Editing Profanity

{{Short description|Socially offensive form of language}}
{{distinguish|Hate speech}}
{{redirect-several|dab=no|Abusive language (law)|Profane (religion)|Profanity (instant messaging client)|Strong Language (film){{!}}''Strong Language'' (film)|Curse (disambiguation)|Swear (disambiguation)}}
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[[File:Jay & Trey Cartoon Swearing.jpg|thumb|Profanity is often depicted in images by [[grawlixes]], which substitute symbols for words.]]
'''Profanity''', also known as '''swearing''', '''cursing''', or '''cussing''', is the usage of notionally [[word taboo|offensive words]] for a variety of purposes, including to demonstrate disrespect or negativity, to relieve pain, to express a strong emotion (such as [[anger]], excitement, or surprise), as a grammatical [[intensifier]] or emphasis, or to express informality or conversational intimacy. In many formal or polite social situations, it is considered impolite (a violation of [[social norm]]s), and in some religious groups it is considered a [[sin]].<ref name="Didache"/> Profanity includes [[pejorative|slurs]], but most profanities are not slurs, and there are many insults that do not use swear words.

Swear words can be discussed or even sometimes used for the same purpose without causing offense or being considered impolite if they are obscured (e.g. "fuck" becomes "f***" or "the f-word") or substituted with a [[minced oath]] like "flip".

== Etymology and definitions ==
Profanity may be described as offensive language, dirty words, or taboo words, among other descriptors.{{Sfn|Johnson|Lewis|2010|p=106}} The term ''{{linktext|profane}}'' originates from classical [[Latin]] {{lang|la|{{linktext|profanus}}}}, literally {{gloss|before (outside) the temple}}, {{lang|la|pro}} meaning {{gloss|outside}} and {{lang|la|fanum}} meaning {{gloss|temple, sanctuary}}.<ref>Oxford English Dictionary Online, "profane", retrieved 14 February 2012</ref><ref>{{OEtymD|profane}}</ref>{{Better source needed|date=September 2024}} This further developed in [[Middle English]] with the meaning ''to desecrate a temple''.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=362}} In English, ''swearing'' is a catch-all linguistic term for the use of profanities, even if it does not involve taking an [[oath]].{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=1}} The only other languages that use the same term for both profanities and oaths are French ({{lang|fr|jurer}}), Canadian French ({{lang|fr-CA|sacrer}}), and Swedish ({{lang|sv|svära}}).{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|pp=1–2}}

English uses ''cursing'' in a similar manner to ''swearing'', especially in the United States. Cursing originally referred specifically to the use of language to cast a curse on someone,{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|pp=114–115}} and in American English it is still commonly associated with wishing harm on another.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=31}} Equivalents to ''cursing'' are used similarly in Danish ({{lang|da|bande}}), Italian ({{lang|it|imprecare}}), and Norwegian ({{lang|no|banne}}).{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=2}} The terms ''swearing'' and ''cursing'' have strong associations with the use of profanity in anger.{{Sfn|Matusz|2017|p=36}} Various efforts have been made to classify different types of profanity, but there is no widely accepted typology and terms are used interchangeably.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|pp=24–25}}

''[[Blasphemy]]'' and ''[[obscenity]]'' are used similarly to ''profanity'', though ''blasphemy'' has retained its religious connotation.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=362}} ''[[Expletive (linguistics)|Expletive]]'' is another English term for the use of profanity, derived from its original meaning of adding words to change a sentence's length without changing its meaning.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=154}} The use of ''expletive'' sometimes refers specifically to profanity as an [[interjection]].{{Sfn|Stapleton|Beers Fägersten|Stephens|Loveday|2022|p=7}}{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=30}} ''[[Epithet]]'' is used to describe profanities directed at a specific person.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=33}} Some languages do not have a general term for the use of profanities, instead describing it with the phrase "using bad language". These include Mandarin ({{lang|zh-Latn|zang hua}}), Portuguese ({{lang|pt|palavrão}}), Spanish ({{lang|es|decir palabrotas}}), and Turkish ({{lang|tr|küfur etmek}}).{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=2}}

== History and study ==
Historical profanity is difficult to reconstruct, as written records may not reflect spoken language.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|pp=xix, xxii}} Despite being relatively well known compared to other linguistic mechanisms,{{Sfn|Van Lancker|Cummings|1999|pp=83–84}} profanity has historically been understudied because of its taboo nature.{{Sfn|Matusz|2017|p=33}} Profanity may be studied as an aspect of linguistics and sociology, or it can be a psychological and neurological subject.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=3}} Besides interpersonal communication, understanding of profanity has legal implications and related to theories of language learning.{{Sfn|Matusz|2017|p=34}}{{Sfn|Van Lancker|Cummings|1999|pp=83–84}}

