata P6200323 箆大葉子、ヘラオオバコ.jpg|thumb|''P. lanceolata'' ([[Japan]])]]
The plant is a [[Rosette (botany)|rosette]]-forming [[perennial]] herb, with leafless, silky, hairy [[flower]] stems, growing to {{convert|45|cm|frac=2}} tall,<ref name="tfb">{{Cite book |last=Francis-Baker |first=Tiffany |title=Concise Foraging Guide |date=2021 |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing|Bloomsbury]] |isbn=978-1-4729-8474-6 |series=[[The Wildlife Trusts]] |location=London |pages=78}}</ref> exceptionally {{convert|100|cm|abbr=on}}.<ref>Schmelzer, G.H. & Gurib-Fakim, A. (Editors), 2008. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Randolph-Arroo/publication/317510018_Plant_Resources_of_Tropical_Africa_111_Medicinal_plants_1/ Plant Resources of Tropical Africa 11(1)- Medicinal plants 1.] PROTA Foundation, Wageningen, Netherlands / Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, Netherlands / CTA, Wageningen, Netherlands. 791 pp.</ref> The basal leaves are [[lanceolate]] spreading or erect, scarcely toothed with 3–5 strong parallel veins narrowed to a short [[petiole (botany)|petiole]]. The flower stalk is deeply furrowed, ending in an ovoid inflorescence of many small flowers each with a pointed bract.<ref name="Blamey">{{cite book |last1=Blamey |first1=M. |title=Wild flowers of Britain and Ireland: The Complete Guide to the British and Irish Flora. |last2=Fitter |first2=R. |last3=Fitter |first3=A |publisher=A & C Black |year=2003 |isbn=978-1408179505 |location=London |pages=248}}</ref> Each inflorescence can produce up to 200 seeds. Flowers are {{convert|4|mm|frac=8}}, with a green [[Sepal|calyx]] and brownish [[Petal|corolla]], four bent-back lobes with brown midribs and long white stamens.

=== Reproduction ===
The mode of reproduction can vary among populations.<ref name="Jousimo, Jussi 2014">Jousimo, Jussi. 2014. Ecological and evolutionary effects of fragmentation on infectious disease dynamics. Science AAAS Journal. Science 344, 1289-1293.</ref> Reproduction occurs sexually, with the pollen being [[Biological dispersal|wind dispersed]] for the most part, though the plant is occasionally pollinated by bees.<ref name="Jousimo, Jussi 2014" /> 

=== Chemistry ===
''Plantago lanceolata'' contains [[phenylethanoid]]s such as [[acteoside]] (verbascoside), cistanoside&nbsp;F, lavandulifolioside, plantamajoside and isoacteoside.<ref>Phenylethanoids in the Herb of ''Plantago lanceolata'' and Inhibitory Effect on Arachidonic Acid-Induced Mouse Ear Edema. Michiko Murai (nee Sasahara), Yasuhiko Tamayama and Sansei Nishibe, Planta Med., 1995;, volume 61, issue 5, pages 479-480, {{doi|10.1055/s-2006-958143}}</ref> It also contains the iridoid glycosides [[aucubin]] and [[catalpol]].<ref>Genetic variation in defensive chemistry in ''Plantago lanceolata'' (Plantaginaceae) and its effect on the specialist herbivore [[Junonia coenia]] (Nymphalidae). Lynn S. Adler, Johanna Schmitt and M. Deane Bowers, Oecologia, January 1995, Volume 101, Issue 1, pages 75-85, {{doi|10.1007/BF00328903}}</ref>

== Distribution and habitat ==
''Plantago lanceolata'' is common in Europe, including Britain.<ref name="tfb" /> It is widespread throughout the [[British Isles]], but scarce on the most [[acidic soils]] (pH < 4.5). It is present and widespread in the Americas and Australia as an [[introduced species]]. 

Considered to be an indicator of agriculture in [[pollen]] diagrams, ''P.&nbsp;lanceolata'' has been found in western [[Norway]] from the Early [[Neolithic]] onwards, which is considered an indicator of grazing in that area at the time.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Hjelle|first=K. L. |author2=Hufthammer, A. K.|author3=Bergsvik, K. A.|year=2006|title=Hesitant hunters: a review of the introduction of agriculture in western Norway|journal=Environmental Archaeology|volume=11|issue=2|pages=147–170|doi=10.1179/174963106x123188|bibcode=2006EnvAr..11..147H |s2cid=128601836}}</ref>

The species can live anywhere from very dry meadows to places similar to a rain forest,<ref name="Laiine-2005">Laiine, Anna Lisa. 2005. Journal of Evolutionary Biology. Journal of Evolutionary Biology. 18, 930-938.</ref> but it does best in open, disturbed areas. It is therefore common near roadsides where other plants cannot flourish; it grows tall if it can do so, but in frequently mowed areas it adopts a flat growth habit instead. Historically, the plant has thrived in areas where ungulates graze and turn up the earth with their hooves.

