Editing Primary familial brain calcification

{{short description|Genetic disorder involving calcification of the basal ganglia}}
{{Infobox medical condition (new)
| name            = Primary familial brain calcification
| synonyms        = Familial idiopathic basal ganglia calcification
| image           = Fahr_syndrome.gif
| caption         = [[CT scan]] of characteristic calcifications of the disease
| pronounce       =
| field           =
| symptoms        =
| complications   =
| onset           =
| duration        =
| types           =
| causes          =
| risks           =
| diagnosis       =
| differential    =
| prevention      =
| treatment       =
| medication      =
| prognosis       =
| frequency       =
| deaths          =
}}

'''Primary familial brain calcification'''<ref name=ncbi>{{cite journal|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK1421/|title=Primary Familial Brain Calcification|author1=Eliana Marisa Ramos | author2=Joao Oliveira | author3=Maria J Sobrido | author4= Giovanni Coppola|website=GeneReviews, at [[National Center for Biotechnology Information]]|publisher=University of Washington, Seattle|year=1993|pmid=20301594 }} Initial Posting: April 18, 2004; Last Update: August 24, 2017.</ref> (PFBC), also known as '''familial idiopathic basal ganglia calcification''' ('''FIBGC''') and '''Fahr's disease''',<ref name=ncbi/> is a rare,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/GARD/Disease.aspx?PageID=4&diseaseID=8272 |title=Genetic and Rare Diseases Information Center (GARD) – an NCATS Program &#124; Providing information about rare or genetic diseases |access-date=2009-06-13 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090511075059/http://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/GARD/Disease.aspx?PageID=4&DiseaseID=8272 |archive-date=2009-05-11 }}</ref> [[Dominance_(genetics)|genetically dominant or recessive]], inherited [[neurology|neurological]] disorder characterized by abnormal deposits of [[calcium]] in areas of the [[brain]] that control movement. Through the use of [[Computed tomography|CT scans]], calcifications are seen primarily in the [[basal ganglia]] and in other areas such as the [[cerebral cortex]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Benke T | author2= Karner E | author3=Seppi K| author4=Delazer M | author5=Marksteiner J | author6=Donnemiller E |title=Subacute dementia and imaging correlates in a case of Fahr's disease |journal=J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry |volume=75 |issue=8 |pages=1163–5 |date=August 2004 |pmid=15258221 |pmc=1739167 |doi=10.1136/jnnp.2003.019547 |url=}}</ref>

==Signs and symptoms==
Symptoms of this disease include deterioration of motor functions and speech, seizures, and other involuntary movement. Other symptoms are headaches, dementia, and vision impairment. Characteristics of Parkinson's Disease are also similar to PFBC.<ref>{{cite web|title=NINDS Fahr's Syndrome Information Page|url=http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/fahrs/fahrs.htm|publisher=National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke|access-date=13 January 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070205071541/http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/fahrs/fahrs.htm|archive-date=5 February 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The disease usually manifests itself in the third to fifth decade of life but may appear in childhood or later in life.<ref name=Sobrido2007>Sobrido MJ, Hopfer S, Geschwind DH (2007) "[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK1421/ Familial idiopathic basal ganglia calcification]." In: Pagon RA, Bird TD, Dolan CR, Stephens K, editors. SourceGeneReviews [Internet]. Seattle (WA): University of Washington, Seattle; 1993–2004</ref> It usually presents with clumsiness, fatigability, unsteady gait, slow or slurred speech, [[dysphagia|difficulty swallowing]], involuntary movements or [[muscle cramp]]ing. [[Seizures]] of various types are common. Neuropsychiatric symptoms, which may be the first or the most prominent manifestations, range from mild difficulty with concentration and memory to changes in personality and/or behavior, to psychosis and dementia.<ref name=Chiu1993>{{cite journal |author1=Chiu HF| author2=Lam LC| author3=Shum PP | author4=Li KW |title=Idiopathic calcification of the basal ganglia |journal=Postgrad Med J |volume=69 |issue=807 |pages=68–70 |date=January 1993 |pmid=8446558 |pmc=2399589 |doi=10.1136/pgmj.69.807.68}}</ref>