In modern European languages, swearing developed from early Christianity, primarily through restrictions on [[taking God's name in vain]] in the [[Old Testament]].{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=6}} Invocations of God were seen as attempts to call upon his power, willing something to be true or leveling a curse.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=xvi}} Other mentions of God were seen as placing oneself over him, with the person uttering a name implying power over the name's owner.{{Sfn|Matusz|2017|p=39}}

Modern study of profanity as its own subject of inquiry had started by 1901.{{Sfn|Johnson|Lewis|2010|p=106}} [[Sigmund Freud]] influenced study of the topic by positing that swearing reflects the subconscious, including feelings of aggression, [[Anti-social behaviour|antisocial inclinations]], and the broaching of taboos.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=369}} Significant activity began in the 1960s with writings on the subject by [[Ashley Montagu]] and [[Edward Sagarin]], followed by increased study the following decade.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=3}} Specific types of discriminatory profanity, such as ethnophaulism and homophobia, came to be described as part of a broader type of profanity, [[hate speech]], toward the end of the 20th century.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=220}} Another increase in the study of profanity took place with the onset of the 21st century.{{Sfn|Matusz|2017|p=33}}

== Subjects ==
Profanities have literal meanings, but they are invoked to indicate a state of mind, making them dependent almost entirely on [[connotation]] and emotional associations with the word, as opposed to literal [[denotation]].{{Sfn|Jay|Janschewitz|2008|p=268}}{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=13}} The connotative function of profanity allows the denotative meaning to shift more easily,{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=252}} causing the word to shift until its meaning is unrelated to its origin or to lose meaning and impact altogether.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=412}}

Literal meanings in modern profanity typically relate to religion, sex, or the human body, which creates a dichotomy between the use of [[highbrow]] religious swears and lowbrow anatomical swears.{{Sfn|Stapleton|Beers Fägersten|Stephens|Loveday|2022|p=2}}{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|pp=5–6}} Languages and cultures place different emphasis on the subjects of profanity. Anatomical profanity is common in Polish, for example, while swearing in Dutch is more commonly in reference to disease.{{Sfn|Matusz|2017|p=44}} Words for excrement and for the buttocks have profane variants across most cultures.{{Sfn|Matusz|2017|p=40}} Though religious swears were historically more severe, modern society across much of the world has come to see sexual and anatomical swears to be more vulgar.{{Sfn|Stapleton|Beers Fägersten|Stephens|Loveday|2022|p=2}}{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|pp=xvii, 197}} Common profane phrases sometimes incorporate more than one category of profanity for increased effect. The Spanish phrase {{lang|es|me cago en Dios y en la Puta Virgen}} ({{Translation|I shit on God and on the prostitute Virgin}}) invokes scatological, religious, and sexual profanity.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|pp=36–37}} Other swear words do not refer to any subject, such as the English word ''[[bloody]]'' when used in its profane sense.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=36}}

Not all taboo words are used in swearing, with many only being used in a literal sense.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=7}} Clinical or academic terminology for bodily functions and sexual activity are distinct from profanity. This includes words such as ''excrement'' and ''copulate'' in English, which are not typically invoked as swears.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=7}} Academics who study profanity disagree on whether literal use of a vulgar word can constitute a swear word.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=12}} Conversely, words with greater connotative senses are not always used profanely. ''Bastard'' and ''son of a bitch'' are more readily used as general terms of abuse in English compared to ''terrorist'' and ''rapist'', despite the latter two being terms being associated with strongly immoral behavior.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=245}}

Some profane phrases are used metaphorically in a way that still retains elements of the original meaning, such as the English phrases ''all hell broke loose'' or ''[[shit happens]]'', which carry the negative associations of ''[[hell]]'' and ''[[shit]]'' as undesirable places and things.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|pp=14–17}} Others are nonsensical when interpreted literally, like ''take a flying fuck'' in English as well as {{lang|fr|putain de merde}} (''whore of shit'') in French and {{lang|it|porca Madonna}} (''the sow of Madonna'') in Italian.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=xvii–xviii}}

