Editing Plato

{{Short description|Greek philosopher (c. 427 – 348 BC)}}
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{{Infobox philosopher
| name             = Plato
| era              = [[Ancient Greek philosophy]]
| image            = Plato Silanion Musei Capitolini MC1377.jpg
| caption          = Roman copy of a portrait [[Bust (sculpture)|bust]] {{circa|370&nbsp;BC}}
| birth_date       = 428/427 or 424/423 BC
| birth_place      = [[Classical Athens|Athens]]
| death_date       = 348/347 BC
| death_place      = Athens
| school_tradition = 
| notable_students = [[Aristotle]]
| main_interests   =
[[Platonic epistemology|Epistemology]], [[Metaphysics]]<br/>
[[Plato's political philosophy|Political philosophy]]
| notable_works    =
{{Flatlist}}
* ''[[Euthyphro]]''
* ''[[Apology (Plato)|Apology]]''
* ''[[Crito]]''
* ''[[Phaedo]]''
* ''[[Meno]]''
* ''[[Protagoras (dialogue)|Protagoras]]''
* ''[[Gorgias (dialogue)|Gorgias]]''
* ''[[Symposium (Plato)|Symposium]]''
* ''[[Phaedrus (dialogue)|Phaedrus]]''
* ''[[Parmenides (dialogue)|Parmenides]]''
* ''[[Theaetetus (dialogue)|Theaetetus]]''
* ''[[Republic (Plato)|Republic]]''
* ''[[Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus]]''
* ''[[Laws (dialogue)|Laws]]''
{{Endflatlist}}
| notable_ideas   =
{{Flatlist}}
*[[Allegory of the cave]]
*[[Cardinal virtues]]
*[[Form of the Good]]
*[[Theory of forms]]
*[[Plato's theory of soul|Divisions of the soul]]
*[[Platonic love]]
*[[Platonic solids]]
{{Endflatlist}}
}}
'''Plato''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|l|eɪ|t|oʊ}} {{respell|PLAY|toe}}; [[Greek language|Greek]]: {{lang|grc|Πλάτων}}, {{tlit|grc|Plátōn}}; born {{Circa|428–423}}&nbsp;BC, died 348/347&nbsp;BC) was an [[ancient Greek philosopher]] of the [[Classical Greece|Classical period]] who is considered a foundational thinker in [[Western philosophy]] and an innovator of the written [[dialogue]] and [[dialectic]] forms. He influenced all the major areas of [[theoretical philosophy]] and [[practical philosophy]], and was the founder of the [[Platonic Academy]], a philosophical school in [[History of Athens|Athens]] where Plato taught the doctrines that would later become known as [[Platonism]]. 
 
Plato's most famous contribution is the [[theory of forms|theory of forms (or ideas)]], which aims to solve what is now known as the [[problem of universals]]. He was influenced by the [[pre-Socratic]] thinkers [[Pythagoras]], [[Heraclitus]], and [[Parmenides]], although much of what is known about them is derived from Plato himself.

Along with his teacher [[Socrates]], and his student [[Aristotle]], Plato is a central figure in the history of [[Western philosophy]]. Plato's complete works are believed to have survived for over 2,400 years{{Emdash}}unlike that of nearly all of his contemporaries.{{sfn|Cooper|1997|loc=introduction}} Although their popularity has fluctuated, they have consistently been read and studied through the ages.{{sfn|Cooper|1997|p=vii}} Through [[Neoplatonism]], he also influenced both [[Christian philosophy|Christian]] and [[Islamic philosophy]]. In modern times, [[Alfred North Whitehead]] said: "the safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of [[Note (typography)|footnotes]] to Plato."{{sfn|Whitehead|1978|p=39}}

== Life ==
{{anchor|Life}}
Plato was born between 428 and 423 BC{{sfn|Nails|2002|p=246}}{{sfn|Waterfield|2023}} into an [[Aristocracy|aristocratic]] and influential [[Ancient Athens|Athenian]] family;{{sfn|Nails|2002|p=53}} through his mother, [[Perictione]], he was a descendant of [[Solon]], a statesman credited with laying the foundations of [[Athenian democracy]].<ref>Stanton, G. R. ''Athenian Politics c. 800–500 BC: A Sourcebook'', Routledge, London (1990), p. 76.</ref> There is an apocryphal story that Plato is a nickname, and that his birth name was ''Aristocles'' ({{lang|grc|Ἀριστοκλῆς}}), meaning 'best reputation', but this is widely regarded as false by modern scholarship.{{sfn|Notopoulos|1939|pp=135–145}}{{sfn|Nails|2002|p=243}}{{sfn|Guthrie|1986|loc=p. 12 (footnote)}}{{sfn|Waterfield|2023}} Plato had two brothers, [[Glaucon]] and [[Adeimantus of Collytus|Adeimantus]], both of whom appear in the ''[[Republic (Plato)|Republic]]'', and also a sister, [[Potone]], and a half brother, Antiphon.{{sfn|Waterfield|2023}} 

During Plato's childhood, Athens was involved in the [[Peloponessian War]] against Sparta. His older brothers, [[Adeimantus of Collytus|Adeimantus]] and [[Glaucon]], distinguished themselves at the battle of Megara in 409 BC.{{sfn|Nails|2006|p=2}} Despite the war, Plato and his brothers, like all male citizens of Athens, received a traditional education in [[gymnastics]] and [[music]].{{sfn|Waterfield|2023|pp=14-19}} According to the ancient writers, there was a tradition that Plato's favorite employment in his youthful years was [[poetry]]: he wrote poems, [[dithyramb]]s at first, and afterwards [[lyric poem]]s and tragedies (a [[tetralogy]]), but abandoned his early passion and burnt his poems when he met Socrates and turned to philosophy.{{sfn|Waterfield|2023|pp=20-21}} There are also some epigrams attributed to Plato, but these are now thought by some scholars to be spurious.{{sfn|Waterfield|2023|pp=21-24}}

