Editing Population transfer

{{Short description|Movement of a large group of people from one region to another}}
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{{Immigration sidebar}}
{{For|resettlement of UNHCR refugees|Third country resettlement}}
{{Other uses|Resettlement (disambiguation){{!}}Resettlement}}
{{More citations needed|date=May 2022}}
[[File:Bundesarchiv R 49 Bild-0131, Aussiedlung von Polen im Wartheland.jpg|thumb|250px|Beginning of ''[[Lebensraum]]'', the [[Expulsion of Poles by Nazi Germany|Nazi German expulsion of Poles]] from [[Reichsgau Wartheland|central Poland]], 1939]]

'''Population transfer''' or '''resettlement''' is a type of [[mass migration]] that is often imposed by a state policy or international authority. Such mass migrations are most frequently spurred on the basis of [[ethnicity]] or religion, but they also occur due to [[Development-induced displacement|economic development]]. Banishment or [[exile]] is a similar process, but is forcibly applied to individuals and groups. Population transfer differs more than simply technically from individually motivated [[human migration|migration]], but at times of [[list of wars|war]], the act of fleeing from danger or [[famine]] often blurs the differences.

Often the affected population is [[Forced displacement|transferred by force]] to a distant region, perhaps not suited to their way of life, causing them substantial harm. In addition, the process implies the loss of [[Real property|immovable property]] and substantial amounts of movable property when rushed. This transfer may be motivated by the more powerful party's desire to make other uses of the land in question or, less often, by security or disastrous environmental or economic conditions that require relocation.{{citation needed|date=October 2023}}

The first known population transfers date back to the [[Middle Assyrian Empire]] in the [[13th century BC|13th century BCE]], with forced resettlement being [[resettlement policy of the Neo-Assyrian Empire|particularly prevalent during the Neo-Assyrian Empire]]. The single largest population transfer in history was the [[Partition of India]] in 1947 that involved up to 12 million people in [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab Province]] with a total of up to 20 million people across [[British Raj|British India]],<ref name="Zamindar2013">{{cite book |chapter=India–Pakistan Partition 1947 and forced migration |author=Vazira Fazila-Yacoobali Zamindar |title=The Encyclopedia of Global Human Migration |chapter-url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781444351071.wbeghm285 |date=4 February 2013 |doi=10.1002/9781444351071.wbeghm285 |isbn=9781444334890 |access-date=16 January 2021 |archive-date=22 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122014723/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781444351071.wbeghm285 |quote=Some 12 million people were displaced in the divided province of Punjab alone, and up to 20 million in the subcontinent as a whole. |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Springer Science & Business Media">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tGiSBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA6 |title=Population Redistribution and Development in South Asia |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |year=2012 |isbn=978-9400953093 |page=6 |access-date=7 September 2017}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite web |title=Rupture in South Asia |url=http://www.unhcr.org/3ebf9bab0.pdf |publisher=United Nations High Commission for Refugees |access-date=16 January 2021 |archive-date=11 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160311071256/http://www.unhcr.org/3ebf9bab0.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Dr Crispin Bates">{{cite web |title=The Hidden Story of Partition and its Legacies |author=Dr Crispin Bates |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/modern/partition1947_01.shtml |website=BBC |date=3 March 2011 |access-date=16 January 2021 |archive-date=1 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210101152834/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/modern/partition1947_01.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> with the second largest being the [[flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)|flight and expulsion of Germans after World War II]], which involved more than 12 million people.

Before the forcible deportation of Ukrainians (including [[Child abductions in the Russo-Ukrainian War|thousands of children]]) to Russia during the [[Russian invasion of Ukraine]],<ref name="BBCUkraine">{{Cite news |date=2023-03-16 |title=Deportation of Ukrainian children to Russia is war crime - UN |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-64985009 |access-date=2023-03-17}}</ref><ref name= "EuronewsUkraine" /> the last major population transfer in Europe was the deportation of 800,000 ethnic [[Albanians]] during the [[Kosovo War]] in 1999.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://icty.org/x/cases/djordjevic/cis/en/cis_djordjevic_en.pdf |title= CASE INFORMATION SHEET: (IT-05-87/1) VLASTIMIR ĐORĐEVIĆ |access-date=2013-12-22 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131204094755/http://www.icty.org/x/cases/djordjevic/cis/en/cis_djordjevic_en.pdf |archive-date=2013-12-04 }}</ref> Moreover, some of the largest population transfers in Europe have been attributed to the [[special settlements in the Soviet Union|ethnic policies of the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin]].

Population transfers can also be imposed to further [[development-induced displacement|economic development]], for instance China relocated 1.3 million residents in order to  construct  the [[Three Gorges Dam]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wee |first=Sui-Lee |date=August 22, 2012 |title=Thousands being moved from China's Three Gorges - again |website=[[Reuters]] |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/business/environment/thousands-being-moved-from-chinas-three-gorges-again-idUSBRE87L0ZX/ }}</ref>

==Historical background==

The earliest known examples of population transfers took place in the context of war and empire. As part of [[Sennacherib]]'s campaign [[Assyrian siege of Jerusalem|against King Hezekiah of Jerusalem]] (701 BCE) "200,150 people great and small, male and female" were transferred to other lands in the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]]. Similar population transfers occurred under the [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid]] and [[Byzantine Empire]]s. Population transfers are considered incompatible with the values of post-Enlightenment European societies, but this was usually limited to the home territory of the colonial power itself and population transfers continued in European colonies during the 20th century.<ref name=Michigan>{{cite web |title=Population Transfers in Mediterranean History: Ottoman Empire in the Fourteenth - Seventeenth Centuries |website=University of Michigan |url=http://www-personal.umich.edu/~gocek/Work/ja/Gocek.Muge.ja.population.transfers.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www-personal.umich.edu/~gocek/Work/ja/Gocek.Muge.ja.population.transfers.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref>

==Specific types of population transfer==

===Population exchange===
Population exchange is the transfer of two populations in opposite directions at about the same time. In theory at least, the exchange is non-forcible, but the reality of the effects of these exchanges has always been unequal, and at least one half of the so-called "exchange" has usually been forced by the stronger or richer participant. Such exchanges have taken place several times in the 20th century:
* The [[Partition of India#Population exchanges|partition of India and Pakistan]]
* The mass expulsion of Anatolian Greeks and Balkan Turks from Turkey and Greece, respectively, during their so-called [[Population exchange between Greece and Turkey|Greek-Turkish population exchange]]. It involved approximately 1.3 million Anatolian Christians (majority Greek) and 354,000 Balkan Muslims (majority Turkish), most of whom were forcibly made refugees and ''de jure'' [[denaturalization|denaturalized]] from their homelands.
* The 1940 peaceful [[population exchange between Bulgaria and Romania]]
* The Cyprus population exchange following the [[Turkish invasion of Cyprus]] in 1974 that led to displacement of 140,000 Greeks from the north and around 60,000 Turks that have relocated from the south to the north.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://minorityrights.org/country/cyprus/#:~:text=A%20%E2%80%98temporary%E2%80%99%20population%20exchange%20agreed%20in%201975%20displaced%20some%20140%2C000%20Greek%20Cypriots%20from%20the%20north%20and%20around%2060%2C000%20Turkish%20Cypriots%20from%20the%20south%2C%20leaving%20both%20parts%20of%20the%20island%20almost%20entirely%20%E2%80%98ethnically%20cleansed%E2%80%99.%20Large%20numbers%20of%20mainland%20Turks%20settled%20in%20the%20occupied%20north. |title=Cyprus |website=Minority Rights Group International}}</ref>

=== Ethnic dilution ===
{{further|Forced assimilation}}
Ethnic dilution is the practice of enacting immigration policies to relocate parts of an ethnically and/or culturally dominant population into a region populated by an ethnic minority or otherwise culturally different or non-mainstream group to dilute and eventually to transform the native ethnic population into the mainstream culture over time.

== Changes in international law==
[[File:Travelling Light 76 F.jpg|thumb|Forced removal under [[apartheid]], Mogopa, [[Western Transvaal]], [[South Africa]], February 1984.]]
According to the political scientist [[Norman Finkelstein]], population transfer was considered as an acceptable solution to the problems of ethnic conflict until around [[World War II]] and even for a time afterward. Transfer was considered a drastic but "often necessary" means to end an ethnic conflict or ethnic [[civil war]].<ref>[[Norman Finkelstein|Finkelstein, Norman]] ''Image and Reality of the Israel-Palestine Conflict, 2nd ed.'' (Verso, 2003) p.xiv – ''also'' [http://www.normanfinkelstein.com/article.php?pg=4&ar=10 ''An Introduction to the Israel-Palestine Conflict''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080301041755/http://www.normanfinkelstein.com/article.php?pg=4&ar=10 |date=2008-03-01 }}</ref> The feasibility of population transfer was hugely increased by the creation of [[railroad]] networks from the mid-19th century. [[George Orwell]], in his 1946 essay "[[Politics and the English Language]]" (written during the [[World War II evacuation and expulsion]]s in Europe), observed:

:"In our time, political speech and writing are largely the defence of the indefensible. Things... can indeed be defended, but only by arguments which are too brutal for most people to face, and which do not square with the professed aims of political parties. Thus political language has to consist largely of euphemism, question-begging and sheer cloudy vagueness.... Millions of peasants are robbed of their farms and sent trudging along the roads with no more than they can carry: this is called ''transfer of population'' or ''rectification of frontiers''."