=== Religion ===
[[File:Woman exclaiming "Oh My God!" before a bike crash.webm|thumb|A woman exclaiming "Oh My God!" before a [[dirtbike]] crash|thumbtime=0]]
[[File:Tabarnak graffiti.jpg|thumb|Graffiti on a mailbox in Quebec reading {{lang|fr|Pas de publicité tabarnak}}, meaning "no [[advertising mail]]" and using the {{lang|fr|sacre}} "{{lang|fr|tabarnak}}" ([[tabernacle]])]]
A distinction is sometimes made between religious profanity, which is casual, versus blasphemy, which is intentionally leveled against a religious concept.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|pp=xvii, 31}} It was commonly believed among early civilizations that speaking about certain things can invoke them or bring about curses.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=xvi}} Many cultures have taboos about speaking the names of evil creatures such as [[Satan]] because of these historical fears.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=6}}

Religions commonly develop derogatory words for those who are not among their members. Medieval Christianity developed terms like ''heathen'' and ''[[infidel]]'' to describe outsiders.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=223}} [[Secularization]] in the [[Western world]] has seen exclamations such as ''God!'' divorced from their religious connotations.{{Sfn|Matusz|2017|pp=39–40}} Religious profanity is not inherent to all languages, being absent from Japanese, [[indigenous languages of the Americas]], and most [[Polynesian languages]].{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=xxi}}

European languages historically used the [[crucifixion of Jesus]] as a focal point for profane interjections. Phrases meaning "death of God" were used in languages like English ('''Sdeath''), French ({{lang|fr|Mort de Dieu}}), and Swedish ({{lang|sv|Guds död}}){{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=42}} Christian profanity encompasses both appeals to the divine, such as God or heaven, and to the diabolic, such as the Devil or hell. While the impact of religious swearing has declined in the Christian world, diabolic swearing remains profane in Germany and the [[Nordic countries]]. Islamic profanity lacks a diabolic element, referring only to divine concepts like Muhammad or holy places.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=37}}

Words related to Catholicism, known as {{lang|fr|sacres}}, are used in [[Quebec French profanity]], and are considered to be stronger than other profane words in French. Examples of {{lang|fr|sacres}} considered profane in Quebec are {{lang|fr|tabarnak}} ([[tabernacle]]), {{lang|fr|hostie}} ([[Sacramental bread|host]]), and {{lang|fr|sacrament}} ([[sacrament]]). When used as profanities, {{lang|fr|sacres}} are often interchangeable.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nosowitz |first=Dan |date=26 May 2016 |title=The Delightful Perversity of Québec's Catholic Swears |url=https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/the-delightful-perversity-of-quebecs-catholic-swears |access-date=19 September 2024 |website=Atlas Obscura |language=en}}</ref>

The [[Book of Leviticus]] indicates that blasphemous language warrants death, while the [[Gospel of Matthew]] implies condemnation of all swearing, though only the [[Quakers]] have imposed such a ban.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|pp=21–22}} [[Islam]], [[Judaism]], and [[Brahmanism]] forbid mention of God's name entirely.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|pp=xxi, 201}} In some countries, profanity words often have [[pagan]] roots that after Christian influence were turned from names of deities and spirits to profanity and used as such, like {{lang|fi|[[perkele]]}} in Finnish, which was believed to be an original name of the thunder god [[Ukko]], the chief god of the [[Finnish paganism|Finnish pagan]] pantheon.<ref>{{cite book |last=Siikala |first=Anna-Leena |title=Itämerensuomalaisten mytologia |publisher=SKS |year=2013 |location=Helsinki}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Salo |first=Unto |title=Agricola's Ukko in the light of archeology. A chronological and interpretative study of ancient Finnish religion: Old Norse and Finnish religions and cultic place-names. |year=1990 |isbn=951-649-695-4 |location=Turku}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Miten suomalaiset kiroilivat ennen kristinuskoa? |url=http://www.kielikello.fi/index.php?mid=2&pid=11&aid=784 |access-date=25 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Suomen kielen etymologinen sanakirja. 3. |publisher=Suomalais-ugrilainen seura |year=1976 |isbn=951-9019-16-2 |location=Helsinki}}</ref>