==Causes==

This condition can be inherited in an autosomal dominant or recessive fashion. Several genes have been associated with this condition.{{citation needed|date=December 2020}}

===Mutation===
A locus at 14q has been suggested, but no gene has been identified.<ref name="pmid10441584">{{cite journal |vauthors=Geschwind DH, Loginov M, Stern JM |title=Identification of a locus on chromosome 14q for idiopathic basal ganglia calcification (Fahr disease) |journal=Am. J. Hum. Genet. |volume=65 |issue=3 |pages=764–72 |date=September 1999 |pmid=10441584 |pmc=1377984 |doi=10.1086/302558 }}</ref> A second locus has been identified on chromosome 8<ref>{{cite journal  |vauthors=Dai X, Gao Y, Xu Z, etal |title=Identification of a novel genetic locus on chromosome 8p21.1-q11.23 for idiopathic basal ganglia calcification |journal=Am. J. Med. Genet. B Neuropsychiatr. Genet. |volume=153B |issue=7 |pages=1305–10 |date=October 2010 |pmid=20552677 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.b.31102 |s2cid=21165897 }}</ref> and a third has been reported on chromosome 2.<ref name=Volpato2009>{{cite journal  |vauthors=Volpato CB, De Grandi A, Buffone E, etal |title=2q37 as a susceptibility locus for idiopathic basal ganglia calcification (IBGC) in a large South Tyrolean family |journal=J. Mol. Neurosci. |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=346–53 |date=November 2009 |pmid=19757205 |doi=10.1007/s12031-009-9287-3 |s2cid=23235853 }}</ref> This suggests there may be some [[genetic heterogeneity]] in this disease.<ref name=Oliveira2004>{{cite journal  |vauthors=Oliveira JR, Spiteri E, Sobrido MJ, etal |title=Genetic heterogeneity in familial idiopathic basal ganglia calcification (Fahr disease) |journal=Neurology |volume=63 |issue=11 |pages=2165–7 |date=December 2004 |pmid=15596772 |doi=10.1212/01.wnl.0000145601.88274.88|s2cid=22046680 |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/79v1w0dv }}</ref>

A mutation in the gene encoding the type III sodium dependent [[phosphate transporter]] 2 ([[SLC20A2]]) located on [[chromosome 8]] has been reported.<ref name=Wang2012>{{cite journal  |vauthors=Wang C, Li Y, Shi L, etal |title=Mutations in SLC20A2 link familial idiopathic basal ganglia calcification with phosphate homeostasis |journal=Nat. Genet. |volume=44 |issue=3 |pages=254–6 |date=March 2012 |pmid=22327515 |doi=10.1038/ng.1077 |s2cid=2515200 }}</ref> Biochemical evidence suggests that phosphate transport may be involved in this disease.{{citation needed|date=November 2020}}

Two other genes have been associated with this condition: [[PDGFB]] on [[chromosome 22]] and [[PDGFRB]] on [[chromosome 5]].<ref name=Westenberger2014>Westenberger A1, Klein C (2014) The genetics of primary familial brain calcifications. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep 14(10):490 doi: 10.1007/s11910-014-0490-4</ref> These genes are biochemically linked: PDGFRB encodes the platelet-derived growth factor receptor β and PDGFB encodes the ligand of PDGF-Rβ. These genes are active during angiogenesis to recruit pericytes which suggests that alterations in the blood brain barrier may be involved in the pathogenesis of this condition.{{citation needed|date=November 2020}}

A fourth gene associated with this condition is [[XPR1]]. This gene is the long arm of located on [[chromosome 1]] (1q25.3).{{citation needed|date=December 2020}}

