Editing Political Islam

{{short description|Any interpretation of Islam as a source of political identity and action}}
{{about|an Islamic political ideology|politics in Islam generally|Political aspects of Islam}}
{{Islamism sidebar |expanded=Concepts}}

'''Political Islam''' is the interpretation of [[Islam]] as a source of political identity and action.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Voll|first1=John O.|last2=Sonn|first2=Tamara|title=Political Islam|url=http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/id/obo-9780195390155-0063|journal=Oxford Bibliographies Online Datasets|year=2009|language=en|doi=10.1093/obo/9780195390155-0063|access-date=2017-05-26|archive-date=2020-02-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200223165247/https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195390155/obo-9780195390155-0063.xml|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref> It advocates the formation of state and society according to (the advocates understanding of) Islamic principles, where  Islam serves as a source of political positions and concepts.<ref name=":0">Krämer, Gudrun. "Political Islam." In Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World. Vol. 6. Edited by Richard C. Martin, 536–540. New York: Macmillan, 2004. [http://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/political-islam via Encyclopedia.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180713072425/https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/political-islam |date=2018-07-13 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=March |first1=Andrew F. |title=Political Islam: Theory |journal=[[Annual Review of Political Science]] |date=2015 |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=103–123 |doi=10.1146/annurev-polisci-082112-141250 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Political  Islam is generally used interchangeably  with  the term ''[[Islamism]]'' by authors inside and outside of academia,<ref name=":1" /> and thought  of as  the political element of the [[Islamic revival]] that began in the 20th century,<ref name=":1" />
rather than  just any form of political activity by Muslims.  However, there have also been new attempts to distinguish between Islamism as religiously based political movements and political Islam as a national modern understanding of Islam shared by secular and Islamist actors.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jocelyne Cesari |year=2018 |title=What Is Political Islam |url=https://www.rienner.com/title/What_Is_Political_Islam |access-date=2023-01-01 |website=www.rienner.com |publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers |isbn=978-1-62637-692-2 |archive-date=2023-01-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230106160415/https://www.rienner.com/title/What_Is_Political_Islam |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Development of the term==

The terminology which is used for the phenomenon of political Islam differs among experts. [[Martin Kramer]] was one of the first experts to start using the term ''political Islam'' in 1980. In 2003, he stated that ''political Islam'' can also be seen as tautology because nowhere in the [[Muslim world]] is a religion separated from [[politics]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Kramer|first=Martin|date=2003-03-01|title=Coming to Terms: Fundamentalists or Islamists?|url=http://www.meforum.org/541/coming-to-terms-fundamentalists-or-islamists|journal=Middle East Quarterly|language=en-US|access-date=2017-05-26|archive-date=2015-01-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150101195913/http://www.meforum.org/541/coming-to-terms-fundamentalists-or-islamists|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kramer|first=Martin|date=1980|title=Political Islam|journal=The Washington Papers|volume=VIII}}</ref> Some experts use terms like ''[[Islamism]]'', pointing out the same set of occurrences or they confuse both terms. Dekmejian was among the first of the experts who made remarks on politicisation of [[Islam]] in the context of the failure of secular Islamic governments while he uses both ''Islamism'' and ''[[fundamentalism]]'' at the same time (rather than ''political Islam'').<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dekmejian|first=R. Hrair|date=1980|title=The Anatomy of Islamic Revival: Legitimacy Crisis, Ethnic Conflict and the Search for Islamic Alternatives|jstor=4325967|journal=Middle East Journal|volume=34|issue=1|pages=1–12}}</ref>