=== Anatomy and sexuality ===
[[File:En-US-get fucked.wav|thumb|The phrase "get fucked" spoken by an American]]
Profanity related to sexual activity, including insults related to genitals, exists across cultures.{{Sfn|Van Lancker|Cummings|1999|p=84}} The specific aspects invoked are sensitive to a given culture, with differences in how much they emphasize ideas like incest or adultery.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=xix}} Certain types of sex acts, such as oral sex, anal sex, or masturbation, may receive particular attention.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=41}} Verbs describing sexual activity are frequently profane, like ''fuck'' in English, {{lang|fr|foutre}} in French, {{lang|it|fottere}} in Italian, {{lang|es|jodido}} in Spanish, and {{lang|ru| ебать}} (''yebatˈ'') in Russian.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=39}} Words describing a person as one who masturbates are often used as terms of abuse, such as the English use of ''jerk-off'' and ''wanker''.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=310}}{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=41}} Terms for sexually promiscuous women can be used as profanity, such English terms like ''hussy'' and ''[[slut]]''.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=363}} Reference to prostitution brings its own set of profanities. Many profane words exist to refer to a prostitute, such as ''whore'' in English, {{lang|fr|putain}} in French, {{lang|it|puttana}} in Italian, {{lang|pl|kurwa}} in Polish, {{lang|ru| блять}} (''blyat''') in Russian, and {{lang|es|puta}} in Spanish.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|pp=36, 43}} Some languages, including German and Swedish, do not see significant use of sexual terms as profanity.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=39}}

Profanities for the penis and vulva are often used as interjections. Penile interjections are often used in Italian ({{lang|it|cazzo}}), Russian ({{lang|ru|хуй}}, ''khuy''), and Spanish ({{lang|es|carajo}}). Vulvar interjections are often used in Dutch ({{lang|nl|kut}}), Hungarian ({{lang|hu|pisca}}), Russian ({{lang|ru|пизда}}, ''pizda''), Spanish ({{lang|es|coño}}), and Swedish ({{lang|sv|fitta}}).{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=38}} Such terms, especially those relating to the vulva, may also be used as terms of abuse.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|pp=38–39}} Profanities related to testicles are less common and their function varies across languages. They may be used as interjections, such as in English (''balls'' or ''bollocks''), Italian ({{lang|it|coglione}}), and Spanish ({{lang|es|cojones}}). Danish uses testicles as a term of abuse with {{lang|da|klotzaak}}.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=39}}

Words for the buttocks are used as a term of disapproval in many languages, including English (''ass'' or ''arse''), French ({{lang|fr|cul}}), Polish ({{lang|pl|dupa}}), Russian ({{lang|ru|жопа}}, ''zhopa''), and Spanish ({{lang|es|culo}}). Similar words for the anus appear in languages like Danish ({{lang|da|røvhul}}), English (''asshole'' or ''arsehole''), German ({{lang|de|Arschloch}}), Icelandic ({{lang|is|rassgat}}), Norwegian ({{lang|no|rasshøl}}), and Polish ({{lang|pl|dupek}}).{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=38}} Excrement and related concepts are commonly invoked in profanity.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=37}} European examples include ''shit'' in English, {{lang|fr|merde}} in French, {{lang|de|Scheiße}} in German, and {{lang|it|stronzo}} in Italian.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=432}} An example in an East Asian language would be {{lang|ja|クソ}} (''kuso'') in Japanese.{{citation needed|date=December 2024}}

=== Other subjects ===
Illness has historically been used to swear by wishing a plague on others.{{Sfn|Matusz|2017|p=37}} The names of various diseases are used as profane words in some languages; ''Pokkers'' ({{translation|pox}}) appears in both Danish and Norwegian as an exclamation and an intensifier.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=43}} Death is another common theme in Asian languages such as [[Cantonese]].{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=42}} Terminology of [[mental illness]] has become more prominent as profanity in the Western world, with terms such as ''[[idiot]]'' and ''[[Retard (pejorative)|retard]]'' challenging one's mental competency.{{Sfn|Matusz|2017|p=40}}

Profane phrases directed at the listener's mother exist across numerous major languages, though it is absent from Germanic languages with the exception of English. These phrases often include terms of abuse that implicate the subject's mother, such as ''son of a bitch'' in English or {{lang|zh-Latn|wáng bā dàn}} ({{Translation|child of a cuckolded man}}) in Mandarin.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=41}} Russian profanity places heavy emphasis on the sexual conduct of the listener's female relatives, either by describing sexual activity involving them or suggesting that the listener engage in activities with them.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=2}} [[Aboriginal Australian]] languages sometimes invoke one's deceased ancestors in profanity.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=42}}

The names of political ideologies are sometimes invoked as swear words by their opponents. ''[[Fascist]]'' is [[Fascist (insult)|commonly used]] as an epithet in the modern era, replacing historical use of ''[[Radical politics|radical]]''.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=94}} Far-left groups have historically used words like ''[[capitalist]]'' and ''[[imperialist]]'' as terms of abuse, while anti-communist speakers use ''[[communist]]'' in [[Red-baiting|the same manner]].{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=350}} The use of political terms in a profane sense often leads to the term becoming less impactful or losing relevance as a political descriptor entirely.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|pp=350–351}}