The view of international law on population transfer underwent considerable evolution during the 20th century. Prior to [[World War II]], many major population transfers were the result of bilateral treaties and had the support of international bodies such as the [[League of Nations]]. The [[expulsion of Germans after World War II]] from Central and Eastern Europe after World War II was sanctioned by the Allies in Article 13 of the Potsdam communiqué, but research has shown that both the British and the American delegations at Potsdam strongly objected to the size of the population transfer that had already taken place and was accelerating in the summer of 1945. The principal drafter of the provision, [[Geoffrey Harrison]], explained that the article was intended not to approve the expulsions but to find a way to transfer the competence to the Control Council in Berlin to regulate the flow.<ref>[[Alfred de Zayas]], ''Nemesis at Potsdam'', Routledge 1979, Appendix pp. 232–234, and ''A Terrible Revenge,'' Macmillan 2006,  pp.86–87</ref>
The tide started to turn when the Charter of the [[Nuremberg Trials]] of German Nazi leaders declared forced deportation of civilian populations to be both a war crime and a crime against humanity.<ref>Alfred de Zayas, ''Forced Population Transfer'', in: ''Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law,'' online 2009, with reference to Articles 6b and 6c of the Nuremberg indictment and the relevant parts of the judgment concerning the forced transfer of Poles and Frenchmen by the Nazis</ref> That opinion was progressively adopted and extended through the remainder of the century. Underlying the change was the trend to assign rights to individuals, thereby limiting the rights of states to make agreements that adversely affect them.

There is now little debate about the general legal status of involuntary population transfers: "Where population transfers used to be accepted as a means to settle ethnic conflict, today, forced population transfers are considered violations of international law."<ref>''Denver Journal of International Law and Policy'', Spring 2001, p 116.</ref> No legal distinction is made between one-way and two-way transfers since the rights of each individual are regarded as independent of the experience of others.

[[Wikisource:Fourth Geneva Convention#Article 49|Article 49]] of the [[Fourth Geneva Convention]] (adopted in 1949 and now part of [[customary international law]]) prohibits mass movement of [[protected persons]] out of or into territory under [[belligerent]] [[military occupation]]:<ref>Convention (IV) relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War. Geneva, 12 August 1949.[http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/COM/380-600056?OpenDocument Commentary on Part III : Status and treatment of protected persons #Section III : Occupied territories Art. 49] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060505225836/http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/COM/380-600056?OpenDocument |date=2006-05-05 }} by the [[International Committee of the Red Cross|ICRC]]</ref>
{{Blockquote|Individual or mass forcible transfers, as well as deportations of protected persons from occupied territory to the territory of the Occupying Power or to that of any other country, occupied or not, are prohibited, regardless of their motive.... The Occupying Power shall not deport or transfer parts of its own civilian population into the territory it occupies.}}

An interim report of the United Nations Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities (1993) says:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unhchr.ch/huridocda/huridoca.nsf/0/683f547c28ac785880256766004ecdef?OpenDocument|title=unhchr.ch|website=www.unhchr.ch|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051204095935/http://www.unhchr.ch/Huridocda/Huridoca.nsf/0/683f547c28ac785880256766004ecdef?Opendocument|archive-date=2005-12-04}}</ref>
{{Blockquote|Historical cases reflect a now-foregone belief that population transfer may serve as an option for resolving various types of conflict, within a country or between countries. The agreement of recognized States may provide one criterion for the authorization of the final terms of conflict resolution. However, the cardinal principle of "voluntariness" is seldom satisfied, regardless of the objective of the transfer. For the transfer to comply with human rights standards as developed, prospective transferees must have an option to remain in their homes if they prefer.}}
The same report warned of the difficulty of ensuring true voluntariness:
<blockquote>"some historical transfers did not call for forced or compulsory transfers, but included options for the affected populations. Nonetheless, the conditions attending the relevant treaties created strong moral, psychological and economic pressures to move."</blockquote>

The final report of the Sub-Commission (1997)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unhchr.ch/huridocda/huridoca.nsf/(Symbol)/E.CN.4.Sub.2.1997.23.En?OpenDocument|title=unhchr.ch|website=www.unhchr.ch|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629104332/http://www.unhchr.ch/huridocda/huridoca.nsf/(Symbol)/E.CN.4.Sub.2.1997.23.En?OpenDocument|archive-date=2011-06-29}}</ref> invoked numerous legal conventions and treaties to support the position that population transfers contravene international law unless they have the consent of both the moved population and the host population. Moreover, that consent must be given free of direct or indirect negative pressure.

"Deportation or forcible transfer of population" is defined as a [[crime against humanity]] by the [[Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court]] (Article 7).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.preventgenocide.org/law/icc/statute/part-a.htm|title=Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (Articles 1 to 33)- Prevent Genocide International|first=Jim|last=Fussell|website=www.preventgenocide.org|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150513134414/http://www.preventgenocide.org/law/icc/statute/part-a.htm|archive-date=2015-05-13}}</ref> The [[International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia]] has indicted and sometimes convicted a number of politicians and military commanders indicted for forced deportations in that region.

[[Ethnic cleansing]] encompasses "deportation or forcible transfer of population" and the force involved may involve other crimes, including crimes against humanity. [[Nationalism|Nationalist]] agitation can harden public support, one way or the other, for or against population transfer as a solution to current or possible future ethnic conflict, and attitudes can be cultivated by supporters of either plan of action with its supportive [[propaganda]] used as a typical political tool by which their goals can be achieved.

==In Europe==
===France===
Two famous transfers connected with the [[history of France]] are the banning of the religion of the Jews in 1308 and that of the [[Huguenot]]s, French [[Protestants]] by the [[Edict of Fontainebleau]] in 1685. Religious warfare over the Protestants led to many seeking refuge in the Low Countries, England and Switzerland.<ref name="huguenot_switzerland">{{cite web |title=The Huguenot Refuge in Switzerland |url=https://museeprotestant.org/en/notice/le-refuge-huguenot-en-suisse/ |website=Protestant Museum website |access-date=13 December 2022}}</ref> In the early 18th century, some Huguenots emigrated to [[Thirteen Colonies|colonial America]]. In both cases, the population was not forced out but rather their religion was declared illegal and so many left the country.

According to Ivan Sertima, [[Louis XV of France|Louis XV]] ordered all blacks to be deported from France but was unsuccessful. At the time, they were mostly [[free people of color]] from the Caribbean and Louisiana colonies, usually descendants of French colonial men and African women. Some fathers sent their mixed-race sons to France to be educated or gave them property to be settled there. Others entered the military, as did [[Thomas-Alexandre Dumas]], the father of [[Alexandre Dumas]].<ref name="Sertima1986">{{cite book |last=Sertima |first=Ivan Van |title=African Presence in Early Europe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JMY1p0t_bHoC&pg=PA199 |access-date=10 June 2011 |date=1986-01-01 |publisher=Transaction Books |isbn=978-0-88738-664-0 |page=199 |quote=Louis XV, in an effort to stop the mass influx of blacks into Paris, ordered all blacks deported from France. This did not, in fact, take place.}}</ref>

Some Algerians were also forcefully removed from their native land by France in the late 19th century, and moved to the Pacific, most notably to New Caledonia.<ref>{{Citation |title=🇩🇿 Exile In New Caledonia {{!}} Al Jazeera World | date=17 September 2015 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1qsr-FjZhEM |access-date=2024-01-26 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Douah |first1=Chahrazade |last2=Godin |first2=Mélissa |date=2022-05-02 |title=The Algerians of New Caledonia |url=https://newlinesmag.com/essays/the-algerians-of-new-caledonia/ |access-date=2024-01-26 |website=New Lines Magazine |language=en}}</ref>

===Ireland===
[[File:PRENDERGAST(1870) p 438 Map of Connaught, as laid out to receive the Inhabitants from the several Counties ofthe other Provinces, A.D. 1654.jpg|thumb|Map of land west of the [[River Shannon]] allocated to the native Irish after expulsion from their lands by the [[Act for the Settlement of Ireland 1652]]. Note that all offshore islands were "cleared of Irish" and a belt one mile wide around the coastline was reserved for English settlers.]]
After the [[Cromwellian conquest of Ireland#Guerrilla warfare, famine and plague|Cromwellian conquest of Ireland]] and [[Act for the Settlement of Ireland 1652|Act of Settlement]] in 1652, most indigenous [[Irish Catholic]] land holders had their lands confiscated and were banned from living in planted towns. An unknown number, possibly as high as 100,000 [[Irish people|Irish]] were removed to the colonies in the West Indies and North America as [[indentured servants]].<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/northernireland/ashorthistory/archive/intro99.shtml ''The Curse of Cromwell''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120302224034/http://www.bbc.co.uk/northernireland/ashorthistory/archive/intro99.shtml |date=2012-03-02 }}, ''A Short History of Northern Ireland'', BBC</ref>

In addition, the Crown supported a series of population transfers into Ireland to enlarge the loyal Protestant population of Ireland. Known as [[Plantations of Ireland|the plantations]], they had migrants come chiefly from Scotland and the northern border counties of England. In the late eighteenth century, the Scots-Irish constituted the largest group of immigrants from the British Isles to enter the [[Thirteen Colonies]] before the [[American Revolutionary War]].<ref>[[David Hackett Fischer]], ''[[Albion's Seed: Four British Folkways in America]]''</ref>

===Scotland===
The [[enclosure]]s that depopulated rural England in the [[British Agricultural Revolution]] started during the [[Middle Ages]]. Similar developments in [[Scotland]] have lately been called the [[Lowland Clearances]].

The [[Highland Clearances]] were forced displacements of the populations of the [[Scottish Highlands]] and [[Scottish Islands]] in the 18th century. They led to mass emigration to the coast, the [[Scottish Lowlands]] and abroad, including to the Thirteen Colonies, Canada and the Caribbean.