The term ''political Islam'' has been used in connection with foreign communities, referring to the movements or groups which have invested in a broad fundamentalist revival that is connected to a certain political agenda.<ref name=":2" /> [[M. A. Muqtedar Khan]] incorporates into political Islam all the Islamic movements promoting a political system based solely on Islam which must be followed by every [[Muslim]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Khan|first=Muqtedar|date=2014-03-10|title=What is Political Islam?|url=https://www.e-ir.info/2014/03/10/what-is-political-islam/|access-date=2023-01-01|website=E-International Relations|language=en-US|archive-date=2020-08-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200820080205/https://www.e-ir.info/2014/03/10/what-is-political-islam/|url-status=live}}</ref> Some of the experts also use other descriptive terms in order to distinguish various ideological courses within political Islam: ''conservative'', ''progressive'', ''[[militant]]'', ''[[Radical politics|radical]]'', ''[[jihadist]]'', etc.<ref name=":1" /> [[Bill Warner (writer)|Bill Warner]], a retired professor of physics and critic of political Islam, defines political Islam as that part of the text of the primary Islamic doctrine (Koran, Sira, Hadith) that affect non-Muslims ([[Kafir]]s)<ref>{{Cite web |last=Warner |first=Bill |title=Learn about Political Islam |url=https://www.cspii.org/learn-political-islam/ |access-date=2022-11-16 |website=www.cspii.org |language=en |archive-date=2022-11-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116152318/https://www.cspii.org/learn-political-islam/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and non-Muslim societies.<ref>{{Citation |last=Bill. |first=Warner |title=Sharia Law for Non-Muslims |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1099523781 |isbn=978-1-936659-37-1 |oclc=1099523781 |access-date=2022-11-24}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mohanty |first=Nirode |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1107447247 |title=Jihadism : past and present |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-4985-7597-3 |page=264 |oclc=1107447247}}</ref> He has been criticised for identifying Islam with [[Islamism]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bale|first1=Jeffrey M.|title=The Darkest Sides of Politics, II: State Terrorism, "Weapons of Mass Destruction," Religious Extremism, and Organized Crime|date=2017|publisher=Apple Academic Press|isbn=978-1138785625|pages=217–231|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eXo4DwAAQBAJ&q=The+Darkest+Sides+of+Politics%2C+II%3A+State+Terrorism%2C+%E2%80%9CWeapons+of+Mass&pg=PT5|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> and for his methodology.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Khan |first=Aysha |date=2019-07-16 |title=A Push to Deny Muslims Religious Freedom Gains Steam |url=https://religionandpolitics.org/2019/07/16/a-push-to-deny-muslims-religious-freedom-gains-steam/ |url-status=live |access-date=2022-06-15 |website=religionandpolitics.org |language=en-US |archive-date=2022-04-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220417230904/https://religionandpolitics.org/2019/07/16/a-push-to-deny-muslims-religious-freedom-gains-steam/ }}</ref> In 2011, the [[Southern Poverty Law Center]] included him in a list of ten [[Islamophobia|anti-Islam]] hardliners in the United States.<ref name="splc">{{cite web| last1=Steinback| first1=Robert| title=THE ANTI-MUSLIM INNER CIRCLE| url=https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/intelligence-report/2011/anti-muslim-inner-circle| website=splc.org| publisher=Southern Poverty Law Center| access-date=12 February 2018| archive-date=10 May 2019| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190510033616/https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/intelligence-report/2011/anti-muslim-inner-circle| url-status=live}}</ref>

== Definitions ==
Islamic scholar [[Gudrun Krämer]], a professor at the [[Free University of Berlin]], writes:<blockquote>"Political Islam is not synonymous with violent, radical, or extremist Islamism, and it is not restricted to opposition groups. The spectrum ranges from advocates of an Islamic republic to sympathizers of an Islamic monarchy or a resuscitated caliphate, and from self-declared liberals to uncompromising conservatives. Some Islamists are commonly classified as moderate or pragmatic, others as radical, militant, or extremist."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Krämer |first=Gudrun |title=Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World |work= |publisher=Macmillan Reference USA |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-02-866269-5 |editor-last=Martin |editor-first=Richard C. |edition=2nd |volume= |location=Farmington Hills |page=895 |chapter=Political Islam}}</ref></blockquote>