Words for animals can be used as terms of abuse despite not being inherently profane, commonly referencing some attribute of the animal. Examples in English include ''[[Bitch (slang)|bitch]]'' to demean a woman or ''[[louse]]'' to describe someone unwanted.{{Sfn|Matusz|2017|pp=37–38}} They may also be used in interjections like the Italian {{lang|it|porco dio}} ({{Translation|pig of a God}}).{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=42}} Animal-related profanity is distinct from other forms in that it is used similarly across different languages.{{Sfn|Matusz|2017|p=43}} Terms for dogs are among the most common animal swears across languages, alongside those for cows, donkeys, and pigs.{{Sfn|Matusz|2017|p=41}} Swear words related to monkeys are common in Arabic and East Asian cultures.{{Sfn|Matusz|2017|p=45}}

[[Pejorative|Slurs]] are words that target a specific demographic.{{Sfn|Stapleton|Beers Fägersten|Stephens|Loveday|2022|p=2}} These are used to project [[xenophobia]] and [[prejudice]], often through the use of [[stereotype]]s. They typically develop in times of increased contact of conflict between different races or ethnic groups, including times of war between two or more nations.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|pp=146, 486}} Terms for minority groups are sometimes used as swears. This can apply to both profane terms such as ''[[kike]]'' or non-profane terms such as ''[[gay#Generalized pejorative use|gay]]''.{{Sfn|Matusz|2017|p=37}} Many of these are culture-specific.{{Sfn|Matusz|2017|p=41}} In a case of using the name of one group to demean another, [[Hun]] came to be associated with a brutish caricature of Germans, first during the [[Renaissance]] and again during [[World War I]].{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|pp=243–244}} Some terms for people of low class or status can become generically profane or derogatory. English examples include ''villain'', ''lewd'', and ''scum''.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=319}}

== Grammar and function ==
[[File:Martin Van Maele - La Grande Danse macabre des vifs - 01.jpg|thumb|upright|Exposing the buttocks is considered profane in many cultures.]]
Profanity is used to indicate the speaker's emotional state,{{Sfn|Jay|Janschewitz|2008|p=268}}{{Sfn|Kapoor|2016|p=259}} and the negative associations of swear words mean they are often emotionally charged.{{Sfn|Stapleton|Beers Fägersten|Stephens|Loveday|2022|p=1}}{{Sfn|Johnson|Lewis|2010|p=108}} Expressions of anger and frustration are the most common reason for swearing.{{Sfn|Stapleton|Beers Fägersten|Stephens|Loveday|2022|p=7}} Such expressions are associated with abusive profanity,{{Sfn|Kapoor|2016|pp=259–260}} which is the most negatively charged and is specifically chosen to insult or offend the subject. This may take the form of a direct insult, such as calling the subject an ''[[asshole]]'', or by addressing the subject profanely, such as telling someone to ''fuck off''.{{Sfn|Stapleton|Beers Fägersten|Stephens|Loveday|2022|p=7}} It can also be used to indicate [[contempt]].{{Sfn|Johnson|Lewis|2010|p=108}} [[Cathartic]] profanity is used as an expression of annoyance,{{Sfn|Stapleton|Beers Fägersten|Stephens|Loveday|2022|p=7}} and it is often considered less rude than profanity directed at a specific subject.{{Sfn|Jay|Janschewitz|2008|p=270}} Profanity can be used as a statement of agreement or disagreement, though disagreement is more common; ''the hell it is'' and ''my ass'' are examples of English profanities that indicate disagreement.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=32}} The potent nature of swearing means that it can be used to gain attention,{{Sfn|Stapleton|Beers Fägersten|Stephens|Loveday|2022|p=8}} including the use of profanity to cause shock.{{Sfn|Johnson|Lewis|2010|p=108}} In some circumstances, swearing can be used as a form of politeness, such as when a speaker gives positive reinforcement by describing something as ''pretty fucking good''.{{Sfn|Jay|Janschewitz|2008|p=270}}

Propositional or controlled swearing is done consciously, and speakers choose their wording and how to express it. This is more common when using descriptive swearing. Non-propositional or reflexive swearing is done involuntarily as an emotional response to excitement or displeasure.{{Sfn|Jay|Janschewitz|2008|pp=269–270}}{{Sfn|Matusz|2017|p=37}} Frequent swearing can become a habit, even if the speaker does not have a specific intention of being profane.{{Sfn|Kapoor|2016|p=261}}