=== Socrates ===
[[File:Socrates Louvre.jpg|thumb|upright|Plato was one of the devoted young followers of Socrates, whose bust is pictured above.]]
In his youth, Plato first encountered [[Socrates]], who would become his teacher and greatest source of inspiration, initially in the company of other Athenian boys in the [[Palaestra]], such as is depicted with [[Lysis]] and [[Menexenus]], who discuss philosophy with Socrates in the ''[[Lysis (dialogue) |Lysis]]'',{{sfn|Nails|2002|p=2}} but he soon would become a member of Socrates' inner circle, meeting with Socrates and his other followers. Socrates, along with the [[sophist]]s of his day, challenged the prevailing focus of [[Pre-Socratic philosophy|Early Greek philosophy]] on Natural philosophy, and investigated questions of ethics and politics, examining the ideas of his interlocutors with a series of questioning called the [[Socratic method]].{{sfn|Waterfield|2023|pp=40-42}} 

Socrates' immense influence on Plato is clearly borne out in Plato's dialogues: Plato never speaks in his own voice in [[Socratic dialogues|his dialogues]]; every dialogue except the ''[[Laws (dialogue)|Laws]]'' features Socrates, although many dialogues, including the ''[[Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus]]'' and ''[[Statesman (dialogue)|Statesman]]'', feature him speaking only rarely. [[Leo Strauss]] notes that Socrates' reputation for [[irony]] casts doubt on whether Plato's Socrates is expressing sincere beliefs.{{sfn|Strauss|1964|pp=50–51}} [[Xenophon]]'s ''[[Memorabilia (Xenophon)|Memorabilia]]'' and [[Aristophanes]]'s ''[[The Clouds]]'' seem to present a somewhat different portrait of Socrates from the one Plato paints. Aristotle attributes a different doctrine with respect to Forms to Plato and Socrates.<ref>''Metaphysics'' 987b1–11</ref> Aristotle suggests that Socrates' idea of forms can be discovered through investigation of the natural world, unlike Plato's Forms that exist beyond and outside the ordinary range of human understanding.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Religion of Socrates |last=McPherran |first=M.L. |publisher=Penn State Press |year=1998 |page=268}}</ref> The [[Socratic problem]] concerns how to reconcile these various accounts. The precise relationship between Plato and Socrates remains an area of contention among scholars.{{sfn|Vlastos|1991}}{{page needed|date=April 2023}}

===Thirty tyrants and Trial of Socrates===
{{see also|Thirty tyrants|Trial of Socrates}}
According to the [[Seventh Letter]], whose authenticity has been disputed, as Plato came of age, he imagined for himself a life in public affairs.<ref>Plato (?), ''Seventh Letter'', 324c</ref> In 404, Sparta defeated Athens at the conclusion of the Peloponessian war, leading to the election of the [[Thirty Tyrants]], which included two of Plato's relatives, Critias and Charmides.{{sfn|Nails|2006|p=2-3}} Plato himself was invited to join the administration, but declined, and quickly became disillusioned by the atrocities committed by the Thirty, especially when they tried to implicate Socrates in their seizure of the democratic general [[Leon of Salamis]] for [[summary execution]].{{sfn|Waterfield|2023|p=65-66}}

In 403 BC, the democracy was restored after the regrouping of the democrats in exile, who entered the city through the [[Piraeus]] and met the forces of the Thirty at the [[Battle of Munychia]], where both Critias and Charmides were killed. In 401 BC the restored democrats raided [[Eleusis]] and killed the remaining oligarchic supporters, suspecting them of hiring mercenaries.{{sfn|Nails|2006|p=4}}

As depicted in the many dialogues that are set between 401 and 399 BC, life largely returned to normal in Athens. However, [[Trial of Socrates|the prosecution of Socrates]] by Anytus put an end to Plato's plans for a political career.{{sfn|Waterfield|2023|p=66}}

===Later philosophical development===
After the death of Socrates, Plato remained in Athens for roughly three years.{{sfn|Waterfield|2023|p=71}} 
==== Heraclitus and Parmenides ====
{{main|Heraclitus|Parmenides}}
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| image1 = Hendrik ter Brugghen - Heraclitus.jpg
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| caption1 = ''Heraclitus'' (1628) by [[Hendrick ter Brugghen]]. Heraclitus saw a world in [[flux]], with everything always in conflict, constantly changing.
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| caption2 = Bust of Parmenides from [[Velia]]. Parmenides saw the world as [[Eternity of the world|eternal]] and unchanging, that all change was an illusion.
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In Athens, Plato studied with [[Cratylus]], a philosopher who followed the early Greek philosopher [[Heraclitus]], and also [[Hermogenes]], an [[Eleatic]] philosopher in the tradition of [[Parmenides]].{{sfn|Nails|2002|p=248}} Heraclitus viewed all things as [[Impermanence|continuously changing]], that one cannot "step into the same river twice" due to the ever-changing waters flowing through it, and all things exist as a contraposition of opposites, while Parmenides adopted an altogether contrary vision, arguing for the idea of a changeless, eternal universe and the view that change is an illusion. Heraclitus's views are expounded by Cratylus himself in Plato's dialogue ''[[Cratylus]]'' and deconstructed in the ''[[Theaetetus (dialogue)|Theaetetus]]'' by Socrates. Plato would go on to depict both Parmenides and Parmenides' student [[Zeno of Elea|Zeno]] in the ''Parmenides'', and an "Eleatic Stranger" also appears in the ''[[Sophist (dialogue)|Sophist]]'' and ''[[Statesman (dialogue)|Statesman]]''.