[[John Esposito|John L. Esposito]] ([[Georgetown University]]) and [[Emad Shahin|Emad El-Din Shahin]] ([[The American University in Cairo|American University in Cairo]]) give the following definition in ''The Oxford Handbook of Islam and Politics'':<blockquote>"In recent years, political Islam has manifested itself in two diametrically opposed orientations: an increasing involvement in the democratization process by mainstream movements after the success of pro-democracy popular uprisings in toppling autocratic regimes and a growing inclination toward violence by fringe groups. Political Islam here refers to the attempts of Muslim individuals, groups and movements to reconstruct the political, economic, social and cultural basis of their society along Islamic lines. This process involves different views of the place of Shari`ah in society and the approach to bringing about change. While majorities of Islamic movements have engaged in the democratization process in their respective countries, some have embraced violence and terrorism as an ideological and strategic choice, with devastating consequences for the world and for Islam itself."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Esposito |first=John L. |title=The Oxford Handbook of Islam and Politics |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-539589-1 |editor-last=Esposito |editor-first=John L. |location=New York |pages=1 |chapter=Introduction}}</ref></blockquote>

[[Mouhanad Khorchide]] ([[University of Münster]]), as head of the scientific advisory board of the Documentation Center for Political Islam in Austria, stated in 2020 that the term "Political Islam" should be treated as a technical term and therefore written with a capital 'P'.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Khorchide |first=17 11 2020 um 14:12 von Mouhanad |date=2020-11-17 |title=Sind wir nicht schon längst auf den Politischen Islam hereingefallen? |url=https://www.diepresse.com/5898835/sind-wir-nicht-schon-laengst-auf-den-politischen-islam-hereingefallen |access-date=2024-11-25 |website=Die Presse |language=de}}</ref> He devoloped the following definition that is also the working definition of the term<ref>''Der Politische Islam als Gegenstand wissenschaftlicher Auseinandersetzungen und am Beispiel der Muslimbruderschaft.'' In: ''Grundlagenbericht 2020.'' Dokumentationsstelle Politischer Islam, 1. Dezember 2020.</ref> by the Documentation Center for Political Islam in Austria:<blockquote>"Ideology of supremacy that aims at influencing or changing society, culture, state, policy, politics and/or polity according to such values and norms that are declared as Islamic by the actors of Political Islam, but are not shared by the majority of Muslims and are in clear contradiction to the rule of law, democracy and human rights."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Overview - The scientific analysis  of religiously motivated political extremism |url=https://www.dokumentationsstelle.at/en/research/overview |access-date=2024-11-25 |website=www.dokumentationsstelle.at |language=en}}</ref></blockquote>

The Routledge Handbook of Political Islam provides the following definition by political scientist [[Shahram Akbarzadeh]], a professor at the [[University of Melbourne]]:<blockquote>"Political Islam is a modern phenomenon that seeks to use religion to shape the political system. Its origins lie in the perceived failure of the secular ideologies of nationalism and socialism to deliver on their promises of anti-imperialism and prosperity."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Akbarzadeh |first=Shahram |title=Routledge Handbook of Political Islam |publisher=Routledge |year=2021 |isbn=978-1-138-35389-3 |editor-last=Akbarzadeh |editor-first=Shahram |edition=2nd |location=New York |pages=1 |chapter=Political Islam under the Spotlight}}</ref></blockquote>

In another paper, Rüdiger Lohlker criticizes numerous assumptions surrounding the discussion on Political Islam:<blockquote>"All the categories we are discussing are affected by this "dubious" assumption that there is a transhistorical essence of religion. "The most dubious" of all these categories may be Political Islam with its background assumption that "true" religion has to be privatised but ignoring that the privatised need for belief is based on a universalised dominance of Christian traditions in public discourse and institutions. Even if political Catholicism may also be regarded as dubious, the notion ignores the fundamental difference of a phenomenon that strives for political dominance (sometimes successful) in the hegemonic European context. Thus, putting majority aspirations and some strands of minority discourses and organisations at the same level is a major failure of analysis. Talking about Political Islam means that we are referring to the ongoing discussion. To rethink this category and others we should think about Islam as a practice, not a transhistorical spectre of religion called Islam that is haunting the Western imaginaire."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lohlker |first=Rüdiger |title=Religious Diversity, State, and Law |publisher=Brill |year=2023 |isbn=978-90-04-51585-7 |editor-last=Marko |editor-first=Joseph |location=Leiden |pages=342 |chapter=Islamic Fundamentalism: Beyond Islamism, Extremism, and Political Islam}}</ref></blockquote>The editors of the ''Handbook of Political Islam in Europe'' (2024), the Cologne-based political scientist Thomas Jäger and the director of the European Institute for Counterterrorism and Conflict Prevention (EICTP), Ralph Thiele, offer the following definition:<blockquote>"Actors of Political Islam pursue the political goals that are derived from the idea that Islam, as they understand it, should play the central role in shaping political, legal, and cultural systems worldwide. While it is a broad and diverse movement with various interpretations, variations, and organizations, there are core characteristics associated with Political Islam in general. The first and most important is the inseparability of religion and politics."<ref>Thomas Jäger, Ralph Thiele: Introduction. In: Thomas Jäger, Ralph Thiele (eds.): Handbook of Political Islam in Europe: Activities, Means, and Strategies from Salafists to the Muslim Brotherhood and Beyond. Springer Handbooks of Political Science and International Relations. Springer, Heidelberg 2024, ISBN 978-3-03146172-9, p. 3.</ref></blockquote>