===Central Europe===
{{Further|World War II evacuation and expulsion}}
{{Main|Expulsion of Poles by Nazi Germany|Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)}}
[[File:Vertreibung.jpg|thumb|Germans being deported from the [[Sudetenland]] in the aftermath of World War II]]
Historically, expulsions of [[Jews]] and of [[Romani people]] reflect the power of state control that has been applied as a tool, in the form of expulsion edicts, laws, mandates etc., against them for centuries.

After the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]] divided [[Second Polish Republic|Poland]] during [[World War II]], Germans deported [[Polish people|Poles]] and [[Jews]] from [[Polish territories annexed by Nazi Germany]], and the [[Soviet Union]] deported Poles from areas of Eastern Poland, [[Kresy]] to Siberia and Kazakhstan. From 1940, [[Adolf Hitler]] tried to get Germans to resettle from the areas in which they were the minority (the Baltics, South-Eastern and Eastern Europe) to the [[Reichsgau Wartheland|Warthegau]], the region around [[Poznań]], German ''Posen''. He expelled the Poles and Jews who formed there the majority of the population. Before the war, the [[Germans]] were 16% of the population in the area.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/displacementofpo031323mbp|title=The Displacement Of Population In Europe|first=Eugene M.|last=Kulischer|date=28 October 2017|publisher=The International labour Office|via=Internet Archive}}</ref>

The [[Nazis]] initially tried to press Jews to emigrate and in Austria succeeded in driving out most of the Jewish population. However, increasing foreign resistance brought the plan to a virtual halt. Later on, Jews were transferred to [[ghetto]]es and eventually to [[death camp]]s. Use of [[forced labor in Germany during World War II|forced labor in Nazi Germany during World War II]] occurred on a large scale. Jews who had signed over properties in Germany and Austria during Nazism, although coerced to do so, found it nearly impossible to be reimbursed after World War II, partly because of the ability of governments to make the "personal decision to leave" argument.

The Germans abducted about 12 million people from almost twenty European countries; about two thirds of whom came from [[Eastern Europe]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,2144,1757323,00.html|title=Final Compensation Pending for Former Nazi Forced Laborers - DW - 27.10.2005|website=Deutsche Welle|access-date=4 May 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090813200714/http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,2144,1757323,00.html|archive-date=13 August 2009}}</ref>
After World War II, when the [[Curzon line]], which had been proposed in 1919 by the Western Allies as Poland's eastern border, was implemented, members of all ethnic groups were transferred to their respective new territories ([[Polish people|Poles]] to Poland, [[Ukrainians]] to Soviet Ukraine). The same applied to the [[Former eastern territories of Germany|formerly-German territories]] east of the [[Oder-Neisse line]], where German citizens were transferred to Germany. [[Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–50)|Germans were expelled from areas annexed]] by the [[Soviet Union]] and [[Poland]] as well as territories of [[Czechoslovakia]], [[Hungary]], [[Romania]] and [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/495765/refugee|title=refugee|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081007164845/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/495765/refugee|archive-date=2008-10-07}}</ref> From 1944 until 1948, between 13.5 and 16.5 million Germans were expelled, [[East Prussia#Evacuation of East Prussia|evacuated]] or fled from Central and Eastern Europe. The Statistisches Bundesamt (federal statistics office) estimates the loss of life at 2.1 million <ref>Statistisches Bundesamt, ''Die Deutschen Vertreibungsverluste'', Wiesbaden 1958, see also Gerhard Reichling "Die deutschen Vertriebenen in Zahlen", vol. 1–2, Bonn 1986/89.</ref>

Poland and [[Soviet Ukraine]] conducted population exchanges. Poles residing east of the new Poland-Soviet border were deported to Poland (2,100,000 persons), and [[Ukrainians]] that resided west of the New border were deported to Soviet Ukraine. [[Population transfer in the Soviet Union|Population transfer to Soviet Ukraine occurred]] from September 1944 to May 1946 (450,000 persons). Some Ukrainians (200,000 persons) left southeast Poland more or less voluntarily (between 1944 and 1945).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.migrationeducation.org/13.0.html|title=Forced migration in the 20th century|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151021014423/http://www.migrationeducation.org/13.0.html|archive-date=2015-10-21}}</ref> The second event occurred in 1947 under [[Operation Vistula]].<ref>[http://ec.europa.eu/education/policies/lang/languages/langmin/euromosaic/pol6_en.html The Euromosaic study: Ukrainian in Poland] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080222170612/http://ec.europa.eu/education/policies/lang/languages/langmin/euromosaic/pol6_en.html |date=2008-02-22}}. [[European Commission]], October 2006.</ref>

Nearly 20 million people in [[Europe]] fled their homes or were expelled, transferred or exchanged during the process of sorting out ethnic groups between 1944 and 1951.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Postwar Population Transfers in Europe: A Survey|first=Joseph B.|last=Schechtman|date=28 October 2017|journal=The Review of Politics|volume=15|issue=2|pages=151–178|doi=10.1017/S0034670500008081|jstor = 1405220|s2cid=144307581 }}</ref>

===Spain===

In 1492 the Jewish population of  Spain was [[Expulsion of Jews from Spain|expelled]] through the [[Alhambra Decree]]. Some of the Jews went to North Africa; others east into Poland, France and Italy, and other Mediterranean countries.

In 1609, was the [[Expulsion of the Moriscos]], the final transfer of 300,000 Muslims out of Spain, after more than a century of Catholic trials, segregation, and religious restrictions. Most of the Spanish Muslims went to North Africa and to areas of [[Ottoman Empire]] control.<ref>[http://elpais.com/diario/2009/01/02/opinion/1230850811_850215.html José Manuel Fajardo, Opinion: "Moriscos: el mayor exilio español"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120718030000/http://elpais.com/diario/2009/01/02/opinion/1230850811_850215.html|date=2012-07-18}}, ''[[El Païs]]'', 2 Ene (January) 2009, in Spanish, accessed 8 December 2012</ref>

===Southeastern Europe===
In September 1940, with the return of [[Southern Dobruja]] by [[Romania]] to [[Bulgaria]] under the [[Treaty of Craiova]], a [[Population exchange between Bulgaria and Romania|population exchange]] was carried out. 103,711 Romanians, [[Aromanians]] and [[Megleno-Romanians]] were compelled to move north of the border, while 62,278 Bulgarians living in Northern [[Dobruja]] were forced to move into Bulgaria.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8taGDAAAQBAJ|title=Hitler's forgotten ally: Ion Antonescu and his regime, Romania 1940-1944|first=Dennis|last=Deletant|author-link=Dennis Deletant|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|pages=1–376|year=2006|isbn=9781403993410}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=http://ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=257706|title=Aplicarea tratatului româno-bulgar de la Craiova (1940)|first=Maria|last=Costea|journal=Anuarul Institutului de Cercetări Socio-Umane "Gheorghe Șincai" al Academiei Române|issue=12|pages=267–275|year=2009|language=ro}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.memoria-ethnologica.ro/wp-content/uploads/me_vol_52_53/pdf/me_52_53_p_012_029_emil_tircomnicu.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.memoria-ethnologica.ro/wp-content/uploads/me_vol_52_53/pdf/me_52_53_p_012_029_emil_tircomnicu.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|title=Historical aspects regarding the Megleno-Romanian groups in Greece, the FY Republic of Macedonia, Turkey and Romania|first=Emil|last=Țîrcomnicu|journal=Memoria Ethnologica|volume=14|issue=52–53|pages=12–29|year=2014}}</ref>

Around 360,000 [[Bulgarian Turks]] fled Bulgaria during the [[Revival Process]].<ref>[[Tomasz Kamusella]]. 2018. ''Ethnic Cleansing During the Cold War: The Forgotten 1989 Expulsion of Turks from Communist Bulgaria'' (Ser: Routledge Studies in Modern European History). London: Routledge, 328pp. {{ISBN|9781138480520}}</ref>

During the [[Yugoslav wars]] in the 1990s, the breakup of [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] caused large population transfers, mostly involuntary. As it was a conflict fueled by [[ethnic nationalism]], people of minority ethnicities generally fled towards regions that their ethnicity was the majority.

The phenomenon of "[[ethnic cleansing]]" was first seen in [[Croatia]] but soon spread to [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia]]. Since the [[Bosniaks|Bosnian Muslims]] had no immediate refuge, they were arguably the hardest hit by the ethnic violence. United Nations tried to create ''safe areas'' for Muslim populations of eastern Bosnia but in the [[Srebrenica massacre]] and elsewhere, the peacekeeping troops failed to protect the ''safe areas'', resulting in the massacre of thousands of Muslims.

The [[Dayton Accords]] ended the war in [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], fixing the borders between the two warring parties roughly to those established by the autumn of 1995. One immediate result of the population transfer after the peace deal was a sharp decline in ethnic violence in the region.

A massive and systematic deportation of [[Serbia]]'s [[Albanians]] took place during the [[Kosovo War]] of 1999, with around 800,000 Albanians (out of a population of about 1.5 million) forced to flee [[Kosovo]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/kosovo/|title=Europe :: Kosovo — The World Factbook - Central Intelligence Agency|website=www.cia.gov|access-date=2019-07-06}}</ref> Albanians became the majority in Kosovo at the wars end, around 200,000 Serbs and Roma fled Kosovo. When Kosovo proclaimed independence in 2008, the bulk of its population was Albanian.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Serbia|title=Serbia {{!}} History, Geography, & People|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=2019-07-06}}</ref>

A number of commanders and politicians, notably Serbia and Yugoslav President [[Slobodan Milošević]], were put on trial by the UN's [[International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia]] for a variety of [[war crime]]s, including deportations and genocide.