Profanity is often used as a slot filler, which functions as a [[grammatical modifier|modifier]],{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|pp=33–35}} and modifying a noun with a swear is commonly used to indicate dislike.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=34}} A profane word can modify words as an adjective, such as in ''it's a bloody miracle'', or as an adverb, such as in ''they drove damn fast''.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=33}} One type of adverbial profanity is to use it as a [[modal adverb]], such as in ''no you fucking can't''.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=34}} Compound words can be created to create a new modifier, such as ''pisspoor''.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=33}} Many European languages use profanity to add emphasis to question words in the form of ''who the hell are you?'' or with a [[preposition]] in the form of ''what in God's name is that?''.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|pp=11–12}} Modifier profanities are frequently used as an [[expletive attributive]], or [[intensifier]]s that put emphasis on specific ideas.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=22}} These commonly take the form of interjections to express strong emotion, such as the English examples ''bloody hell'' and ''for fuck's sake''.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=22}} Such stand-alone profanities are among the most common in natural speech.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=30}} [[Expletive infixation]] is the use of a profane word as an intensifier inside of another word, such as modifying ''absolutely'' to become ''abso-fucking-lutely''.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=40}} Some languages use swear words that can generically replace nouns and verbs. This is most common in Russian.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=35|loc=Chapter 8}}

Though profanity exists in nearly all cultures, there is variation in when it is used and how it affects the meaning of speech.{{Sfn|Van Lancker|Cummings|1999|p=84}} Each language has unique profane phrases influenced by culture.{{Sfn|Matusz|2017|p=44}} Japanese is sometimes described as having no swear words, though it has a concept of {{Lang|ja-latn|warui kotoba}} ({{Translation|bad words}}) that are not based on taboos but are otherwise functionally equivalent to swears.{{Sfn|Matusz|2017|pp=43–44}} One linguistic theory proposes that [[sound symbolism]] influences the pronunciation of profanities. This includes the suggestion that profanities are more likely to include [[plosive]]s, but this remains unstudied, especially outside of [[Indo-European languages]].{{Sfn|Lev-Ari|McKay|2023|p=1104}}

The use of profanity is the most common way to express taboo ideas.{{Sfn|Matusz|2017|p=34}} The dichotomy between its taboo nature and its prevalence in day-to-day life is studied as the "swearing paradox".{{Sfn|Kapoor|2016|p=260}} It is used casually in some social settings, which can facilitate bonding and camaraderie, denote a social environment as informal, and mark the speaker as part of an [[in-group]].{{Sfn|Stapleton|Beers Fägersten|Stephens|Loveday|2022|pp=7–8}} The way speakers use profanity in social settings allows them to project their identity and personality through communication style,{{Sfn|Stapleton|Beers Fägersten|Stephens|Loveday|2022|pp=3, 7–8}} and in some circumstances it can be used as a method used to impress one's peers.{{Sfn|Kapoor|2016|p=261}} Stylistic swearing is used to add emphasis or intensity to speech,{{Sfn|Stapleton|Beers Fägersten|Stephens|Loveday|2022|p=7}}{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|pp=4–5}} which can be used to emphasize an idea in an aggressive or authoritative fashion, make an idea memorable, or produce a comedic effect.{{Sfn|Stapleton|Beers Fägersten|Stephens|Loveday|2022|pp=7–8}}
[[File:Givingthefinger.jpg|thumb|[[The finger]], an obscene hand gesture|upright=0.8|alt=The front of a man's hand with his middle finger raised]]
Profanity often presents as [[formulaic language]], in which specific words can only be used in specific phrases, often developed through [[grammaticalization]].{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|pp=18–20}} Many of these phrases allow words to be swapped, presenting variations on a phrase like ''what in the bloody heck'', ''why in the flamin' hell'', and ''how in the fuckin' hell''.{{Sfn|Van Lancker|Cummings|1999|pp=85–86}} Profane phrases can be used as [[anaphora (linguistics)|anaphoric pronouns]], such as replacing ''him'' with ''the bastard'' in ''tell the bastard to mind his own business''.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=34}} They can similarly be used to support a noun instead of replacing it, such as in ''John is a boring son of a bitch''.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=35}} Though profanity is usually associated with taboo words, obscene non-verbal acts such as [[hand gesture]]s may be considered profane. [[Spitting]] in someone's direction has historically been seen as a strong insult.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=37}} Exposure of certain body parts, often the genitals or buttocks, is also seen as profane in many parts of the world.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=39}}