==In Muslim countries==
Some factions in the Middle East have come to associate the idea of modernities with the intrusions of colonial imperialism. In some Muslim countries, especially Egypt and Pakistan, political counter-movements with religious ideological leanings took root. The reasons are multifaceted. The [[collapse of the Ottoman Empire]] was a seismic event that created many aftershocks. The region experienced turbulence for many years as Arab countries fell within the cultural and colonial sphere of European nations. Under increasing cultural pressures Muslims asserted their national identities and cultural heritage, and some factions emphasized religious dimensions. In Egypt the weakness of Muslims was blamed on poor adherence to scripture. According to [[Hassan al-Banna]], European culture was materialistic, immoral and based on class selfishness and usury. Other contributing factors may have been opposition to modernizing influences, overall poor governance and low levels of education in the population.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ataman |first1=Kemal |title=Forerunners of "Political Islam":An inquiry into the Ideologies of Al-Banna and Al-Mawdudi |journal=Uludag Universitesi Ilahiyat Fakultesi Dergisi |url=https://www.academia.edu/31302085}}</ref>

===Iran===
{{Excerpt|Cultural Revolution in Iran|paragraphs=1|only=paragraphs}}

==Research in Europe==
In July 2020, the [[Austrian government]] made up of the [[ÖVP]] and the [[The Greens – The Green Alternative|Greens]] set up the Documentation Centre Political Islam,<ref name=Natnews>[https://www.thenationalnews.com/world/austria-takes-pioneering-approach-to-tackle-influence-of-political-islam-1.1049772 Austria takes 'pioneering' approach to tackle influence of political Islam] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112120700/https://www.thenationalnews.com/world/austria-takes-pioneering-approach-to-tackle-influence-of-political-islam-1.1049772 |date=2023-01-12 }} ''The National News'', Retrieved 2023-01-10.</ref> an organization to research "religiously motivated political extremism" related to political Islam and to monitor related networks and social media.<ref name="dcpiabout">{{cite web |title=About us |url=https://www.dokumentationsstelle.at/en/aboutus/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230328191344/https://www.dokumentationsstelle.at/en/aboutus/ |archive-date=2023-03-28 |publisher=Dokumentationsstelle Politischer Islam}}</ref><ref name=Natnews/> It was financed by the Austrian Foundation and through the 2015 Fund Act.<ref>[https://www.bundeskanzleramt.gv.at/bundeskanzleramt/nachrichten-der-bundesregierung/2020/integrationsministerin-raab-dokumentationsstelle-politischer-islam-nimmt-arbeit-auf.html Dokumentationsstelle Politischer Islam nimmt Arbeit auf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203072752/https://www.bundeskanzleramt.gv.at/bundeskanzleramt/nachrichten-der-bundesregierung/2020/integrationsministerin-raab-dokumentationsstelle-politischer-islam-nimmt-arbeit-auf.html |date=2023-02-03 }} ''Bundeskanzleramt'', Retrieved 2023-01-10.</ref>