Another gene that has been associated with this condition is [[MYORG]].<ref name=Arkadir2018>Arkadir D, Lossos A, Rahat D, Abu Snineh M, Schueler-Furman O, Nitschke S, Minassian BA, Sadaka Y, Lerer I, Tabach Y, Meiner V (2018)  MYORG is associated with recessive primary familial brain calcification. Ann Clin Transl Neurol 6(1):106-113</ref><ref name=Yao2918>Yao XP, Cheng X, Wang C, Zhao M, Guo XX, Su HZ, Lai LL, Zou XH, Chen XJ, Zhao Y, Dong EL, Lu YQ, Wu S, Li X, Fan G, Yu H, Xu J, Wang N, Xiong ZQ, Chen WJ (2018) Biallelic Mutations in MYORG cause autosomal recessive primary familial brain calcification. Neuron 98(6):1116-1123</ref> This gene is located on the long arm of [[chromosome 9]] (9p13.3). This gene is associated with an autosomal recessive inheritance pattern in this condition.{{citation needed|date=November 2020}}

Another gene junctional adhesion molecule 2 ([[JAM2]]) has been associated with an autosomal recessive form of this condition.<ref name=Cen2019>Cen Z, Chen Y, Chen S, Wang H, Yang D, Zhang H, Wu H, Wang L, Tang S, Ye J, Shen J, Wang H, Fu F, Chen X, Xie F, Liu P, Xu X, Cao J, Cai P, Pan Q1,12, Li J, Yang W, Shan PF, Li Y, Liu JY, Zhang B, Luo W (2019) Biallelic loss-of-function mutations in JAM2 cause primary familial brain calcification. Brain</ref> 

The most recently found gene to be associated with PFBC is [[Nα-acetyltransferase 60]] (NAA60).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chelban |first1=Viorica |last2=Aksnes |first2=Henriette |last3=Maroofian |first3=Reza |last4=LaMonica |first4=Lauren C. |last5=Seabra |first5=Luis |last6=Siggervåg |first6=Anette |last7=Devic |first7=Perrine |last8=Shamseldin |first8=Hanan E. |last9=Vandrovcova |first9=Jana |last10=Murphy |first10=David |last11=Richard |first11=Anne-Claire |last12=Quenez |first12=Olivier |last13=Bonnevalle |first13=Antoine |last14=Zanetti |first14=M. Natalia |last15=Kaiyrzhanov |first15=Rauan |date=2024-03-13 |title=Biallelic NAA60 variants with impaired N-terminal acetylation capacity cause autosomal recessive primary familial brain calcifications |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=15 |issue=1 |page=2269 |doi=10.1038/s41467-024-46354-0 |issn=2041-1723 |pmc=10937998 |pmid=38480682|bibcode=2024NatCo..15.2269C }}</ref> NAA60 is a protein belonging to the family of N-terminal acetyltransferases (NATs), which catalyze the transfer of an acetyl group from acetyl-coenzyme A (Ac-CoA) to the N-terminus of proteins.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Aksnes |first1=Henriette |last2=Ree |first2=Rasmus |last3=Arnesen |first3=Thomas |date=2019 |title=Co-translational, Post-translational, and Non-catalytic Roles of N-Terminal Acetyltransferases |journal=Molecular Cell |language=en |volume=73 |issue=6 |pages=1097–1114 |doi=10.1016/j.molcel.2019.02.007 |pmc=6962057 |pmid=30878283}}</ref> NAA60 is specifically localized to the Golgi apparatus and can acetylate membrane proteins post-translationally that have cytosolic N-termini starting with methionine followed by hydrophobic- or amphipathic-type amino acids (ML-, MI-, MF-, MY-, and MK-).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Aksnes |first1=Henriette |last2=Van Damme |first2=Petra |last3=Goris |first3=Marianne |last4=Starheim |first4=Kristian K. |last5=Marie |first5=Michaël |last6=Støve |first6=Svein Isungset |last7=Hoel |first7=Camilla |last8=Kalvik |first8=Thomas Vikestad |last9=Hole |first9=Kristine |last10=Glomnes |first10=Nina |last11=Furnes |first11=Clemens |last12=Ljostveit |first12=Sonja |last13=Ziegler |first13=Mathias |last14=Niere |first14=Marc |last15=Gevaert |first15=Kris |date=2015 |title=An Organellar Nα-Acetyltransferase, Naa60, Acetylates Cytosolic N Termini of Transmembrane Proteins and Maintain Golgi Integrity |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2211124715000789 |journal=Cell Reports |language=en |volume=10 |issue=8 |pages=1362–1374 |doi=10.1016/j.celrep.2015.01.053|pmid=25732826 |hdl=1956/10959 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Støve |first1=Svein Isungset |last2=Magin |first2=Robert S. |last3=Foyn |first3=Håvard |last4=Haug |first4=Bengt Erik |last5=Marmorstein |first5=Ronen |last6=Arnesen |first6=Thomas |date=2016 |title=Crystal Structure of the Golgi-Associated Human Nα-Acetyltransferase 60 Reveals the Molecular Determinants for Substrate-Specific Acetylation |journal=Structure |language=en |volume=24 |issue=7 |pages=1044–1056 |doi=10.1016/j.str.2016.04.020 |pmc=4938767 |pmid=27320834}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Van Damme |first1=Petra |last2=Evjenth |first2=Rune |last3=Foyn |first3=Håvard |last4=Demeyer |first4=Kimberly |last5=De Bock |first5=Pieter-Jan |last6=Lillehaug |first6=Johan R. |last7=Vandekerckhove |first7=Joël |last8=Arnesen |first8=Thomas |last9=Gevaert |first9=Kris |date=2011 |title=Proteome-derived Peptide Libraries Allow Detailed Analysis of the Substrate Specificities of Nα-acetyltransferases and Point to hNaa10p as the Post-translational Actin Nα-acetyltransferase |journal=Molecular & Cellular Proteomics |language=en |volume=10 |issue=5 |pages=M110.004580 |doi=10.1074/mcp.M110.004580 |doi-access=free |pmc=3098586 |pmid=21383206}}</ref>