=== Invasiveness ===
Ribwort Plantain is considered an [[invasive species]] across the United States and Australia. Accidentally introduced to the [[United States|USA]] in 1822, it has since spread throughout the country, especially in disturbed habitats like lawns (surviving even when mowed), meadows, and roadsides. While generally not toxic to [[livestock]], it can be unpalatable and reduce the quality of pasture for grazing animals. Additionally, in areas where it thrives, ribwort can contribute to respiratory issues such as [[Allergic rhinitis|hay fever]] due to its pollen and wind-born nature.

One of the plant's most notable traits is its ability to remain dormant for up to 177 years,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Robeck |first1=Philipp |last2=Essl |first2=Franz |last3=van Kleunen |first3=Mark |last4=Pyšek |first4=Petr |last5=Pergl |first5=Jan |last6=Weigelt |first6=Patrick |last7=Mesgaran |first7=Mohsen B. |date=February 8, 2024 |title=Invading plants remain undetected in a lag phase while they explore suitable climates |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-023-02313-4 |journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution |language=en |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=477–488 |doi=10.1038/s41559-023-02313-4 |pmid=38332027 |bibcode=2024NatEE...8..477R |issn=2397-334X}}</ref> which is among the longest dormancy periods observed in plants. This allows the plant to remain unnoticed for long periods before suddenly expanding and becoming problematic. The plant is now considered a [[noxious weed]] in states like Iowa and Michigan, and its spread continues to impact local flora and fauna. Ribwort’s ability to lay dormant for long periods before reawakening makes it a particularly tricky invader, as it can seem to emerge suddenly and expand rapidly when conditions become more favorable, contributing to its success as a persistent and disruptive species.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-03-11 |title=US being invaded by "time bomb" weed |url=https://www.newsweek.com/invasive-plant-species-weeds-lay-dormant-centuries-1876844 |access-date=2025-02-28 |website=Newsweek |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=buckhorn plantain: Plantago lanceolata (Plantaginales: Plantaginaceae): Invasive Plant Atlas of the United States |url=https://www.invasiveplantatlas.org/subject.cfm?sub=6200 |access-date=2025-02-28 |website=www.invasiveplantatlas.org}}</ref>[[File:Plantago lanceolata - Kulna.jpg|thumb|Inflorescence]]
[[File:Galled head of a Plantain.JPG|right|thumb|[[Infructescence]]]]
== Ecology ==
Songbirds eat the seeds, and the leaves are eaten by rabbits.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Niering |first1=William A. |author-link1=William Niering |title=The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Wildflowers, Eastern Region |last2=Olmstead |first2=Nancy C. |publisher=Knopf |year=1985 |isbn=0-394-50432-1 |page=681 |orig-year=1979}}</ref>

The iridoid glycosides the plant contains make it inedible to some herbivores, but others are unperturbed by them—for example, the buckeye butterfly ''[[Junonia coenia]]'', whose larvae eat the leaves of ''P.&nbsp;lanceolata'' and ingest the iridoid glycosides to make themselves unpalatable to predators.

=== Insect predation ===
''Plantago lanceolata'' is host to many different species of the order [[Lepidoptera]]. Species such as ''[[Junonia coenia]], [[Spilosoma congrua]],'' and ''[[Glanville fritillary|Melitaea cinxia]]'' lay their eggs on ''P.&nbsp;lanceolata'' plants so they can serve as a food source for the larvae when they hatch.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stamp |first1=Nancy E. |last2=Bowers |first2=M. Deane |date=1993-09-01 |title=Presence of predatory wasps and stinkbugs alters foraging behavior of cryptic and non-cryptic caterpillars on plantain (Plantago lanceolata) |journal=Oecologia |language=en |volume=95 |issue=3 |pages=376–384 |bibcode=1993Oecol..95..376S |doi=10.1007/BF00320992 |issn=0029-8549 |pmid=28314014 |s2cid=35433755}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Van Nouhuys |first1=Saskya |last2=Singer |first2=Michael C. |last3=Nieminen |first3=Marko |date=2003-04-01 |title=Spatial and temporal patterns of caterpillar performance and the suitability of two host plant species |journal=Ecological Entomology |language=en |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=193–202 |bibcode=2003EcoEn..28..193V |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2311.2003.00501.x |issn=1365-2311 |s2cid=11334189 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The iridoid glycosides in the plant leaves accumulate in the caterpillars and make them unpalatable to predators.

===Infection by powdery mildew===
''[[Podosphaera plantaginis]]'' is a powdery mildew fungus that infects ''P.&nbsp;lanceolata''. All of the ''P.&nbsp;lanceolata'' populations are infected by several strains of this powdery mildew fungus.<ref>Laiine, Anna Lisa. 2004. Resistance variation within and among host populations in a plant- pathogen metapopulation:  implications for regional pathogen dynamics. Journal of Ecology 92, 990-1000.</ref> Once the populations are infected, the symptoms are minimal at first. Then, after a few weeks or months lesions start to appear covering the entire surface of the leaves and the stem, making it very noticeable.<ref name="Laiine-2005" /> Another species that infects ''P.&nbsp;lanceolata'' is ''[[Golovinomyces sordidus]]''. Both of these mildews are obligate [[biotroph]]s, meaning that they can only infect living tissue. They cover the surface of the leaves and extend [[hypha]]e into the cell matrix in order to extract nutrients.