In roughly 396 BC, Plato left Athens and studied in [[Megara]] with [[Euclid of Megara]], founder of the Megarian school of philosophy, and other Socratics.{{sfn|Waterfield|2023|p=72}} 

==== Mathematics ====
Around 394 BC or earlier, he returned to Athens, where, as an Athenian male of military age he would have needed to be available to serve in the [[Corinthian war]], which Athens participated in from 395 to 386 BC.{{sfn|Waterfield|2023|p=73}} Other than potential military service, Plato spent his time studying mathematics with [[Archytas of Tarentum]], [[Theaetetus (mathematician) | Theaetetus]], [[Leodamas of Thasos]], and [[Neoclides]] in the grove of [[Hecademus]],{{sfn|Nails|2006|pp=5-6}} named after an [[Attica|Attic]] hero in [[Greek mythology]], northwest of the city of [[Athens]], where he would later found his Academy.{{sfn|Waterfield|2023}} During this time, Plato likely began work on some of his earliest works; including the ''[[Apology (Plato)|Apology]]'', possibly early drafts of the ''[[Gorgias (dialogue)|Gorgias]]'' and ''[[Republic (Plato)|Republic]]'' Book I, and an early form of the ''Republic'' books II-IV, in the form of a speech rather than a dialogue, which was ridiculed by Aristophanes in the ''[[Ecclesiazusae]]'' in 391 BC.{{sfn|Nails|2006|p=6}} [[Speusippus]], the son of Plato's sister Potone, who took over the academy after Plato's death, joined the group in about 390 BC, and [[Eudoxus of Cnidus]], another early mathematician, arrived around 385 BC.{{sfn|Nails|2006|pp=5-6}}

==== Pythagoreanism ====
{{main|Pythagoreanism}}
[[File:Kapitolinischer Pythagoras adjusted.jpg|right|upright|thumb|The mathematical and mystical teachings of the followers of Pythagoras, pictured above, exerted a strong influence on Plato.]]
After the conclusion of the [[Corinthian War]], Plato travelled to southern Italy to study with [[Archytas]] and other Pythagoreans.{{sfn|Waterfield|2023|p=112}} The influence of these Pythagoreans appears to have been significant. According to [[R. M. Hare]], this influence consists of three points:
# The platonic Republic might be related to the idea of "a tightly organized community of like-minded thinkers", like the one established by Pythagoras in Croton.
# The idea that mathematics and, generally speaking, abstract thinking is a secure basis for philosophical thinking as well as "for substantial theses in [[science]] and [[morals]]".
# They shared a "mystical approach to the soul and its place in the material world".<ref>R.M. Hare, Plato in C.C.W. Taylor, R.M. Hare and Jonathan Barnes, Greek Philosophers, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999 (1982), 103–189, here 117–119.</ref>

Pythagoras held that all things are number, and the cosmos comes from numerical principles. He introduced the concept of form as distinct from matter, and that the physical world is an imitation of an eternal mathematical world.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Calian |first=Florin George |url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789004467224/BP000010.xml |title=Numbers, Ontologically Speaking: Plato on Numerosity |year=2021 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-46722-4 |language=en |access-date=10 April 2023 |archive-date=7 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230507230433/https://brill.com/display/book/9789004467224/BP000010.xml |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Later years: Syracuse and the Academy ===
====First trip to Syracuse====
When Plato was about 40 years old, he visited Syracuse. Many Ancient sources, including the collection of ''[[Epistles (Plato)|Letters]]'' attributed to Plato, tell how he became entangled with the politics of the city of [[Syracuse, Sicily|Syracuse]]. Plato initially visited Syracuse while it was under the rule of [[Dionysius I of Syracuse|Dionysius]], in roughly 385 BC.{{sfn|Riginos|1976|p=73}} During this first trip Dionysius's brother-in-law, [[Dion of Syracuse]], became one of Plato's disciples, but the tyrant himself turned against Plato.{{sfn|Waterfield|2023}}

====Foundation of the Academy====
[[File:MANNapoli_124545_plato's_academy_mosaic.jpg|thumb|[[Plato's Academy mosaic]] in the villa of T. Siminius Stephanus in [[Pompeii]], around 100 BC to 100 CE]]
{{main|Platonic Academy}}
After his return from Syracuse, Plato founded his philosophical school, the Academy, near the sacred olive grove of [[Hecademus]], in roughly 383 BC.{{sfn|Nails|2002|p=248}} At first, the property consisted of only a house with a garden, and during his lifetime, the work of the Academy itself likely took part an open area for study of philosophy and mathematics.{{sfn|Nails|2002|p=248}} From 383 BC until about 366 BC, Plato primarily spent his time at the Academy, writing the majority of the dialogues during this time.{{sfn|Nails|2002|p=7}} Much like Socrates and his students had been parodied in [[Aristophanes]]' plays [[The Clouds]] and [[The Birds (play)|The Birds]], the students at the Academy seem to have been the target of their contemporaries in [[Middle Comedy]].{{sfn|Nails|2002|p=248}} A fragment from a lost play of [[Epicrates of Ambracia|Epicrates]] depicts two students of the Academy engaged in a fierce debate over the [[genus]] of a [[pumpkin]], in a parody of the Platonic conception of [[diairesis]].{{sfn|Nails|2002|p=248}} [[Aristotle of Stagira]], who would go on to become a philosopher as famous as Plato in his own right,{{sfn|Dillon|2003|pp=1–3}} arrived in 367 BC, shortly before Plato departed again for Syracuse.{{sfn|Nails|2006|p=7}}

====Second and third trip to Syracuse====
After Dionysius I's death in 367 BC, Plato returned to Syracuse, likely early in 366 BC, at the request of Dion, in order to tutor [[Dionysius II of Syracuse|Dionysius II]] and guide him to become a [[philosopher king]]. Dionysius II seemed to accept Plato's teachings, but he became suspicious of Dion, his uncle. Dionysius expelled Dion, and Plato, after trying repeatedly to reconcile the two, gave up and returned to Athens.{{sfn|Nails|2002|p=248}} 

Plato returned to Syracuse a third time in 361 BC, likely staying over the winter until 360 BC.{{sfn|Nails|2002|p=248}} Dionysius kept Plato against his will, forcing Plato to appeal to his friend [[Archytas]] to intercede, at which point he returned to Athens.{{sfn|Nails|2002|p=248}} Dion would return to overthrow Dionysius and ruled Syracuse for a short time in 357 BC up until 354 BC,{{sfn|Nails|2002|p=248}} when he was usurped by [[Calippus of Syracuse|Calippus]], an Athenian who Plato insists, in the Seventh Letter, had no connection with the Academy.{{sfn|Nails|2006|p=10}}

==== Final years and death ====
After 360 BC, Plato returned to Athens, where he spent the remainder of his life.{{sfn|Waterfield|2023}}