===Greece and Turkey===

{{Main|Population exchange between Greece and Turkey}}
[[File:Smyrna-massacre-refugees-1922.jpg|thumb|Greek refugees from [[Smyrna]], 1922]]
Following the [[Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922)|Greco-Turkish War]] of 1919–1922, the League of Nations defined those to be mutually expelled as the "Muslim inhabitants of Greece" to Turkey and moving "the Christian Orthodox inhabitants of Turkey" to Greece. The plan met with fierce opposition in both countries and was condemned vigorously by a large number of countries. Undeterred, [[Fridtjof Nansen]] worked with both Greece and Turkey to gain their acceptance of the proposed population exchange. About 1.5 million Christians and half a million Muslims were moved from one side of the international border to the other.

When the exchange was to take effect (1 May 1923), most of the prewar Orthodox Greek population of Aegean Turkey had already fled due to persecution and the [[Greek genocide|Greek Genocide]], and so only the Orthodox Christians of central Anatolia (both [[Cappadocian Greeks|Greek]] and [[Karamanlides|Turkish-speaking]]), and the [[Pontic Greeks]] were involved, a total of roughly 189,916.<ref>{{cite book |author=Matthew J. Gibney, Randall Hansen. |title=Immigration and asylum: from 1900 to the present, Volume 3 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2005 |page=[https://archive.org/details/immigrationasylu00matt/page/377 377] |isbn=978-1-57607-796-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/immigrationasylu00matt/page/377 }}</ref> The total number of [[Islam in Greece|Muslims]] involved was 354,647.<ref>{{cite book |author=Renée Hirschon. |title=Crossing the Aegean: an appraisal of the 1923 compulsory population exchange between Greece and Turkey |url=https://archive.org/details/crossingaegeanap00hirs |url-access=limited |publisher=Berghahn Books |year=2003 |page=[https://archive.org/details/crossingaegeanap00hirs/page/n53 85] |isbn=978-1-57181-562-0 }}</ref>

The population transfer prevented further attacks on minorities in the respective states, and Nansen was awarded a [[Nobel Peace Prize]]. As a result of the transfers, the Muslim minority in Greece and the Greek minority in Turkey were much reduced. [[Cyprus]] and the [[Dodecanese]] were not included in the Greco-Turkish population transfer of 1923 because they were under direct British and Italian control respectively. For the fate of [[Turkish invasion of Cyprus|Cyprus]], see below. The Dodecanese became part of Greece in 1947.

===Italy===
In 1939, Hitler and [[Mussolini]] agreed to give the German-speaking population of South Tyrol a choice (the [[South Tyrol Option Agreement]]): they could emigrate to neighbouring [[Nazi Germany|Germany]] (including the recently-[[Anschluss|annexed]] [[Austria]]) or stay in Italy and accept to be assimilated. Because of the outbreak of World War II, the agreement was only partially consummated.

===Cyprus===
{{See also|Civilian casualties and displacements during the Cyprus conflict}}
After the [[Turkish invasion of Cyprus]] and subsequent [[Cyprus dispute#The divided island 1974–1997|division of the island]], there was an agreement between the [[Greek Cypriot|Greek]] representative on one side and the [[Turkish Cypriot]] representative on the other side under the auspices of the [[United Nations]] on August 2, 1975. The Government of the Republic of Cyprus would lift any restrictions in the voluntary movement of Turkish Cypriots to the Turkish-occupied areas of the island, and in exchange, the Turkish Cypriot side would allow all Greek Cypriots who remained in the occupied areas to stay there and to be given every help to live a normal life.<ref>[https://www.un.org/Docs/journal/asp/ws.asp?m=s/11789 United Nations, Text of the Press Communique on the Cyprus Talks Issued in Vienna on 2 August 1975] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102174825/http://www.un.org/Docs/journal/asp/ws.asp?m=s%2F11789 |date=2 November 2012 }} United Nations, Text of the Press Communique on the Cyprus Talks Issued in Vienna on 2 August 1975.</ref>

Around 150,000 people (amounting to more than one-quarter of the total population of Cyprus, and to one-third of its [[Greek Cypriots|Greek Cypriot population]]) were displaced from the northern part of the island, where Greek Cypriots had constituted 80% of the population. Over the course of the next year, roughly 60,000 [[Turkish Cypriots]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tocci |first=Nathalie |title=The EU and Conflict Resolution: Promoting Peace in the Backyard |date=2007 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1134123384 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=aD-D5KusCkMC&pg=PA32 32] |author-link=Nathalie Tocci}}</ref> amounting to half the Turkish Cypriot population,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pericleous |first=Chrysostomos |title=Cyprus Referendum: A Divided Island and the Challenge of the Annan Plan |date=2009 |publisher=I.B. Tauris |isbn=978-0857711939 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PHQAAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA201 201]}}</ref> were displaced from the south to the north.<ref>{{Cite news |title=1974: Turkey Invades Cyprus |work=[[BBC]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/july/20/newsid_3866000/3866521.stm |access-date=2 October 2010 |archive-date=26 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191026183806/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/july/20/newsid_3866000/3866521.stm |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Soviet Union===
{{Main|Population transfer in the Soviet Union}}
Shortly before, during and immediately after [[World War II]], [[Joseph Stalin]] conducted a series of deportations on a huge scale, which profoundly affected the ethnic map of the [[Soviet Union]]. Over 1.5 million people were deported to [[Siberia]] and the [[Central Asian]] republics. Separatism, resistance to Soviet rule and collaboration with the [[invasion|invading]] Germans were cited as the main official reasons for the deportations. After World War II, the population of [[East Prussia]] was replaced by the Soviet one, mainly by [[Russians]]. Many Tartari Muslims were transferred to Northern Crimea, now Ukraine, while Southern Crimea and Yalta were populated with Russians.

At the conclusion of the [[Yalta Conference]], the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] made numerous promises, one of them was their promise to return all [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] citizens who found themselves in the Allied zone to the Soviet Union ([[Operation Keelhaul]]). That policy immediately affected the [[Nazi crimes against Soviet POWs|Soviet prisoners of war]] who were liberated by the Allies, and it was extended to all [[Eastern Europe]]an [[refugees]]. Outlining the plan to force refugees to return to the [[Soviet Union]], the codicil was kept secret from the American and British people for over 50 years.<ref>Jacob Hornberger ''Repatriation — The Dark Side of World War II''. The Future of Freedom Foundation, 1995. {{cite web |url=http://www.fff.org/freedom/0495a.asp |title=Repatriation -- the Dark Side of World War II, Part 3 |access-date=2014-01-08 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117092222/http://www.fff.org/freedom/0495a.asp |archive-date=2012-01-17 }}</ref>

===Ukraine===
{{expand section|date=April 2022}}
{{See also|Child abductions in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine}}
Hundreds of thousands of Ukrainians have reportedly been forcibly deported to Russia during the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]].<ref name="EuronewsUkraine">{{cite web |url=https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2022/03/30/more-than-400-000-ukrainians-forcibly-displaced-to-russia-claims-ukraine-s-ombudswoman |title=More than 400,000 Ukrainians 'forcibly displaced to Russia', claims Ukraine's ombudswoman |date=March 30, 2022 |work=Euronews |first=Shona |last=Murray}}</ref>  Because of Russia's deporting of thousands of Ukrainian children to Russia, the international criminal court issued an arrest warrant for [[Vladimir Putin]] the president of Russia and [[Maria Lvova-Belova]] Russia's commissioner for children's rights.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Leff |first=Alex |last2=Kelemen |first2=Michele |last3=Maynes |first3=Charles |date=2023-03-17 |title=The International Criminal Court issues an arrest warrant for Putin |url=https://www.npr.org/2023/03/17/1164267436/international-criminal-court-arrest-warrant-putin-ukraine-alleged-war-crimes |access-date=2025-03-28 |publisher=[[NPR]] |language=en}}</ref> As of 21 November 2023 there was 6,338,100 Ukrainian refugees fleeing the Russian invasion of Ukraine. Most (5,946,000) have gone to European countries but a minority (392,100) went to countries outside of Europe<ref>{{Cite web |title=Situation Ukraine Refugee Situation |url=https://data.unhcr.org/en/situations/ukraine |access-date=2023-11-23 |website=data.unhcr.org}}</ref>

==In the Americas==
===Inca Empire===

{{Main|Mitma}}

The [[Inca Empire]] dispersed conquered ethnic groups throughout the empire to break down traditional community ties and force the heterogeneous population to adopt the [[Quechua language]] and culture. Never fully successful in the [[pre-Columbian]] era, the [[totalitarian]]{{fact|date=January 2025}} policies had their greatest success when they were adopted, from the 16th century, to create a pan-Andean identity defined against [[Spain|Spanish]] rule. Much of the current knowledge of Inca population transfers comes from their description by the Spanish chroniclers [[Pedro Cieza de León]] and [[Bernabé Cobo]].

The Spanish conquerors continued these Inca policies settling for example thousands of indigenous [[yanakuna]] from what is today Ecuador, Bolivia and Peru in the [[conquest of Chile|newly conquered central Chile]].<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Indígenas andinos en Chile colonial: Inmigración, inserción espacial, integración económica y movilidad social (Santiago, siglos XVI-XVII) |journal=Revista de Indias |last=Valenzuela Márquez |first=Jaime |volume=LXX |issue=250 |pages=749–778 |year=2010 |language=Spanish |doi=10.3989/revindias.2010.024|doi-access=free }}</ref> In 1666 the Spanish resettled the [[Quilmes people]] from the vicinity of [[San Miguel de Tucumán]]  more than 1,000 km southeast in [[Quilmes]] next to [[Buenos Aires]].{{fact|date=January 2025}}

===Canada===
{{Main|Expulsion of the Acadians}}
During the [[French and Indian War]] (the North American theatre of the [[Seven Years' War]] between Great Britain and France), the British forcibly relocated approximately 8,000 [[Acadians]] from the [[Canada|Canadian]] [[The Maritimes|Maritime Provinces]], first to the [[Thirteen Colonies]] and then to France. Thousands died of drowning, starvation, or illness as a result of the deportation. Some of the Acadians who had been relocated to France then emigrated to [[Louisiana]], where their descendants became part of the French-American cultural group known as [[Cajuns]].