==Pathology==

The most commonly affected region of the brain is the [[lenticular nucleus]] and in particular the internal [[globus pallidus]].<ref name=Bonazza2011>{{cite journal |vauthors=Bonazza S, La Morgia C, Martinelli P, Capellari S |title=Strio-pallido-dentate calcinosis: a diagnostic approach in adult patients |journal=Neurol. Sci. |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=537–45 |date=August 2011 |pmid=21479613 |doi=10.1007/s10072-011-0514-7 |s2cid=11316462 }}</ref> Calcifications in the [[caudate nucleus|caudate]], [[Dentate nucleus|dentate nuclei]], [[putamen]] and [[thalami]] are also common. Occasionally calcifications begin or predominate in regions outside the [[basal ganglia]].{{citation needed|date=November 2020}}

Calcification seems to be progressive, since calcifications are generally more extensive in older individuals and an increase in calcification can sometimes be documented on follow up of affected subjects.{{citation needed|date=November 2020}}

As well as the usual sites the [[cerebellar gyri]], [[brain stem]], [[centrum semiovale]] and subcortical white matter may also be affected. Diffuse atrophic changes with dilatation of the subarachnoid space and/or ventricular system may coexist with the calcifications. Histologically concentric calcium deposits within the walls of small and medium-sized arteries are present. Less frequently the veins may also be affected. Droplet calcifications can be observed along capillaries. These deposits may eventually lead to closure of the lumina of vessels.{{citation needed|date=November 2020}}

The pallidal deposits stain positively for iron. Diffuse gliosis may surround the large deposits but significant loss of nerve cells is rare. On [[electron microscopy]] the mineral deposits appear as amorphous or crystalline material surrounded by a basal membrane. Calcium granules are seen within the cytoplasm of neuronal and glial cells. The calcifications seen in this condition are indistinguishable from those secondary to [[hypoparathyroidism]] or other causes.{{citation needed|date=November 2020}}