At this point, he wrote or revised some of his final works, possibly including the ''[[Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus]]'', ''[[Critias]]'', ''[[Sophist (dialogue)|Sophist]]'', ''[[Statesman (dialogue)|Statesman]]'', ''[[Philebus]]'', and his longest work, the ''[[Laws (dialogue)|Laws]]'', all of which exhibit similarity of language, philosophical themes, and style that indicate they were intentionally published together to present a unified viewpoint.{{sfn|Waterfield|2023|p=87}} At the time of his death, however, the ''[[Laws (dialogue)|Laws]]'' was still unfinished; this work was edited by a student at the Academy, [[Philip of Opus]], who is also generally believed to have written the ''[[Epinomis]]'', an appendix to the ''Laws''.{{sfn|Nails|2006|p=11}} 

In 348/347 BC, Plato died and was buried in his garden in the [[Platonic Academy|Academy]] in Athens.{{sfn| Nails| 2002| p=249}} At the time of his death, Plato seems to have been self-sufficient, but not wealthy.{{sfn| Nails| 2002| pp=249-250}} A will preserved by one of the ancient biographers of Plato, which discusses his estate, does not mention the Academy, which suggests that he left a separate provision for it or possibly established an endowment.{{sfn|Nails|2002|p=249-250}} He was succeeded as the head of the Academy by [[Speusippus]], his nephew.{{sfn|Nails|2006|p=11}}

== Philosophy ==
{{main|Platonism}}
{{Platonism}}
In Plato's dialogues, Socrates and his company of disputants had something to say on many subjects, including several aspects of [[metaphysics]]. These include religion and science, human nature, love, and sexuality. More than one dialogue contrasts perception and [[reality]], [[nature]] and custom, and body and soul. [[F. M. Cornford|Francis Cornford]] identified the "twin pillars of Platonism" as the theory of Forms, on the one hand, and, on the other hand, the doctrine of immortality of the soul.<ref>Francis Cornford, 1941. ''The Republic of Plato''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. xxv.</ref>

=== The Forms ===
{{no sources|section|date=April 2025}}
{{See also|Theory of forms|l1=Plato's theory of Forms}}
In the dialogues Socrates regularly asks for the meaning of a general term (e. g. justice, truth, beauty), and criticizes those who instead give him particular examples, rather than the quality shared by all examples. "Platonism" and its theory of Forms (also known as 'theory of Ideas') denies the reality of the material world, considering it only an image or copy of the real world. According to this theory of Forms, there are these two kinds of things: the apparent world of material objects grasped by the senses, which constantly changes, and an unchanging and unseen world of Forms, grasped by reason ({{lang|grc|λογική}}). Plato's Forms represent [[Type (metaphysics)|types]] of things, as well as [[property (metaphysics)|properties]], patterns, and [[Relations (philosophy)|relations]], which are referred to as objects. Just as individual tables, chairs, and cars refer to objects in this world, 'tableness', 'chairness', and 'carness', as well as e.g. [[justice]], [[truth]], and [[beauty]] refer to objects in another world. One of Plato's most cited examples for the Forms were the truths of [[geometry]], such as the [[Pythagorean theorem]]. The theory of Forms is first introduced in the ''[[Phaedo]]'' dialogue (also known as ''On the Soul''), wherein Socrates disputes the [[Pluralism (philosophy)|pluralism]] of [[Anaxagoras]], then the most popular response to Heraclitus and Parmenides.

=== The Soul ===
{{See also|Plato's theory of soul}}
For Plato, as was characteristic of ancient Greek philosophy, the soul was that which gave life. Plato advocates a belief in the immortality of the soul, and several dialogues end with long speeches imagining the [[afterlife]]. In the ''Timaeus'', Socrates locates the parts of the soul within the human body: Reason is located in the head, spirit in the top third of the [[torso]], and the appetite in the middle third of the torso, down to the [[navel]].{{sfn|Dorter|2006|p=360}}

Furthermore, Plato evinces a belief in the theory of [[reincarnation]] in multiple dialogues (such as the ''Phaedo'' and ''Timaeus''). Scholars debate whether he intends the theory to be literally true, however.{{sfn|Jorgenson|2018}} He uses this idea of reincarnation to introduce the concept that knowledge is a matter of [[Anamnesis (philosophy)|recollection]] of things acquainted with before one is born, and not of observation or study.{{sfn|Baird & Kaufmann|2008}} Keeping with the theme of admitting his own ignorance, Socrates regularly complains of his forgetfulness. In the ''Meno'', Socrates uses a geometrical example to expound Plato's view that knowledge in this latter sense is acquired by recollection. Socrates elicits a fact concerning a geometrical construction from a slave boy, who could not have otherwise known the fact (due to the slave boy's lack of education). The knowledge must be of, Socrates concludes, an eternal, non-perceptible Form.

=== Epistemology ===
{{main|Platonic epistemology}}
Plato also discusses several aspects of [[epistemology]]. In several dialogues, Socrates inverts the common man's intuition about what is knowable and what is real. Reality is unavailable to those who use their senses. Socrates says that he who sees with his eyes is blind. While most people take the objects of their senses to be real if anything is, Socrates is contemptuous of people who think that something has to be graspable in the hands to be real. In other words, such people are willingly ignorant, living without divine inspiration and access to higher insights about reality. Although Plato has occasionally been presented as having been the first to write{{snd}}that [[knowledge]] is [[justified true belief]] in the ''Theaetetus'',{{sfn|Fine|2003|p=5}} Plato also identified problems with this same ''justified true belief'' definition in that same work, concluding that justification (or an "account") would require knowledge of ''difference'', meaning that the [[definition of knowledge]] is [[circular reasoning|circular]].{{sfn|McDowell|1973|p=256}}

In the ''Sophist'', ''[[Statesman (dialogue)|Statesman]]'', ''Republic'', ''Timaeus'', and the ''Parmenides'', Plato associates knowledge with the apprehension of unchanging Forms and their relationships to one another (which he calls "expertise" in dialectic), including through the processes of ''collection'' and ''division''.{{sfn|Taylor|2011|pp=176–187}} More explicitly, Plato himself argues in the ''Timaeus'' that knowledge is always proportionate to the realm from which it is gained. In other words, if one derives one's account of something experientially, because the world of sense is in flux, the views therein attained will be mere opinions. Meanwhile, opinions are characterized by a lack of necessity and stability. On the other hand, if one derives one's account of something by way of the non-sensible Forms, because these Forms are unchanging, so too is the account derived from them. That apprehension of Forms is required for knowledge may be taken to cohere with Plato's theory in the ''Theaetetus'' and ''Meno''.{{sfn|Lee|2011|p=432}} Indeed, the apprehension of Forms may be at the base of the account required for justification, in that it offers [[Foundationalism|foundational]] knowledge which itself needs no account, thereby avoiding an [[infinite regression]].{{sfn|Taylor|2011|p=189}}

[[File:Temida, Gdansk Court.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|"What is justice?" forms one of the core quandaries of the ''Republic''.]]