Though ''cursing'' often refers to the use of profanity in general, it can refer to more specific phrases of harm such as ''damn you'' or ''a pox on you''.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=31}} Historically, people swore by or to the ideas that they were invoking, instead of swearing at something.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=xv}} Oaths in which the speaker swears by something, such as ''by God'', can be used as interjections or intensifiers, typically without religious connotation. This is especially common in Arabic.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=31}} Self-immolating oaths, such as ''I'll be damned'', involve speakers casting harm upon themselves.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=xvii}} These are often invoked as conditional statements based on whether something is true—''I'll be damned if...''{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|pp=31–32}} Profanity directed at an individual can take the form of an unfriendly suggestion. English examples include ''go to hell'' and ''kiss my ass''.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=32}} Some profanities, such as ''[[your mother]]!'', imply taboos or swear words without using them explicitly.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|pp=5, 32}}

== Social perception ==
[[File:2017.02.19 Lgbtqi+ Makeout at Trump Hotel, Washington, DC USA 00994 (33013403935).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Pejorative]] terms like ''[[queer]]'' may be [[reappropriated]] by the people they are directed against.]]
Whether speech is profane depends on context, because what is taboo or impolite in one environment might not be in another.{{Sfn|Kapoor|2016|pp=259–260}}{{Sfn|Stapleton|Beers Fägersten|Stephens|Loveday|2022|pp=1–2}}{{Sfn|Jay|Janschewitz|2008|p=269}} Swear words vary in their intensity, and speakers of a language might disagree that weaker swear words are actually profane.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=9}} Isolated profanities are often seen as more profane than those used in context.{{Sfn|Kapoor|2016|p=260}}

The identity of the speaker affects how profanity is seen, as different cultures may hold classes, sexes, age groups, and other identities to different standards.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=xx}} Profanity is often seen as more socially acceptable when coming from men,{{Sfn|Jay|Janschewitz|2008|p=271}} and it is commonly associated with [[machismo]].{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=439}} Profanity varies in how it affects a speaker's credibility. It can be seen as unprofessional in some circumstances, but it can make an argument more persuasive in others.{{Sfn|Stapleton|Beers Fägersten|Stephens|Loveday|2022|p=8}} Milder words can become more impactful in different circumstances; ''cheat'' may be more provocative in schools or gambling clubs, and ''informer'' replaces ''crook'' as a term of abuse for a dishonest person in a criminal setting.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=246}} Profanity is often associated with lower class professions like soldiers and [[cart]]ers.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=7}}

[[Expectancy violations theory]] holds that expectations about a speaker's behavior come from impressions based not only on the speaker's identity, but how the specific speaker typically communicates and the socially expected way to speak to a given listener.{{Sfn|Johnson|Lewis|2010|p=107}} Swearing in formal contexts is a greater violation of expectations than swearing in informal conversation.{{Sfn|Kapoor|2016|p=260}} Whether the profanity is spoken in public or private is also a factor in social acceptability.{{Sfn|Jay|Janschewitz|2008|p=272}} Conversations that involve profanity are correlated with other informal manners of speech, such as slang, humor, and discussion of sexuality.{{Sfn|Johnson|Lewis|2010|p=108}}

Native speakers of a language can intuitively decide what language is appropriate for a given context. Those still learning a language, such as children and non-native speakers, are more likely to use profane language without realizing that it is profane.{{Sfn|Jay|Janschewitz|2008|p=269}} Acceptable environments for profanity are learned in childhood as children find themselves chastised for swearing in some places more than others.{{Sfn|Jay|Janschewitz|2008|p=272}} Swearing is often milder among young children, and they place more stigma on terms that are not seen as profane by adults, like ''fart'' or ''dork''. Young children are more likely to use the mildest terms as swear words, such as ''pooh-pooh''. Adolescents develop an understanding of [[double meaning]]s in terms like ''balls''.{{Sfn|Jay|Janschewitz|2008|p=272}}

The severity of a swear word may decline over time as it is repeated.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=300}} In some cases, slurs can be [[Reappropriation|reclaimed]] by the targeted group when they are used ironically or in a positive context, such as ''[[queer]]'' to refer to the [[LGBTQ community]].{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|pp=246, 382}} People who speak multiple languages often have stronger emotional associations with profanity in their native languages over that of languages that they acquire later.{{Sfn|Stapleton|Beers Fägersten|Stephens|Loveday|2022|p=3}} The severity of a profane term can vary between [[dialect]]s within the same language.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=246}} Publishers of [[dictionaries]] must take profanity into consideration when deciding what words to include, especially when they are subject to obscenity laws.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|pp=xxiii, 123}} They may be wary of appearing to endorse the use of profane language by its inclusion.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=128}} [[Slang dictionaries]] have historically been used to cover profanity in lieu of more formal dictionaries.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|pp=123–125}}