Beginning with the [[Indian Act]], but underlying federal and provincial policies towards Indigenous peoples throughout the 1800s and 1900s, the Canadian Government pursued a deliberate policy of forced relocation against hundreds of Indigenous communities. The [[Canadian Indian residential school system]] and the [[Indian reserve]] system (which forced Indigenous peoples off traditional territories and into small parcels of crown land in order to establish agricultural and industrial developments, and to begin the process of [[settler colonialism]]) are key to this history and have been seen by many scholars as evidence of the government's intent to "extinguish Aboriginal title through administrative and bureaucratic means".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Reserves |url=https://indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca/reserves/ |access-date=2023-11-20 |website=indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca}}</ref> The efforts to displace Indigenous peoples from their traditional territories were also carried out by more brutal means. The [[Pass system (Canadian history)|Pass system]], which controlled the supply of food and resources, movement in and out of reserve lands, and all other aspects of Indigenous peoples' lives, was implemented via the Indian Act in direct response to the 1885 [[North-West Rebellion]], in which Cree, Metis, and other Indigenous peoples resisted the seizure of land and rights by the government. The [[North-West Mounted Police]], precursor to the [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]], were likewise established as a direct response to Indigenous resistance against colonialism. Their purview was to carry out [[John A. Macdonald|John A. Macdonald's]] colonial and national policies, especially in [[Rupert's Land]], what would become the Prairie provinces. 

The [[High Arctic relocation]] took place during the Cold War in the 1950s, when 87 Inuit were moved by the Government of Canada to the High Arctic. The relocation has been a source of controversy, and is an understudied aspect of forced migration instigated by the Canadian federal government to assert its sovereignty in the [[Northern Canada#Sub-divisions|Far North]] against the Soviet Union. Relocated Inuit peoples were not given sufficient support and were not given a say in their relocation.

Numerous other [[indigenous peoples of Canada]] have been forced to relocate their communities to different reserve lands, including the [['Nak'waxda'xw]] in 1964.

====Japanese Canadian internment====
{{Main|Japanese Canadian internment}}
Japanese Canadian Internment refers to the detainment of Japanese Canadians following the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]] and the Canadian declaration of war on Japan during World War II. The forced relocation subjected Japanese Canadians to government-enforced curfews and interrogations and job and property losses. The internment of Japanese Canadians was ordered by Prime Minister [[Mackenzie King]], largely because of existing racism. However, evidence supplied by the [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]] and the [[Department of National Defence (Canada)|Department of National Defence]] show that the decision was unwarranted.

Until 1949, four years after World War II had ended, all persons of Japanese heritage were systematically removed from their homes and businesses and sent to internment camps. The Canadian government shut down all Japanese-language newspapers, took possession of businesses and fishing boats, and effectively sold them. To fund the internment itself, vehicles, houses, and personal belongings were also sold.

===United States===
====Independence====
During and after the [[American Revolutionary War]], many [[United Empire Loyalist|Loyalists]] were deprived of life, liberty or property or suffered lesser physical harm, sometimes under [[Act of Attainder#American usage|acts of attainder]] and sometimes by main force. [[Parker Wickham]] and other Loyalists developed a well-founded fear. As a result, many chose or were forced to leave their former homes in what became the United States, often going to [[Canada]], where the Crown promised them land in an effort at compensation and resettlement. Most were given land on the frontier in what became Upper Canada and had to create new towns. The communities were largely settled by people of the same ethnic ancestry and religious faith. In some cases, towns were started by men of particular military units and their families.

====Native American relocations====
{{Main|Indian removal}}
In the 19th century, the [[United States]] government removed an estimated number of 100,000<ref>{{cite web |url=https://moderndiplomacy.eu/2017/12/22/forced-population-transfers-mass-expulsions-migration-law-claw/ |title=Forced Population Transfers, Mass Expulsions, and Migration: The Law and its Claw |date=December 22, 2017 |first=Nafees |last=Ahmad |website=moderndiplomacy.eu}}</ref> [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] to federally-owned and -designated [[Indian reservation]]s. Native Americans were removed from the Eastern to the Western States. The most well-known removals were those of the 1830s from the Southeast, starting with the [[Choctaw]] people. Under the 1830 [[Indian Removal Act]], the Five Civilized Tribes were relocated from their place, east of the [[Mississippi River]], to the [[Indian Territory]] in the west. The process resulted in great social dislocation for all, numerous deaths, and the "[[Trail of Tears]]" for the [[Cherokee Nation (19th century)|Cherokee Nation]]. Resistance to Indian removal led to several violent conflicts, including the [[Second Seminole War]] in [[Florida]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2022}}

As part of the [[California Genocide]], in August 1863, all [[Maidu|Konkow Maidu]] were to be sent to the Bidwell Ranch in Chico and then be taken to the [[Round Valley Indian Tribes of the Round Valley Reservation|Round Valley Reservation]] at Covelo in Mendocino County. Any Indians remaining in the area were to be shot. Maidu were rounded up and marched under guard west out of the Sacramento Valley and through to the Coastal Range. 461 Native Americans started the trek, 277 finished.<ref>Dizard, Jesse A. (2016). "Nome Cult Trail". ARC-GIS storymap. technical assistance from Dexter Nelson and Cathie Benjamin. Department of Anthropology, California State University, Chico – via Geography and Planning Department at CSU Chico.</ref> They reached Round Valley on 18 September 1863.

The [[Long Walk of the Navajo]] refers to the 1864 relocation of the [[Navajo]] people by the US government in a forced walk from their land in what is now [[Arizona]] to eastern [[New Mexico]]. The [[Yavapai]] people were forcibly marched from [[Yavapai-Apache Nation|Camp Verde Reservation]] to [[San Carlos Apache Indian Reservation]], Arizona, on February 27, 1875, following the [[Yavapai War]]. The federal government restricted [[Plains Indians]] to reservations following several [[Indian Wars]] in which Indians and [[European Americans]] fought over lands and resources. Indian prisoners of war were held at [[Fort Marion]] and [[Fort Pickens]] in [[Florida]].

After the [[Yavapai Wars]] 375 [[Yavapai]] perished in [[Indian Removal]] deportations out of 1,400 remaining Yavapai.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mann|first=Nicholas |title=Sedona, Sacred Earth: A Guide to the Red Rock County|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rZkbfroP9P8C&pg=PT20|year=2005|publisher=Light Technology Publishing|isbn=978-1-62233-652-4|page=20}}</ref>

====General Order No. 11 (1863)====
{{Main|General Order No. 11 (1863)}}
General Order No. 11 is the title of a Union Army decree which was issued during the [[American Civil War]] on 25 August 1863, forcing the evacuation of rural areas in four counties in western Missouri. That decree was issued in response to an extensive [[insurgency]] and widespread [[guerrilla warfare]]. The Army cleared the area in an attempt to deprive the guerrillas of local support. Union General [[Thomas Ewing Jr.|Thomas Ewing]] issued the order, which affected all rural residents regardless of their loyalty. Those who could prove their loyalty to the Union were permitted to stay in the region but had to leave their farms and move to communities near military outposts. Those who could not do so had to vacate the area altogether.

In the process, Union forces caused considerable property destruction and a large number of deaths because of conflicts.

====Japanese American internment====
{{Main|Japanese American internment}}

In the wake of [[Imperial Japan]]'s [[attack on Pearl Harbor]], decades-long suspicions and [[Anti-Japanese sentiment in the United States|antagonisms towards ethnic Japanese]] mounted, causing the US government to order the military to forcibly relocate approximately 110,000 [[Japanese Americans]] along with Japanese nationals who were residing in the United States to newly constructed "War Relocation Camps," or internment camps, in 1942, where they were interned for the duration of the war. [[White Americans]] frequently bought their property at losses.

Japanese nationals and Japanese Americans who were residing on the [[West Coast of the United States]] were all interned. In [[Hawaii]], where more than 150,000 Japanese Americans composed nearly a third of that territory's population, officials only interned 1,200 to 1,800 Japanese Americans. In the late 20th century, the US government paid some compensation to the survivors of the internment camps.

==In Asia==
===Ottoman Empire===
{{Further|Population transfer in the Ottoman Empire|Balkan Wars}}
The Ottoman Empire colonized newly conquered territories by deportation (''sürgün'') and resettlement, often to populate empty lands and establish settlements in logistically useful places. The term ''sürgün'' is known to us from Ottoman documents and comes from the verb ''sürmek'' (to displace).<ref name=population>{{cite book |last1=Alam |first1=Gajanafar |title=Population and Society |date=15 September 2021 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0gVDEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 |page=13}}</ref> This type of resettlement primarily aimed to support daily governance of the Empire, but sometimes population transfers had ethnic or political concerns.<ref name=de>{{cite journal |doi=10.4000/ejts.4396|doi-access=free|title=Forced Population Movements in the Ottoman Empire and the Early Turkish Republic: An Attempt at Reassessment through Demographic Engineering |year=2013 |last1=Şeker |first1=Nesim |journal=European Journal of Turkish Studies |issue=16 }}</ref>

During [[Mehmet I]]'s reign [[Tatars|Tatar]] and [[Turkoman (ethnonym)|Turkmen]] subjects were moved to the Balkans to secure areas along the border with Christian Europe. Conquered Christians were moved to Anatolia and Thrace. These population transfers continued into the reigns of [[Murad II]] and [[Mehmet II]].<ref name=population/>

After [[Siege of Thessalonica (1422–1430)|Murad II's conquest of Salonika]], Muslims were involuntarily relocated to [[Salonika]], mostly from Anatolia and [[Yenice-i Vardar]].<ref name=population/>

[[Mehmed the Conqueror]] resettled not only Muslims, but Christians and Jews as well, in his efforts to repopulate the city of [[Constantinople]] after its [[fall of Constantinople|conquest in 1453]].<ref name=population/>

According to the deportation decree issued in newly conquered Cyprus on 24 September 1572, one family out of every ten in the provinces of Anatolia, Rum (Sivas), Karaman and Zülkadriye were to be sent to Cyprus. These deportees were craftsmen or peasants. In exchange for relocating they would be exempt from taxes for two years.<ref name=de/>

From [[Bayezid II]] (d. 1512), the empire had difficulty with the heterodox [[Qizilbash]] movement in eastern Anatolia. The forced relocation of the Qizilbash continued until at least the end of the 16th century. [[Selim I]] (d. 1520) ordered merchants, artisans, and scholars transported to Constantinople from [[Tabriz]] and [[Cairo]]. The state mandated Muslim immigration to [[Rhodes]] and [[Cyprus]] after their conquests in 1522 and 1571, respectively, and resettled [[Greek Cypriots]] onto [[Anatolia]]'s coast.