=== Ethics ===
{{see also|Form of the Good}}
Several dialogues discuss [[ethics]] including virtue and vice, pleasure and pain, crime and punishment, and justice and medicine. Socrates presents the famous [[Euthyphro dilemma]] in the [[Euthyphro|dialogue]] of the same name: "Is the [[piety|pious]] ([[:wikt:ὅσιος|τὸ ὅσιον]]) loved by the [[deity|gods]] because it is pious, or is it pious because it is loved by the gods?" ([[Stephanus pagination|10a]]) In the ''Protagoras'' dialogue it is argued through Socrates that virtue is innate and cannot be learned, that no one does bad on purpose, and to know what is good results in doing what is good; that knowledge is virtue. In the ''Republic'', Plato poses the question, "What is justice?" and by examining both individual justice and the justice that informs societies, Plato is able not only to inform metaphysics, but also ethics and politics with the question: "What is the basis of moral and social obligation?" Plato's well-known answer rests upon the fundamental responsibility to seek wisdom, wisdom which leads to an understanding of the Form of the Good. Plato views "The Good" as the supreme Form, somehow existing even "beyond being". In this manner, justice is obtained when knowledge of how to fulfill one's moral and political function in society is put into practice.

=== Politics ===
{{main|Plato's political philosophy}}
[[File:POxy3679 Parts Plato Republic.jpg|thumb|[[Oxyrhynchus Papyri]], with fragment of Plato's ''Republic'']]
The dialogues also discuss politics. Some of Plato's most famous doctrines are contained in the ''Republic'' as well as in the ''[[Laws (dialogue)|Laws]]'' and the ''Statesman''. Because these opinions are not spoken directly by Plato and vary between dialogues, they cannot be straightforwardly assumed as representing Plato's own views.

Socrates asserts that societies have a tripartite class structure corresponding to the appetite/spirit/reason structure of the individual soul. The appetite/spirit/reason are analogous to the castes of society.{{sfn|Blössner|2007|pp=345–349}}
* ''Productive'' (Workers)&nbsp;– the labourers, carpenters, plumbers, masons, merchants, farmers, ranchers, etc. These correspond to the "appetite" part of the soul.
* ''Protective'' (Warriors or Guardians)&nbsp;– those who are adventurous, strong and brave; in the armed forces. These correspond to the "spirit" part of the soul.
* ''Governing'' (Rulers or Philosopher Kings)&nbsp;– those who are intelligent, rational, self-controlled, in love with wisdom, well suited to make decisions for the community. These correspond to the "reason" part of the soul and are very few.

According to Socrates, a state made up of different kinds of souls will, overall, decline from an aristocracy (rule by the best) to a [[timocracy]] (rule by the honourable), then to an oligarchy (rule by the few), then to a [[democracy]] (rule by the people), and finally to [[tyranny]] (rule by one person, rule by a tyrant).{{sfn|Blössner|2007|p=350}}

=== Rhetoric and poetry ===
Several dialogues tackle questions about art, including rhetoric and rhapsody. Socrates says that poetry is inspired by the [[muses]], and is not rational. He speaks approvingly of this, and other forms of [[divine madness]] (drunkenness, eroticism, and dreaming) in the ''Phaedrus'',<ref>''Phaedrus ''(265a–c)</ref> and yet in the ''Republic'' wants to outlaw Homer's great poetry, and laughter as well. Scholars often view Plato's philosophy as at odds with rhetoric due to his criticisms of rhetoric in the ''[[Gorgias (dialogue)|Gorgias]]'' and his ambivalence toward rhetoric expressed in the ''[[Phaedrus (dialogue)|Phaedrus]]''. But other contemporary researchers contest the idea that Plato despised rhetoric and instead view his dialogues as a dramatization of complex rhetorical principles.{{sfn|Kastely|2015}} Plato made abundant use of mythological narratives in his own work; it is generally agreed that the main purpose for Plato in using myths was didactic.{{sfn|Jorgenson|2018|p=199}} He considered that only a few people were capable or interested in following a reasoned philosophical discourse, but men in general are attracted by stories and tales. Consequently, then, he used the myth to convey the conclusions of the philosophical reasoning.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Partenie |first1=Catalin |title=Plato's Myths |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato-myths/ |website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=29 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170527053738/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato-myths/|archive-date=27 May 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Notable examples include the story of [[Atlantis]], the [[Myth of Er]], and the [[Allegory of the Cave]].

=== Unwritten doctrines ===
{{Main|Plato's unwritten doctrines|Allegorical interpretations of Plato}}
[[Plato's unwritten doctrines]] are,{{sfn|Reale|1990|p=14f}} according to some ancient sources, the most fundamental metaphysical teaching of Plato, which he disclosed only orally, and some say only to his most trusted fellows, and which he may have kept secret from the public, although many modern scholars{{who|date=January 2023}} doubt these claims. It is, however, said that Plato once disclosed this knowledge to the public in his lecture ''On the Good'' ({{lang|grc|Περὶ τἀγαθοῦ}}), in which the Good ({{lang|grc|τὸ ἀγαθόν}}) is identified with the One (the Unity, {{lang|grc|τὸ ἕν}}), the fundamental ontological principle. The most important aspect of this interpretation of Plato's metaphysics is the continuity between his teaching and the Neoplatonic interpretation of [[Plotinus]]. All the sources related to the {{lang|grc|ἄγραφα δόγματα}} have been collected by Konrad Gaiser and published as ''Testimonia Platonica''.{{sfn|Gaiser|1998}}