==Diagnosis==

In addition to the usual routine haematologic and biochemical investigations, the serum [[calcium]], [[phosphorus]], [[magnesium]], [[alkaline phosphatase]], [[calcitonin]] and [[parathyroid hormone]] should also be measured. The [[cerebrospinal fluid]] (CSF) should be examined to exclude [[bacteria]], [[virus]]es and [[parasite]]s.<ref name=Morita1998>{{cite journal  |vauthors=Morita M, Tsuge I, Matsuoka H, etal |title=Calcification in the basal ganglia with chronic active Epstein-Barr virus infection |journal=Neurology |volume=50 |issue=5 |pages=1485–8 |date=May 1998 |pmid=9596016 |doi=10.1212/wnl.50.5.1485|s2cid=7376355 }}</ref> The Ellsworth Howard test (a 10–20 fold increase of urinary cyclic [[Adenosine monophosphate|AMP]] excretion following stimulation with 200 micromoles of parathyroid hormone) may be worth doing also.{{citation needed|date=March 2014}} Serology for [[toxoplasmosis]] is also indicated.

Brain CT scan is the preferred method of localizing and assessing the extent of cerebral calcifications.{{citation needed|date=December 2020}}

Elevated levels of [[copper]], [[iron]], magnesium and [[zinc]] but not calcium have been reported in the CSF but the significance of this finding—if any—is not known.<ref name=Hozumi2011>{{cite journal  |vauthors=Hozumi I, Kohmura A, Kimura A, etal |title=High Levels of Copper, Zinc, Iron and Magnesium, but not Calcium, in the Cerebrospinal Fluid of Patients with Fahr's Disease |journal=Case Rep Neurol |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=46–51 |year=2010 |pmid=20671856 |pmc=2905580 |doi=10.1159/000313920 }}</ref>

The diagnosis requires the following criteria be met:{{citation needed|date=December 2020}}
# the presence of bilateral calcification of the basal ganglia
# the presence of progressive neurologic dysfunction
# the absence of an alternative metabolic, infectious, toxic or traumatic cause
# a family history consistent with autosomal dominant inheritance

The calcification is usually identified on CT scan but may be visible on plain films of the skull.{{citation needed|date=December 2020}}

===Differential diagnosis===

Basal ganglia calcification may occur as a consequence of several other known genetic conditions and these have to be excluded before a diagnosis can be made.<ref name=Niwa2008>{{cite journal |vauthors=Niwa A, Naito Y, Kuzuhara S |title=Severe cerebral calcification in a case of LEOPARD syndrome |journal=Intern. Med. |volume=47 |issue=21 |pages=1925–9 |year=2008 |pmid=18981639 |doi=10.2169/internalmedicine.47.1365|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=Preusser2007>{{cite journal |vauthors=Preusser M, Kitzwoegerer M, Budka H, Brugger S |title=Bilateral striopallidodentate calcification (Fahr's syndrome) and multiple system atrophy in a patient with longstanding hypoparathyroidism |journal=Neuropathology |volume=27 |issue=5 |pages=453–6 |date=October 2007 |pmid=18018479 |doi=10.1111/j.1440-1789.2007.00790.x|s2cid=34345069 }}</ref><ref name=Saito2005>{{cite journal |vauthors=Saito Y, Shibuya M, Hayashi M, etal |title=Cerebellopontine calcification: a new entity of idiopathic intracranial calcification? |journal=Acta Neuropathol. |volume=110 |issue=1 |pages=77–83 |date=July 2005 |pmid=15959794 |doi=10.1007/s00401-005-1011-y |s2cid=2726661 |url=http://link.springer.de/link/service/journals/00401/bibs/5110001/51100077.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130212042907/http://link.springer.de/link/service/journals/00401/bibs/5110001/51100077.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2013-02-12 |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name=Tojyo2001>{{cite journal |vauthors=Tojyo K, Hattori T, Sekijima Y, Yoshida K, Ikeda S |title=[A case of idiopathic brain calcification associated with dyschromatosis symmetrica hereditaria, aplasia of dental root, and aortic valve sclerosis] |language=ja |journal=Rinsho Shinkeigaku |volume=41 |issue=6 |pages=299–305 |date=June 2001 |pmid=11771159 }}</ref>