Knowledge among Western historians about the use of ''sürgün'' from the 17th through the 19th century is somewhat unreliable. It appears that the state did not use forced population transfers as much as during its expansionist period.<ref>[http://www.unm.edu/~phooper/thesis_condensed.pdf P. Hooper, Thesis] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081029102418/http://www.unm.edu/~phooper/thesis_condensed.pdf |date=2008-10-29 }}, University of New Mexico</ref>

After the exchanges in the [[Balkans]], the Great Powers and then the [[League of Nations]] used forced population transfer as a mechanism for homogeneity in the post-Ottoman [[Balkans]] to decrease conflict. The Norwegian diplomat [[Fridtjof Nansen]], working with the [[League of Nations]] as a [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|High Commissioner for Refugees]] in 1919, proposed the idea of a forced population transfer. That was modelled on the earlier Greek-Bulgarian mandatory population transfer of [[Greeks]] in Bulgaria to Greece and of [[Bulgarians]] in Greece to Bulgaria.

===Palestine===
{{See also|Nakba|1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight|Causes of the 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight|1949–1956 Palestinian expulsions|Naksa|Gaza Strip evacuations}}
The [[1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight]], also known as "the [[Nakba]]", was the ethnic cleansing of around 750,000 Palestinian Arabs during the [[1948 Palestine war]] from the part of [[Mandatory Palestine]] that became Israel. The bulk of the Palestinian refugees ended up in the [[Gaza Strip]] (under [[Egypt]]ian rule between 1949 and 1967) and the [[West Bank]] (under Jordanian rule between 1949 and 1967), [[Jordan]], [[Syria]] and [[Lebanon]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Ilan |last=Pappé |author-link=Ilan Pappé |date=2006 |title=The Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine |location=Oxford |publisher=Oneworld |page=}}</ref>{{pn|date=May 2024}}

During the war, the [[Haganah]] devised [[Plan Dalet]], which some scholars interpret to have been primarily aimed at ensuring the expulsion of Palestinians,{{sfn|Pappé|2006|pp=xii, 86–126|ps=: "this... blueprint spelled it out clearly and unambiguously: the Palestinians had to... each brigade commander received a list of the villages or neighborhoods that had to be occupied, destroyed, and their inhabitants expelled"}}<ref name="Plan">{{cite journal |last=Khalidi |first=W. |author-link=Walid Khalidi |url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/19199199/Plan-Dalet-Master-Plan-for-the-Conquest-of-Palestine-by-Walid-Khalidi |title=Plan Dalet: master plan for the conquest of Palestine |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170819143040/https://www.scribd.com/doc/19199199/Plan-Dalet-Master-Plan-for-the-Conquest-of-Palestine-by-Walid-Khalidi |archive-date=August 19, 2017 |journal=[[Journal of Palestine Studies]] |volume=18 |number=1 |date=1988 |pages=4–33|doi=10.2307/2537591 |jstor=2537591 }} (published earlier in ''Middle East Forum'', November 1961)</ref> but that interpretation is disputed. [[Efraim Karsh]] states that most of the Arabs who fled left of their own accord or were pressured to leave by their fellow Arabs despite Israeli attempts to convince them to stay.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Karsh |first=Efraim |url=http://www.kcl.ac.uk/artshums/depts/mems/people/staff/academic/karsh/articles/WerethePalestiniansExpelled.pdf |title=Were the Palestinians Expelled? |magazine=[[Commentary (magazine)|Commentary]] |access-date=August 6, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140224112045/http://www.kcl.ac.uk/artshums/depts/mems/people/staff/academic/karsh/articles/WerethePalestiniansExpelled.pdf |archive-date=February 24, 2014}}</ref>

The idea of the transfer of Arabs from Palestine had been considered about half a century beforehand.<ref>{{cite book |title=A Historical Survey of Proposals to Transfer Arabs from Palestine, 1895–1947 |first=Chaim |last=Simons |date=2003 |publisher= |page=}}</ref>{{pn|date=May 2024}}<ref>{{cite book |first=Benny |last=Morris |author-link=Benny Morris |title=Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict, 1881–1999 |location=New York |date=1999 |page=139 |quote=For many Zionists, beginning with Herzl, the only realistic solution lay in transfer. From 1880 to 1920, some entertained the prospect of Jews and Arabs coexisting in peace. But increasingly after 1920, and more emphatically after 1929, for the vast majority a denouement of conflict appeared inescapable. Following the outbreak of 1936, no mainstream leader was able to conceive of future coexistence and peace without a clear physical separation between the two peoples—achievable only by way of transfer and expulsion.}}</ref>

For example, [[Theodor Herzl]] wrote in his diary in 1895 that the [[Zionist]] movement "shall try to spirit the penniless population across the border by procuring employment for it in the transit countries, while denying it any employment in our country."<ref>''The Complete Diaries of Theodor Herzl'', vol. 1 (New York: Herzl Press and Thomas Yoseloff, 1960), pp. 88, 90</ref> That interpretation of Herzl has been disputed.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Alexander |first1=Edward |last2=Bogdanor |first2=Paul |title=The Jewish Divide Over Israel |publisher=Transaction |year=2006 |pages=251–2 |quote=[The diary entry] had already been a feature of Palestinian propaganda for decades.... Any discussion of relocation was clearly limited to the specific lands assigned to the Jews, rather than the entire territory. Had Herzl envisaged the mass expulsion of population... there would have been no need to discuss its position in the Jewish entity.}}</ref> Forty years later, one of the recommendations in the Report of the British [[Peel Commission]] in 1937 was for a transfer of Arabs from the area of the proposed Jewish state, and it even included a compulsory transfer from the plains of Palestine. That recommendation was not initially objected to by the British Government.<ref>{{cite book |first=Benny |last=Morris |author-link=Benny Morris |date=2003 |title=The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited |chapter=The Idea of Transfer in Zionist Thinking |publisher= |page=}}</ref>{{pn|date=May 2024}}

Scholars have debated [[David Ben-Gurion]]'s views on transfer, particularly in the context of the [[1937 Ben-Gurion letter]], but according to [[Benny Morris]], Ben-Gurion "elsewhere, in unassailable statements... repeatedly endorsed the idea of “transferring” (or expelling) Arabs, or the Arabs, out of the area of the Jewish state-to-be, either "voluntarily" or by compulsion."<ref>[[Michael Rubin (historian)|Michael Rubin]] and [[Benny Morris]] (2011), [http://www.commentarymagazine.com/2011/12/07/ben-gurion-herzl-quotes-morris-rubin/ Quoting Ben Gurion: An Exchange] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141020181226/http://www.commentarymagazine.com/2011/12/07/ben-gurion-herzl-quotes-morris-rubin/ |date=2014-10-20 }}, [[Commentary (magazine)]], quote: "...the focus by my critics on this quotation was, in any event, nothing more than (an essentially mendacious) red herring – as elsewhere, in unassailable statements, Ben-Gurion at this time repeatedly endorsed the idea of “transferring” (or expelling) Arabs, or the Arabs, out of the area of the Jewish state-to-be, either “voluntarily” or by compulsion."</ref>

[[Gush Etzion]] and [[List of villages depopulated during the Arab–Israeli conflict#Jewish villages 2|Jewish neighborhoods in East Jerusalem]] were depopulated by following the [[Jordanian annexation of the West Bank]]. The population was absorbed by the new [[State of Israel]]; and many of the locations were repopulated after the [[Six-Day War]] in 1967. During that war, Arabs again faced mass displacement, known as the [[Naksa]]. Estimates range between 280,000 and 325,000 displaced, many of whom had been living in the West Bank after being expelled or fleeing there during the [[Nakba]] between 1947 and 1949.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.science.co.il/Arab-Israeli-conflict/articles/Frantzman-2007-08-16.php |title=Ethnic cleansing of Jews by Arabs in pre-state Israel |website=www.science.co.il |access-date=May 4, 2018 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180115001827/https://www.science.co.il/Arab-Israeli-conflict/articles/Frantzman-2007-08-16.php |archive-date=January 15, 2018}}</ref><ref name="History of the War of Independence: The first month">Milstein, U. "[https://books.google.com/books?id=CviXmYN64xQC&dq=gush+etzion&pg=PA356 History of the War of Independence: The first month] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180115001833/https://books.google.cz/books?id=CviXmYN64xQC&pg=PA356&dq=gush+etzion&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwix8OaC8NfYAhXMfFAKHS_ODd8Q6AEIMzAD |date=2018-01-15 }}"</ref><ref>A Just Zionism: On the Morality of the Jewish State, Gans C, Oxford University Press "[https://books.google.com/books?id=LXziBwAAQBAJ&q=ethnic+cleansing+of+Jews+after+1948+war%22&pg=PT103] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180115001644/https://books.google.cz/books?id=LXziBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT103&dq=ethnic+cleansing+of+Jews+after+1948+war&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjEsd2w9NfYAhUPZlAKHU1QCOAQ6AEIRDAF|date=2018-01-15}}</ref><ref>Enemies and Neighbors: Arabs and Jews in Palestine and Israel, 1917-2017, Ian Black, Grove Press, 2017</ref>