====Resistance to powdery mildew====
After the populations are infected, they react in different ways. Some populations of ''P.&nbsp;lanceolata'' are more susceptible to different strains of powdery mildew. Also, some populations have multiple resistance phenotypes where on the other hand, others may only have one resistance phenotype.<ref name="Laiine-2005" /> Overall, the populations that have the highest variety of resistance phenotypes will have the highest survival rates particularly when rates of infection are high.<ref name="Laiine-2005" />

== Uses ==
''Plantago lanceolata'' is used frequently in [[herbal tea]]s and other [[Herbalism|herbal remedies]].<ref>[http://www.valplantes.ch/definition.html Val plantes herbal ice tea] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090725234116/http://www.valplantes.ch/definition.html |date=2009-07-25 }}</ref> A&nbsp;tea from the leaves is used as a cough medicine. In traditional Austrian medicine, the leaves have been used internally (as syrup or tea) or externally (fresh leaves) for treatment of disorders of the respiratory tract, skin, insect bites, and infections.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Vogl S, Picker P, Mihaly-Bison J, etal|title=Ethnopharmacological in vitro studies on Austria's folk medicine--an unexplored lore in vitro anti-inflammatory activities of 71 Austrian traditional herbal drugs |journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology|volume=149|issue=3|pages=750–71|date=October 2013|pmid=23770053|pmc=3791396|doi=10.1016/j.jep.2013.06.007}}</ref> The leaves can be eaten when very young.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Benoliel|first=Doug|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/668195076|title=Northwest Foraging: The Classic Guide to Edible Plants of the Pacific Northwest|publisher=Skipstone|year=2011|isbn=978-1-59485-366-1|edition=Rev. and updated|location=Seattle, WA|pages=75|oclc=668195076}}</ref> The flower [[bud]]s have a [[Edible mushroom|mushroom]]-like flavour and can be used to make [[Stock (food)|stock]].<ref name="tfb" />

==In culture==
Children use the plant in a game where the flower's head is "shot" off the end of stalk; it has alternately been called "rifle", "1&nbsp;o'clock gun" (after the gun that fires everyday from Edinburgh Castle), and other names. To play the game, one would pluck a stalk and wrap a loop of the distal end of the stem around the section of stem closest to the flower's head. The loop is tightened so it stops up behind the flower's head and the stem is pulled backward until the flower head pops off. The stalk is slightly elastic so when the flower head separates, it (the head) flies off in the direction the stalk is pointed like a gun, hence the gun-related names given to it.<ref name="atomic shrimp shoot">{{cite web |author1=Mike |title=Ribwort Plantain Shoot Em Up |url=http://atomicshrimp.com/post/2012/08/11/Ribwort-Plantain-Shoot-Em-Up |website=Atomic Shrimp |access-date=24 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220623085706/http://atomicshrimp.com/post/2012/08/11/Ribwort-Plantain-Shoot-Em-Up |archive-date=23 June 2022 |date=11 August 2012}}</ref><ref name="adina dave's garden shoot">{{cite web |last1=Dosan |first1=Adina |title=Funny Weeds For Funny Games |url=https://davesgarden.com/guides/articles/view/3291 |website=Dave's Garden |access-date=24 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220128210323/https://davesgarden.com/guides/articles/view/3291 |archive-date=28 January 2022 |date=20 July 2011}}</ref>

In the West Country of England the same game is called 'cannonballs'. Another game played with the plant in Britain and Ireland is a variation of [[conkers]]; a child tries to knock off the flowerhead of their friendly rival's stalk using their own stalk with a fast downward thrust. This pastime is known vernacularly as 'dongers' in Kent and 'Carl doddies' (along with the plant itself) in Scotland.<ref>Mabey R. 1996. ''Flora Britannica''. Sinclair Stevenson {{ISBN|1-85-619377-2}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|25em}}

==External links==
{{Commons|Plantago lanceolata}}
{{Wikispecies}}
*[http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/cgi-bin/get_JM_treatment.pl?5625,5626,5633 Jepson Manual Treatment]
*[http://calphotos.berkeley.edu/cgi/img_query?query_src=photos_index&where-taxon=Plantago+lanceolata Photo gallery]
*[http://www.garden.org/weedlibrary/?q=show&id=2938 Buckhorn]
*[https://archive.today/20121203071839/http://vro.dpi.vic.gov.au/dpi/vro/vrosite.nsf/pages/sip_ribwort Ribwort]

{{Wikiversity-bc|Plantago lanceolata}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q157408}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Medicinal plants]]
[[Category:Plantago|lanceolata]]
[[Category:Plants described in 1753]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]
[[Category:Flora of Malta]]