==Management==
There is currently no cure for PFBC nor a standard course of treatment. The available treatment is directed symptomatic control. If [[Parkinsonism|parkinsonian features]] develop, there is generally poor response to [[levodopa]] therapy. Case reports have suggested that [[haloperidol]] or [[lithium carbonate]] may help with [[psychotic]] symptoms.<ref name=Munir1986>{{cite journal |author=Munir KM |title=The treatment of psychotic symptoms in Fahr's disease with lithium carbonate |journal=J Clin Psychopharmacol |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=36–8 |date=February 1986 |pmid=3081601 |doi=10.1097/00004714-198602000-00008 }}</ref> One case report described an improvement with the use of a [[bisphosphonate]].<ref name=Loeb1998>{{cite journal |author=Loeb JA |title=Functional improvement in a patient with cerebral calcinosis using a bisphosphonate |journal=Mov. Disord. |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=345–9 |date=March 1998 |pmid=9539353 |doi=10.1002/mds.870130225 |s2cid=29240690 }}</ref>

==Prognosis==

The prognosis for any individual with PFBC is variable and hard to predict. There is no reliable correlation between age, extent of calcium deposits in the brain, and neurological deficit. Since the appearance of calcification is age-dependent, a [[CT scan]] could be negative in a gene carrier who is younger than the age of 55.<ref>{{cite web|title=NINDS Fahr's Syndrome Information Page|url=http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/fahrs/fahrs.htm|publisher=National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke|access-date=13 February 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070205071541/http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/fahrs/fahrs.htm|archive-date=5 February 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Progressive neurological deterioration generally results in disability and death.{{citation needed|date=November 2020}}

==History==
The disease was first noted by [[Germany|German]] pathologist [[Karl Theodor Fahr]] in 1930.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Fahr, T. |title=Idiopathische Verkalkung der Hirngefässe |journal=Zentralblatt für Allgemeine Pathologie und Pathologische Anatomie |volume=50 |pages=129–133 |year=1930–1931 }}
</ref><ref>{{WhoNamedIt|synd|451|Fahr's disease}}</ref> A less common name for the condition is Chavany-Brunhes syndrome and Fritsche's syndrome, the former named after Jacques Brunhes, [[Jean Alfred Émile Chavany]], while the later named after [[R. Fritsche]].<ref>{{WhoNamedIt|synd|1518|Chavany-Brunhes syndrome}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/GARD/QnA.aspx?PageID=4&CaseID=22373&DiseaseID=8272 |title=Chavany-Brunhes syndrome |access-date=2009-06-13 |archive-date=2012-05-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120531191623/http://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/GARD/QnA.aspx?PageID=4&CaseID=22373&DiseaseID=8272 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Fewer than 20 families had been reported in the literature up to 1997.<ref name=Kobari1997>{{cite journal |author1=Kobari M|author2=Nogawa S|author3=Sugimoto Y|author4=Fukuuchi Y |title=Familial idiopathic brain calcification with autosomal dominant inheritance |journal=Neurology |volume=48 |issue=3 |pages=645–9 |date=March 1997 |pmid=9065541 |doi=10.1212/wnl.48.3.645|s2cid=1061208 }}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Primrose syndrome]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Medical resources
|  DiseasesDB     = 32200
|  ICD10          = {{ICD10|G|23|8|g|23}}
|  ICD9           =
|  ICDO           =
|  OMIM           = 213600
|  MedlinePlus    =
|  eMedicineSubj  =
|  eMedicineTopic =
|  MeshID         =
|  GeneReviewsNBK  = NBK1421
|  GeneReviewsName = Familial Idiopathic Basal Ganglia Calcification
}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070927220226/http://rad.usuhs.edu/medpix/master.php3?mode=topic_images&pk=4582&quiz=#top Fahr Syndrome Images (MedPix)]
* [http://www.rarediseases.org National Organization for Rare Disorders (NORD)]
* [http://www.nia.nih.gov National Institute on Aging (NIA)]
* [http://www.nimh.nih.gov National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Fahr's Syndrome}}
[[Category:Neurological disorders]]
[[Category:Genetic disorders with OMIM but no gene]]
[[Category:Rare syndromes]]
[[Category:Syndromes affecting the nervous system]]