===Persia===
{{See also|Great Surgun|History_of_the_Kurds#Displacement_of_the_Kurds|Khorasani Kurds}}

Removal of populations from along their borders with the [[Ottoman Turks|Ottomans]] in [[Kurdistan]] and the [[Caucasus]] was of strategic importance to the [[Safavids]]. Hundreds of thousands of [[Kurds]], along with large groups of [[Armenians]], [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]], [[Azeris]], and [[Turkmens]], were forcibly removed from the border regions and resettled in the interior of [[Persia]].That was a means of cutting off contact with other members of the groups across the borders as well as limiting passage of peoples. Under [[Tahmasp I]] the Safavids deported a huge portion of the Kurdish population in [[Anatolia]] to [[Khorasan province|Khorasan]], creating the modern [[Khorasani Kurds]]. Some Kurdish tribes were deported farther east, into [[Gharjistan]] in the [[Hindu Kush]] mountains of [[Afghanistan]], about 1500 miles away from their former homes in [[Syrian Kurdistan|western Kurdistan]].

===Ancient Assyria===
{{Main|Resettlement policy of the Neo-Assyrian Empire}}
[[File:Deportation of Jews by Assyrians.svg|thumb|right|150px|The Jews were one of the many peoples forcibly mass deported by the Assyrians.]]
In the ancient world, population transfer was the more humane alternative to putting all the males of a conquered territory to death and enslaving the women and children. From the 13th century BCE, [[Assyria]] used [[military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire#Deportations|mass deportation]] as a punishment for [[List of revolutions and rebellions|rebellions]]. By the [[9th century BCE]], the Assyrians regularly deported thousands of restless subjects to other lands. Assyria forcibly resettled the inhabitants of the [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Northern Kingdom of Israel]] in 720 BCE; these became known as the [[Ten Lost Tribes]].

===Indian subcontinent===
{{See also|Partition of India|Exodus of Kashmiri Hindus}}
[[File:Refugees on train roof during Partition.ogv|thumb|Video of refugees on train roof during partition of India]]
When [[British India]] was going through an independence movement prior to the [[World War II|Second World War]], some pro-Muslim organisations (most notably the Muslim League) demanded a Muslim state consisting of two non-contiguous territories: [[East Pakistan]] and [[West Pakistan]]. To facilitate the [[Partition of India|creation of new states along religious lines]] (as opposed to racial or linguistic lines as people shared common histories and languages), [[Partition of India#Independence and population exchanges|population exchanges between India and Pakistan]] were implemented. More than 5 million [[Hindu]]s and [[Sikhs]] moved from present-day Pakistan to present-day India, and the same number of [[Muslims]] moved the other way.{{citation needed|date=June 2018}} A large number of people, more than a million by some estimates, died in the accompanying violence. Despite the movement of large number of Muslims to Pakistan, an equal number of Muslims chose to stay in India. However, most of the Hindu and Sikh population in Pakistan moved to India in the following years. The Muslim immigrants to Pakistan mostly settled in [[Karachi]] and became known as the Urdu speaking [[Muhajir (Urdu-speaking people)|Muhajir community]].

From 1989 to 1992, the ethnic Hindu Kashmiri Pandit population was forcibly moved out of [[Kashmir]] by a minority Urdu-speaking Muslims.{{citation needed|date=March 2020}} The imposition of [[Urdu]] led to a decline of usage of local languages such as Kashmiri and Dogri. The resultant violence led to the death of many Hindus and the exodus of nearly all Hindus.{{citation needed|date=March 2020}}

On the [[Indian Ocean]] island of [[Diego Garcia]] between 1967 and 1973, the British government forcibly removed 2000 [[Chagossians|Chagossian]] islanders to make way for a [[United States Armed Forces|U.S. Armed Forces]] base. Despite court judgments in their favour, they have not been allowed to return from their exile in [[Mauritius]], but there are signs that financial compensation and an official apology are being considered by the British government.

===Afghanistan===
{{Further|Pashtun colonization of northern Afghanistan}}
In the 1880s, [[Abdur Rahman Khan]] moved the rebellious [[Ghilzai]] [[Pashtuns]] from the southern part of the country to the northern part.<ref>Peter Tomsen, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=zz9_Ve29eL0C&pg=PA42 The Wars of Afghanistan: Messianic Terrorism, Tribal Conflicts, and the Failures of Great Powers]'', (Public Affairs: 2011), p. 42.</ref><ref>Edward Girardet, ''Killing the Cranes,'' London: Chelsea Green</ref> In addition, Abdur Rahman and his successors encouraged Pashtuns, with various incentives, to settle into northern Afghanistan in the late 19th and 20th centuries.

===Cambodia===
{{main|Democratic Kampuchea#Evacuation of cities}}
One of the [[Khmer Rouge]]'s first acts was to move most of the urban population into the countryside. [[Phnom Penh]], its population of 2.5 million people including as many as 1.5 million wartime refugees living with relatives or in urban area, was soon nearly empty. Similar evacuations occurred at [[Battambang Province|Battambang]], [[Kampong Cham Province|Kampong Cham]], [[Siem Reap Province|Siem Reap]], [[Kampong Thom Province|Kampong Thom]] and throughout the country's other towns and cities. The Khmer Rouge attempted to turn [[Cambodia]] into a classless society by depopulating cities and forcing the urban population ("New People") into agricultural [[collective farming|communes]]. The entire population was forced to become farmers in [[labor camp]]s.

===Caucasia===
{{See also|Deportation of Azerbaijanis from Armenia|Deportation of the Chechens and Ingush|Flight of Nagorno-Karabakh Armenians}}
In the [[Caucasus|Caucasian]] region of the [[former Soviet Union]], ethnic population transfers have affected many thousands of individuals in [[Armenia]], [[Nagorno-Karabakh]] and [[Azerbaijan]] proper; in [[Abkhazia]], [[South Ossetia]] and [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] proper and in [[Chechnya]] and adjacent areas within [[Russia]].