In the wake of the [[Mahsa Amini protests]] in [[Iran]], the Austrian organization produced a report on the efforts of the [[Islamic Republic]] to exert influence abroad in the cultural, religious and educational sectors in Europe through foundations and religious centres, including the Islamic Center in [[Hamburg]] and the Imam Ali Center in [[Vienna]].<ref>[https://www.msn.com/de-at/nachrichten/inland/dokumentationsstelle-sieht-einflussnahme-des-iran-in-%C3%B6sterreich/ar-AA14t4aJ?li=BBqgbZH Dokumentationsstelle sieht Einflussnahme des Iran in Österreich] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230113130943/https://www.msn.com/de-at/nachrichten/inland/dokumentationsstelle-sieht-einflussnahme-des-iran-in-%C3%B6sterreich/ar-AA14t4aJ?li=BBqgbZH |date=2023-01-13 }} ''msn.com'', Retrieved 2023-01-10.</ref><ref>[https://orf.at/stories/3295001/ Dokumentationsstelle sieht iranischen Einfluss] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230206053516/https://orf.at/stories/3295001/ |date=2023-02-06 }} ''orf.at'', Retrieved 2023-01-10.</ref> In 2022, the organization also investigated the Islamic Association in Austria, an organization that runs a mosque in Vienna's Jewish neighbourhood that is allegedly responsible for propagating [[antisemitism]], anti-[[Israel]] hatred, and support for [[Hamas]] and the [[Muslim Brotherhood]].<ref>[https://www.thejc.com/news/world/austria-launches-probe-into-'antisemitic'-mosque-3AI6IDSHV5ZdOgr2eJoOoK Austria launches probe into ‘antisemitic’ mosque] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112111331/https://www.thejc.com/news/world/austria-launches-probe-into-%27antisemitic%27-mosque-3AI6IDSHV5ZdOgr2eJoOoK |date=2023-01-12 }} ''The Jewish Chronicle'', Retrieved 2023-01-10.</ref><ref>[https://www.algemeiner.com/2022/12/09/cursed-zionists-austrian-authorities-order-investigation-into-rampant-antisemitism-at-vienna-mosque/ ‘Cursed Zionists’: Austrian Authorities Order Investigation into Rampant Antisemitism at Vienna Mosque] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230206031235/https://www.algemeiner.com/2022/12/09/cursed-zionists-austrian-authorities-order-investigation-into-rampant-antisemitism-at-vienna-mosque/ |date=2023-02-06 }} ''Algemeiner'', Retrieved 2023-01-10.</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Political aspects of Islam]]
* [[Post-Islamism]]
* [[Islam Yes, Islamic Party No]]
* [[List of Islamic political parties]]

== References ==
<references />

== Further reading ==
* Nazih Ayubi: ''Political Islam: Religion an Politics in the Arab World.'' Routledge 1991, {{ISBN|978-1-134-84970-3}}.
* [[Jocelyne Cesari]]: ''What Is Political Islam?'' Lynne Rienner Publishers, Boulder 2018, {{ISBN|978-1-62637-692-2}}.
* [[Shahram Akbarzadeh]] (Hrsg.): ''Routledge Handbook of Political Islam.'' 2. Auflage. Routledge, New York 2023, {{ISBN|978-0-367-68099-2}}.
* [[Gudrun Krämer]]: Political Islam. In: Richard C. Martin (Hrsg.): . 2. Auflage. Macmillan Reference USA, Farmington Hills 2016, {{ISBN|978-0-02-866269-5}}.
*Ankerl, G.(2000): Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations. Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. (INU PRESS, Geneva.)
*Hamid, S. & McCants, W. (2016). [https://www.brookings.edu/research/rethinking-political-islam/ ''Rethinking Political Islam'']. [[Brookings Institution]].
*[[Hoover Institution]]. (2017). [https://www.hoover.org/sites/default/files/issues/resources/caravan_1715.pdf Islamism in Maritime Southeast Asia]. ''The Caravan, 1715''.
* Tausch, Arno (2023). Political Islam and Religiously Motivated Political Extremism. SpringerBriefs in Political Science. Springer, Cham. {{doi|10.1007/978-3-031-24854-2_2}}, Published 16 February 2023, Print {{ISBN|978-3-031-24853-5}}

{{Islamism}}
{{Religion and politics}}

[[Category:Islamism]]
[[Category:Sharia]]