== Works ==
{{anchor|Dialogues}}<!--linked-->
=== Themes ===
[[File:Anselm Feuerbach - Das Gastmahl. Nach Platon (zweite Fassung) - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|upright=1.8|Painting of a scene from Plato's ''[[Symposium (Plato)|Symposium]]'' ([[Anselm Feuerbach]], 1873)]]
{{See also|List of speakers in Plato's dialogues}}
Plato never presents himself as a participant in any of the dialogues, and with the exception of the ''Apology'', there is no suggestion that he heard any of the dialogues firsthand. Some dialogues have no narrator but have a pure "dramatic" form, some dialogues are narrated by Socrates himself, who speaks in the first person. The ''Symposium'' is narrated by Apollodorus, a Socratic disciple, apparently to Glaucon. Apollodorus assures his listener that he is recounting the story, which took place when he himself was an infant, not from his own memory, but as remembered by Aristodemus, who told him the story years ago. In most of the dialogues, the primary speaker is Socrates, who employs a [[Socratic method|method]] of questioning which proceeds by a dialogue form.

=== Textual sources and history ===
[[File:Timaeus stephanus pages 32 33.jpg|thumb|upright=1|Volume 3, pp. 32–33, of the 1578 Stephanus edition of Plato, showing a passage of ''Timaeus'' with the Latin translation and notes of [[Jean de Serres]]]]
{{See also|List of manuscripts of Plato's dialogues}}
During the early Renaissance, the Greek language and, along with it, Plato's texts were reintroduced to Western Europe by Byzantine scholars. Some 250 known Byzantine manuscripts of Plato survive.{{sfn|Brumbaugh|Wells|1989}} In September or October 1484 [[Filippo Valori]] and [[Francesco Berlinghieri]] printed 1025 copies of [[Marsilio Ficino|Ficino's]] translation.{{sfn|Allen|1975|p=12}} The 1578 edition of Plato's complete works published by Henricus Stephanus ([[Henri Estienne]]) in [[Geneva]] also included parallel Latin translation and running commentary by Joannes Serranus ([[Jean de Serres]]). It was this edition which established standard [[Stephanus pagination]], still in use today. The text of Plato as received today apparently represents the complete written philosophical work of Plato, based on the first century AD arrangement of [[Thrasyllus of Mendes]].{{sfn|Cooper|1997|pp=viii–xii}} Since the beginning of the 20th century, many papyri from the [[Hellenistic period]] through the third century AD containing text from Plato's dialogues have also been recovered from Egypt, which provide important early witnesses to the text.{{sfn|Brumbaugh|Wells|1989}} The modern standard complete English edition is the 1997 [[Hackett Publishing Company|Hackett]] ''Plato: Complete Works'', edited by John M. Cooper.{{sfn|Cooper|1997}}{{sfn|Fine|1999a|p=482}}

=== Authenticity ===
{{further|Pseudo-Platonica}}
Thirty-five dialogues and thirteen letters (the [[Epistles (Plato)|''Epistles'']]) have traditionally been ascribed to Plato, though modern scholarship doubts the authenticity of at least some of these. There is a broad consensus among scholarship to doubt the authenticity of ''[[Second Alcibiades|Alcibiades II]]'', ''[[Epinomis]]'', ''[[Hipparchus (dialogue)|Hipparchus]]'', ''[[Minos (dialogue)|Minos]]'', ''[[Rival Lovers|Lovers]]'', and ''[[Theages]]'', while the opinion on ''[[First Alcibiades|Alcibiades I]]'',''[[Clitophon (dialogue)|Clitophon]]'', ''[[Epistles (Plato)|Letters]]'', and ''[[Menexenus (dialogue)|Menexenus]]'' is more divided.{{sfn|Cooper|1997|pp=v–vi}} The following works were transmitted under Plato's name in antiquity, but were already considered spurious by the 1st century AD: ''[[Axiochus (dialogue)|Axiochus]]'', ''[[Definitions (Plato)|Definitions]]'', ''[[Demodocus (dialogue)|Demodocus]]'', ''[[Epigrams (Plato)|Epigrams]]'', ''[[Eryxias (dialogue)|Eryxias]]'', ''[[Halcyon (dialogue)|Halcyon]]'', ''[[On Justice]]'', ''[[On Virtue]]'', ''[[Sisyphus (dialogue)|Sisyphus]]''.{{sfn|Cooper|1997}}

=== Chronology ===
No one knows the exact order Plato's dialogues were written in, nor the extent to which some might have been later revised and rewritten. The works are usually grouped into ''Early'', ''Middle'', and ''Late'' period; The following represents one relatively common division amongst developmentalist scholars.{{sfn|Fine|1999b}}
* Early: ''[[Apology (Plato)|Apology]]'', ''[[Charmides (dialogue)|Charmides]]'', ''[[Crito]]'', ''[[Euthyphro]]'', ''[[Gorgias (dialogue)|Gorgias]]'', ''[[Hippias Minor]]'', ''[[Hippias Major]]'', ''[[Ion (dialogue)|Ion]]'', ''[[Laches (dialogue)|Laches]]'', ''[[Lysis (dialogue)|Lysis]]'', ''[[Protagoras (dialogue)|Protagoras]]''
* Middle: ''[[Cratylus (dialogue)|Cratylus]]'', ''[[Euthydemus (dialogue)|Euthydemus]]'', ''[[Meno]]'', ''[[Parmenides (dialogue)|Parmenides]]'', ''[[Phaedo]]'', ''[[Phaedrus (dialogue)|Phaedrus]]'', ''[[Republic (Plato)|Republic]]'', ''[[Symposium (Plato)|Symposium]]'', ''[[Theaetetus (dialogue)|Theatetus]]''
* Late: ''[[Critias (dialogue)|Critias]]'', ''[[Sophist (dialogue)|Sophist]]'', ''[[Statesman (dialogue)|Statesman]]'', ''[[Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus]]'', ''[[Philebus]]'', ''[[Laws (dialogue)|Laws]].''