===Middle East===
* During the [[Kurdish rebellions]] in Turkey from 1920 and until 1937, hundreds of thousands of [[Kurdish refugees]] were forced to relocate.
* After the creation of the State of Israel and the [[1948 Palestine war|Israel Independence War]], a strong wave of [[anti-Semitism]] in the [[Arab countries]] forced many [[Jews]] to [[Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries|flee]] to Europe, the Americas and Israel. The number estimated is between 850,000 and 1,000,000 people. Those who arrived to Israel were put in [[refugee camps]] until the state had helped them to recover.<ref>"[http://www.jimena.org/about-jimena/mission-statement-and-organizational-history/ Jews (JIMENA)|JIMENA's Mission and History] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141025002533/http://www.jimena.org/about-jimena/mission-statement-and-organizational-history/ |date=2014-10-25 }}". JIMENA. Retrieved 2 June 2015.</ref><ref>[http://www.jimena.org/ Jews Indigenous to the Middle East and North Africa] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130307045701/http://www.jimena.org/ |date=2013-03-07 }} (JIMENA)</ref>
* Up to 3,000,000 people, mainly Kurds, [[Kurdish villages depopulated by Turkey|have been displaced]] in the [[Kurdish–Turkish conflict]],<ref name="displaced">{{cite web |url=http://www.lib.unb.ca/Texts/JCS/bin/get.cgi?directory=FALL98/articles/&filename=Gunter.htm |title=Conflict Studies Journal at the University of New Brunswick |publisher=Lib.unb.ca |access-date=2010-08-29 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111013181211/http://www.lib.unb.ca/Texts/JCS/bin/get.cgi?directory=FALL98%2Farticles%2F&filename=Gunter.htm |archive-date=2011-10-13 }}</ref> an estimated 1,000,000 of which were still internally displaced as of 2009.<ref>{{cite web |author=Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC) – Norwegian Refugee Council |url=http://www.internal-displacement.org/8025708F004CE90B/(httpCountrySummaries)/66D21F80E3A69E41C125732200255E35?OpenDocument&count=10000 |title=Need for continued improvement in response to protracted displacement |publisher=Internal-displacement.org |access-date=2011-04-15 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110131234512/http://www.internal-displacement.org/8025708F004CE90B/%28httpCountrySummaries%29/66D21F80E3A69E41C125732200255E35?OpenDocument&count=10000 |archive-date=2011-01-31 }}</ref>
* For decades, [[Saddam Hussein]] forcibly [[Arabization|Arabized]] northern Iraq.<ref name=arabization>{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/reports/2004/iraq0804/4.htm|title=Claims in Conflict: Reversing Ethnic Cleansing in Northern Iraq: III. Background|website=www.hrw.org|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151118103918/https://www.hrw.org/reports/2004/iraq0804/4.htm|archive-date=2015-11-18}}</ref> Sunni Arabs [[Kurdish villages destroyed during the Iraqi Arabization campaign|drove out]] at least 70,000 Kurds from western [[Mosul]] to replace them with Sunni Arabs.<ref>{{cite news |title=Strife in Mosul as Sunni Arabs Drive Out Kurds |url=https://ekurd.net/mismas/articles/misc2007/5/independentstate1378.htm |access-date=12 June 2022 |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=30 May 2007 |via=Ekurd Daily}}</ref> Now, only eastern Mosul is Kurdish.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080512055628/http://atimes.com/atimes/Middle_East/JD03Ak01.html The other Iraqi civil war], Asia Times</ref>
* During the [[Gulf War|First Gulf War]], a survey reported that 732,000 Yemeni immigrants [[Yemenis expelled from Gulf Countries|were forced to leave]] [[Gulf Countries]] to return to Yemen. Most of them had been in [[Saudi Arabia]].<ref>United Nation Publication, 2003. Levels and Trends of International Migration to Selected Countries. United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs p. 37. Available at:{{cite web |url=https://unp.un.org/details.aspx?entry=E03006 |title=United Nations Publications |access-date=2015-03-13 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402171543/https://unp.un.org/details.aspx?entry=E03006 |archive-date=2015-04-02 }}</ref>
* After the First Gulf War, [[Kuwait]]i authorities [[Palestinian expulsion from Kuwait|expelled nearly 200,000 Palestinians]] from Kuwait.<ref name=ppp>{{cite journal |author=Steven J. Rosen |journal=Middle East Quarterly |title=Kuwait Expels Thousands of Palestinians |url=http://www.meforum.org/3391/kuwait-expels-palestinians |year=2012 |quote=From March to September 1991, about 200,000 Palestinians were expelled from the emirate in a systematic campaign of terror, violence, and economic pressure while another 200,000 who fled during the Iraqi occupation were denied return. |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511182542/http://www.meforum.org/3391/kuwait-expels-palestinians |archive-date=2013-05-11 }}</ref> That was partly a response to the alignment of [[PLO]] leader [[Yasser Arafat]] with Saddam Hussein.
* In August 2005, [[Israel's unilateral disengagement plan|Israel forcibly transferred]] all 10,000 [[Israeli settlement|Israeli settlers]] from the [[Gaza Strip]] and the north of the [[West Bank]].<ref>[[UN Security Council Resolution 446|Resolution 446]], [[UN Security Council Resolution 465|Resolution 465]], Resolution 484, among others</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Applicability of the Geneva Convention relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, of 12 August 1949, to the Occupied Palestinian Territory, including Jerusalem, and the other occupied Arab territories |publisher=[[United Nations]] |date=December 17, 2003 |url=http://domino.un.org/unispal.nsf/97360ee7a29e68a085256df900723485/d6f5d7049734efff85256e1200677754 |access-date=2006-09-27 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070603050844/https://domino.un.org/unispal.nsf/97360ee7a29e68a085256df900723485/d6f5d7049734efff85256e1200677754 |archive-date=3 June 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory |publisher=[[International Court of Justice]] |date=July 9, 2004 |url=http://domino.un.org/UNISPAl.NSF/85255e950050831085255e95004fa9c3/3740e39487a5428a85256ecc005e157a |access-date=2006-09-27 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070828174856/https://domino.un.org/UNISPAl.NSF/85255e950050831085255e95004fa9c3/3740e39487a5428a85256ecc005e157a |archive-date=August 28, 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Conference of High Contracting Parties to the Fourth Geneva Convention: statement by the International Committee of the Red Cross |publisher=[[International Committee of the Red Cross]] |date=December 5, 2001 |url=http://www.icrc.org/Web/Eng/siteeng0.nsf/iwpList247/D86C9E662022D64E41256C6800366D55#2 |access-date=2006-09-27 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060928224952/http://www.icrc.org/Web/Eng/siteeng0.nsf/iwpList247/D86C9E662022D64E41256C6800366D55#2 |archive-date=September 28, 2006 }}</ref>
* About 6.5 million [[Syrian refugees]] moved within the country, and 4.3 million left for neighboring countries because of the [[Syrian Civil War]]. Many were displaced by the fighting, with forced expulsions taking place against both Sunni Arabs and Alawites.<ref>{{cite web |title=2015 UNHCR country operations profile – Syrian Arab Republic |url=http://www.unhcr.org/pages/49e486a76.html |year=2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160210000431/http://www.unhcr.org/pages/49e486a76.html |archive-date=2016-02-10 }}</ref>

==In Africa==
{{See also|Atlantic slave trade}}

=== Algeria ===
{{Main|Expulsion of Moroccans from Algeria}}

===Ethiopia===

{{See also|Resettlement and villagization in Ethiopia}}

In the context of the [[1983–1985 famine in Ethiopia]] thousands of people were resettled from northern to southern Ethiopia. The official reason given by the government was that people would be moved from the drought-affected northern regions to the south and south-west, where arable land was plentiful. Others argued that resettlement was a ploy to depopulate areas of unrest in the [[Ethiopian Civil War]].

===South Africa===

African people from across southern Africa were forced to move into 'homelands' or [[Bantustan]], which were territories that the white National Party administration of South Africa set aside for black inhabitants of South Africa and South West Africa (now Namibia), as part of its policy of [[apartheid]].

===Mozambique===
When Syrah Resources started the [[Balama mine]], an open pit mine for graphite in [[Cabo Delgado Province]]  in 2015, farmers has to be resettled. By 2025, farmers grievances still remained unsttled leading to protests that eventually led Syrah Resources to suspend operations.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sanchez |first=Wilder Alejandro |date=2024-12-30 |title=Protests Shutter Mozambique’s Balama Graphite Mine |url=https://geopoliticalmonitor.com/protests-shutter-mozambiques-balama-graphite-mine/ |access-date=2025-03-16 |website=Geopolitical Monitor |language=en}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Main|Outline of genocide studies}}
* [[Demographic engineering]]
* [[Deportation]]
* [[Development-induced displacement]]
* [[Diaspora]]
* [[Emigration]]
* [[Ethnic cleansing]]
* [[Exile]]
* [[Expulsions and exoduses of Jews]]
* [[Forced displacement]]
* [[Forced migration]]
* [[Genocide]]
* [[Immigration]]
* [[Internment of German Americans]]
* [[Internment of Italian Americans]]
* [[Kidnapping of children by Nazi Germany]]
* [[Political cleansing of population]]
* [[Political migration]]
* [[Population cleansing]]
* [[Refugee]]
* [[Replacement migration]]
* [[Third country resettlement]]
* [[Villagization]]
* [[Voluntary return]]
* [[World War II evacuation and expulsion]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}
* {{cite book |author=Sonn, Tamara |title=A Brief History of Islam |url=https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofis0000sonn |url-access=registration |publisher=Blackwell Publishing Limited |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-4051-0900-0}}

==Further reading==
{{Main|Bibliography of genocide studies}}
*{{cite book |last1=Basso |first1=Andrew R. |title=Destroy Them Gradually: Displacement as Atrocity |date=2024 |publisher=Rutgers University Press |isbn=978-1-9788-3130-8 |language=en}}
*  Garrity, Meghan (2022). "[[doi:10.1177/00223433211068633|Introducing the Government-Sponsored Mass Expulsion Dataset]]". ''Journal of Peace Research.''
*  Frank, Matthew.  ''Making Minorities History: Population Transfer in Twentieth-Century Europe'' (Oxford UP, 2017).  464 pp.  [http://www.h-net.msu.edu/reviews/showrev.php?id=52226 online review]
* A. de Zayas, "International Law and Mass Population Transfers," ''[[Harvard International Law Journal]]'' 207 (1975).
* A. de Zayas, "The Right to the Homeland, Ethnic Cleansing and the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia," ''Criminal Law Forum,'' Vol. 6, 1995, pp.&nbsp;257–314.
* A. de Zayas, ''Nemesis at Potsdam'', London 1977.
* A. de Zayas, ''A Terrible Revenge,'' Palgrave/Macmillan, New York, 1994. {{ISBN|1-4039-7308-3}}.
* A. de Zayas, ''Die deutschen Vertriebenen,'' Graz 2006. {{ISBN|3-902475-15-3}}.
* A. de Zayas, ''Heimatrecht ist Menschenrecht,'' München 2001. {{ISBN|3-8004-1416-3}}.
* N. Naimark, " Fires of Hatred," ''Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe,'' Harvard University Press, 2001.
* U. Özsu, ''Formalizing Displacement: International Law and Population Transfers'', Oxford University Press, 2015.
* St. Prauser and A. Rees, ''The Expulsion of the "German" Communities from Eastern Europe at the End of the Second World War,'' Florence, Italy, European University Institute, 2004.

==External links==
* Haslam, Emily. [http://www.mpepil.com/sample_article?id=/epil/entries/law-9780199231690-e861&recno=19& "Population, Expulsion and Transfer"], ''Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law''
* [http://www.unhchr.ch/huridocda/huridoca.nsf/0/683f547c28ac785880256766004ecdef?OpenDocument UN Report], historical population transfers and exchanges (continues at bottom of page)
* [http://www.unhchr.ch/huridocda/huridoca.nsf/(Symbol)/E.CN.4.Sub.2.1997.23.En?OpenDocument ''Freedom of Movement – Human rights and population transfer''], UN report on legal status of population transfers
* [http://www.unm.edu/~phooper/thesis_condensed.pdf Paul Lovell Hooper, ''Forced Population Transfers in Early Ottoman Imperial Strategy, A Comparative Approach''], 2003, senior thesis for BA degree, Princeton University
* [http://www.jewishgates.com/file.asp?File_ID=68 "Medieval Jewish expulsions from French territories"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130314085641/http://www.jewishgates.com/file.asp?File_ID=68 |date=2013-03-14 }}, Jewish Gates
* [http://www.conceptwizard.com/conen/conflict_2.html conceptwizard.com "History in a Nutshell"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103142304/http://www.conceptwizard.com/conen/conflict_2.html |date=2012-11-03 }}, population transfer statistics in the Middle East
* [http://www.lozanmubadilleri.com/ Lausanne Treaty Emigrants Association]

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