Whereas those classified as "early dialogues" often conclude in [[aporia]], the so-called "middle dialogues" provide more clearly stated positive teachings that are often ascribed to Plato such as the theory of Forms. The remaining dialogues are classified as "late" and are generally agreed to be difficult and challenging pieces of philosophy.{{sfn|Cooper|1997|p=xiv}} It should, however, be kept in mind that many of the positions in the ordering are still highly disputed, and also that the very notion that Plato's dialogues can or should be "ordered" is by no means universally accepted,{{sfn|Cooper|1997}} Increasingly in the most recent Plato scholarship, writers are skeptical of the notion that the order of Plato's writings can be established with any precision.{{sfn|Kraut|2013}} though Plato's works are still often characterized as falling at least roughly into three groups stylistically.

== Legacy ==
===Medieval era===
During the Islamic Golden ages, Neoplatonism was revived from its founding father, Plotinus.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Willinsky |first=John |title=The Intellectual Properties of Learning: A Prehistory from Saint Jerome to John Locke |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |year=2018 |isbn=978-0226487922 |edition=1st |location=Chicago |publication-date=2 January 2018 |pages=Chapter 6}}</ref> Neoplatonism, a philosophical current that permeated Islamic scholarship, accentuated one facet of the Qur’anic conception of God—the transcendent—while seemingly neglecting another—the creative. This philosophical tradition, introduced by [[Al-Farabi]] and subsequently elaborated upon by figures such as [[Avicenna]], postulated that all phenomena emanated from the divine source.{{sfn|Aminrazavi|2021}} It functioned as a conduit, bridging the transcendental nature of the divine with the tangible reality of creation. In the Islamic context, Neoplatonism facilitated the integration of Platonic philosophy with mystical Islamic thought, fostering a synthesis of ancient philosophical wisdom and religious insight.{{sfn|Aminrazavi|2021}} Inspired by Plato's Republic, Al-Farabi extended his inquiry beyond mere political theory, proposing an ideal city governed by [[Philosopher king|philosopher-kings]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Stefaniuk |first=Tomasz |date=5 December 2022 |title=Man in Early Islamic Philosophy – Al-Kindi and Al-Farabi |journal=Ruch Filozoficzny |volume=78 |issue=3 |pages=65–84 |doi=10.12775/RF.2022.023 |issn=2545-3173|doi-access=free }}</ref> Plato is also referenced by Jewish philosopher and Talmudic scholar [[Maimonides]] in his ''[[Guide for the Perplexed]]''.

Many of these commentaries on Plato were translated from Arabic into Latin, in which form they influenced medieval scholastics.{{sfn|Burrell|1998}}{{sfn|Hasse|2002|pp=33–45}} Plato's thought is often compared with that of his most famous student, [[Aristotle]], whose reputation during the Western [[Middle Ages]] so completely eclipsed that of Plato that the [[Scholasticism|Scholastic]] philosophers referred to Aristotle as "the Philosopher". The only Platonic work known to western scholarship was ''[[Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus]]'', until translations into Latin were made beginning in the 12th century. However, the study of Plato continued in the [[Byzantine Empire]], [[Islamic Golden Age|the Caliphates during the Islamic Golden Age]], and [[Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain|Spain during the Golden age of Jewish culture]].

===Modern===
{{see also|Transmission of the Greek Classics}}
[[File:Sanzio 01 Plato Aristotle.jpg|thumb|upright|''[[The School of Athens]]'' [[fresco]] by [[Raphael]] features Plato (left) also as a central figure, holding his ''[[Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus]]'' while he gestures to the heavens. Aristotle (right) gestures to the earth while holding a copy of his ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'' in his hand.]] During the [[Renaissance]], [[Gemistos Plethon]] brought Plato's original writings to Florence from Constantinople in the century of its fall. Many of the greatest early modern scientists and artists who broke with [[Scholasticism]], with the support of the Plato-inspired [[Lorenzo de' Medici|Lorenzo]] (grandson of Cosimo), saw Plato's philosophy as the basis for progress in the arts and sciences. The 17th century [[Cambridge Platonists]] sought to reconcile Plato's more problematic beliefs, such as [[metempsychosis]] and [[polyamory]], with Christianity.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Carrigan |first=Henry L. Jr. |title=Cambridge Platonists |year=2012 |orig-date=2011 |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Christian Civilization |location=[[Chichester, West Sussex]] |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |doi=10.1002/9780470670606.wbecc0219 |isbn=978-1405157629}}</ref> By the 19th century, Plato's reputation was restored, and at least on par with Aristotle's. Plato's influence has been especially strong in mathematics and the sciences. Plato's resurgence further inspired some of the greatest advances in logic since Aristotle, primarily through [[Gottlob Frege]]. [[Albert Einstein]] suggested that the scientist who takes philosophy seriously would have to avoid systematization and take on many different roles, and possibly appear as a Platonist or Pythagorean, in that such a one would have "the viewpoint of logical simplicity as an indispensable and effective tool of his research."{{sfn|Einstein|1949|pp=683–684}} British philosopher [[Alfred North Whitehead]] said: "the safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of [[Note (typography)|footnotes]] to Plato."{{sfn|Whitehead|1978|p=39}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=A.N Whitehead on Plato |url=https://www.college.columbia.edu/core/content/whitehead-plato |access-date= |website=Columbia College |archive-date=29 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231029153617/https://www.college.columbia.edu/core/content/whitehead-plato |url-status=live }}</ref> Adapting examples from Plato's ''[[Theaetetus (dialogue)|Theaetetus]]'', [[Edmund Gettier]] famously demonstrated the [[Gettier problem]] for the "justified true belief account" of knowledge, challenging the prevelant notion in Analytic philosophy at the time that had been popularized by [[A. J. Ayer]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gettier |first1=E. L. |title=Is Justified True Belief Knowledge? |journal=Analysis |date=1 June 1963 |volume=23 |issue=6 |pages=121–123 |doi=10.1093/analys/23.6.121}}</ref>

== Notes ==
{{notelist|30em}}
{{Reflist|20em}}

== References ==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last=Allen |first=Michael J.B. |chapter=Introduction |title=Marsilio Ficino: The Philebus Commentary |pages=1–58 |publisher=University of California Press |year=1975 }}
* {{cite SEP| url-id=arabic-islamic-mysticism | title=Mysticism in Arabic and Islamic Philosophy |last=Aminrazavi | first = Mehdi |date=2021}}
* {{cite book | editor1-last = Baird | editor1-first = Forrest E. | editor2-first= Walter |editor2-last=Kaufmann |title=Philosophic Classics: From Plato to Derrida |edition=Fifth |publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall |year=2008 |location=Upper Saddle River, New Jersey |isbn=978-0-13-158591-1 |ref={{harvid|Baird & Kaufmann|2008}}}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Blössner |first=Norbert |chapter=The City-Soul Analogy |editor-last=Ferrari |editor-first=G.R.F. |translator= G.R.F. Ferrari |title=The Cambridge Companion to Plato's Republic |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2007 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Brumbaugh |last2=Wells |first1=Robert S. |first2=Rulon S. |title=Completing Yale's Microfilm Project |journal=The Yale University Library Gazette |volume=64 |number=1/2 |date=October 1989 |pages=73–75 |jstor=40858970 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Burrell |first=David |entry=Platonism in Islamic Philosophy |title=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Routledge |year=1998 |editor-last=Craig |editor-first=Edward |volume=7 |pages=429–430}}
* {{cite book |title=Plato: Complete Works |editor1-first=John M. |editor1-last=Cooper |editor2-first=D.S. |editor2-last=Hutchinson |ref={{harvid|Cooper|1997}} |publisher=Hackett Publishing |year=1997}}
* {{cite book |last=Dillon |first=John |title=The Heirs of Plato: A Study of the Old Academy |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 }}
* {{cite book |last=Dorter |first=Kenneth |title=The Transformation of Plato's Republic |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2006 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Einstein |first=Albert |entry=Remarks to the Essays Appearing in this Collective Volume |editor-last=Schilpp |title=Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist |series=The Library of Living Philosophers |volume=7 |publisher=MJF Books |year=1949 |pages=663–688 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Fine |first=Gail |entry=Selected Bibliography |title=Plato 1: Metaphysics and Epistemology |pages=481–494 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1999a }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Fine |first=Gail |entry=Introduction |title=Plato 2: Ethics, Politics, Religion, and the Soul |pages=1–33 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1999b }}
* {{cite book |last=Fine |first=Gail |chapter=Introduction |title=Plato on Knowledge and Forms: Selected Essays |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 }}
* {{cite book |last=Gaiser |first=Konrad |title=Testimonia Platonica: Le antiche testimonianze sulle dottrine non scritte di Platone |location=Milan |publisher=Vita e Pensiero |year=1998 |editor-last=Reale |editor-first=Giovanni }} 
* {{cite book |last=Guthrie |first=W.K.C. |title=A History of Greek Philosophy: Volume 4, Plato: The Man and His Dialogues: Earlier Period |year=1986 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-31101-4 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Hasse |first=Dag Nikolaus |entry=Plato Arabico-latinus |editor1-last=Gersh |editor2-last=Hoenen |title=The Platonic Tradition in the Middle Ages: A Doxographic Approach |publisher=De Gruyter |year=2002 |pages=33–66 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Jorgenson |first1=Chad |title=The Embodied Soul in Plato's Later Thought |date=5 April 2018 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-80052-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I1FSDwAAQBAJ |access-date=15 May 2025 |language=en}}
* {{cite book |last1=Kastely |first1=James L. |title=The Rhetoric of Plato's Republic: Democracy and the Philosophical Problem of Persuasion |date=25 August 2015 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-27876-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xRBDCgAAQBAJ |access-date=15 May 2025 |language=en}}
* {{cite web |last=Kraut |first=Richard |title=Plato |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato/ |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |publisher=Stanford University |date=11 September 2013 |access-date=3 April 2014 |archive-date=6 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180906142533/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Lee |first=M.-K. |entry=The ''Theaetetus'' |editor-last=Fine |editor-first=G. |title=The Oxford Handbook of Plato |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2011 |pages=411–436 }}
* {{cite book |last=McDowell |first=J. |title=Plato: Theaetetus |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1973 }}
* {{cite book |last=Nails |first=Debra |title=The People of Plato: A Prosopography of Plato and Other Socratics |publisher=Hackett Publishing |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-87220-564-2 }}
* {{cite book|last=Nails|first=Debra|title=A Companion to Plato edited by Hugh H. Benson |year=2006 | publisher=Blackwell Publishing| isbn=1-4051-1521-1|chapter=The Life of Plato of Athens|url=https://www.academia.edu/5135774 |doi=10.1002/9780470996256.ch1}}
* {{cite journal |last=Notopoulos |first=A. |title=The Name of Plato |journal=Classical Philology |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=135–145 |date=April 1939 |doi=10.1086/362227 |s2cid=161505593 }}
* {{cite book |last=Reale |first=Giovanni |title=Plato and Aristotle |series=A History of Ancient Philosophy |volume=2 |editor-first=John R. |editor-last=Catan |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=1990 }}
* {{cite book |last=Riginos |first=Alice |title=Platonica : the anecdotes concerning the life and writings of Plato |publisher=E.J. Brill |location=Leiden |year=1976 |isbn=978-90-04-04565-1 }}
* {{cite book |last=Strauss |first=Leo |title=The City and the Man |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1964 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Taylor |first=C.C.W. |entry=Plato's Epistemology |editor-last=Fine |editor-first=G. |title=The Oxford Handbook of Plato |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2011 |pages=165–190 }}
* {{cite book |first=Gregory |last=Vlastos |title=Socrates: Ironist and Moral Philosopher |url=https://archive.org/details/socratesironistm00vlas_0 |url-access=registration |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1991 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Waterfield |first1=Robin |title=Plato of Athens: A Life in Philosophy |date=2023 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-756475-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QaO9EAAAQBAJ |access-date=5 May 2025 |language=en}}
* {{cite book |first=Alfred North |last=Whitehead |title=Process and Reality |url=https://archive.org/details/processrealitygi00alfr |url-access=registration |location=New York |publisher=The Free Press |year=1978 }}
{{Refend}}

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