In some cultures, there are situations where profanity is good etiquette. A tradition exists in some parts of China that a bride was expected to speak profanely to her groom's family in the days before the wedding, and one [[Aboriginal Australian]] culture uses profanity to denote class.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=xxi}}

== Censorship and avoidance ==
[[File:PEGI Bad Language annotated.svg|thumb|Profane language is often subject to regulation in media. This icon, used by [[PEGI]], indicates that a video game may contain "bad language".<ref>{{Cite web |title=What do the labels mean? {{!}} Pegi Public Site |url=https://pegi.info/what-do-the-labels-mean |access-date=18 September 2024 |website=pegi.info |language=en}}</ref>]]
The idea of censoring taboo ideas exists in all cultures.{{Sfn|Matusz|2017|p=38}} Swearing inappropriately can be punished socially, and public swearing can bring about legal consequences.{{Sfn|Stapleton|Beers Fägersten|Stephens|Loveday|2022|p=2}} There is disagreement as to whether [[freedom of speech]] should permit all forms of profane speech, including hate speech, or if such forms of speech can be justifiably restricted.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=222}} [[Censorship]] is used to restrict or penalize profanity, and governments may implement laws that disallow certain acts of profanity,{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=62}} including legal limitations on the broadcast of profanity over radio or television.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|pp=9–10}} Broadcasting has unique considerations as to what is considered acceptable, including its presence in the home and children's access to broadcasts.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=294}}

Profanity may be avoided when discussing taboo subjects through [[euphemism]]s. Euphemisms were historically used to avoid invoking the names of malevolent beings.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=151}} Euphemisms are commonly expressed as metaphors, such as ''make love'' or ''sleep with'' as descriptors of sexual intercourse.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=152}} Euphemisms can be alternate descriptors such as ''[[white meat]]'' instead of ''[[breast meat]]'', or they may be generic terms such as ''unmentionables''.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|pp=151–152}} [[Minced oath]]s are euphemisms that modify swear words until they are no longer profane, such as ''darn'' instead of ''damn'' in English.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=11}}

Substitution is another form of euphemism, with English examples including the replacement of ''[[fuck]]'' with ''the f-word'' or ''effing'' and the use of "[[four-letter word]]s" to refer to profanity in general.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|pp=xx, 3}} Chinese and some Southeast Asian languages use [[pun]]s and sound-alikes to create alternate swear words. The Chinese word for bird, {{lang|zh-Latn|niao}}, rhymes with the Chinese word for penis and is frequently invoked as a swear.{{Sfn|Matusz|2017|p=45}} The [[Cockney]] dialect of English uses [[rhyming slang]] to alter terms, including profanity; ''titty'' is rhymed as ''Bristol city'', which is then abbreviated as ''bristols''.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|pp=395–396}}

Speakers and authors may engage in [[self-censorship]] under legal or social pressure.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=62}} In the 21st century, censorship through social pressure is associated with [[political correctness]] in Western society.{{Sfn|Matusz|2017|pp=35, 38}}{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=348}} This has led to the intentional creation of new euphemisms to avoid terms that may be stigmatizing. Some become widely accepted, such as ''[[substance abuse]]'' for ''[[drug addiction]]'', while others are ignored or derided, such as ''differently abled'' for ''[[disabled]]''.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=153}}

== Physiology and neurology ==
The brain processes profanity differently than it processes other forms of language.{{Sfn|Stapleton|Beers Fägersten|Stephens|Loveday|2022|p=4}} Intentional controlled swearing is associated with the brain's [[left hemisphere]], while reflexive swearing is associated with the [[right hemisphere]].{{Sfn|Matusz|2017|p=37}} Swearing is associated with both language-processing parts of the brain, the left [[frontal lobe|frontal]] and [[temporal lobe|temporal]] lobes, as well as the emotion-processing parts, the right [[cerebrum]] and the [[amygdala]].{{Sfn|Jay|Janschewitz|2008|p=270}} The association of emotional swearing with the amygdala and other parts of the [[limbic system]] suggests that some uses of profanity are related to the [[fight-or-flight response]].{{Sfn|Stapleton|Beers Fägersten|Stephens|Loveday|2022|p=4}}

Profanity requires more mental processing than other forms of language, and the use of profanity is easier to remember when recalling a conversation or other speech.{{Sfn|Stapleton|Beers Fägersten|Stephens|Loveday|2022|pp=4–5}} Exposure to profanity leads to higher levels of [[arousal]],{{Sfn|Stapleton|Beers Fägersten|Stephens|Loveday|2022|p=3}} and it can cause increases in [[heart rate]] and [[electrodermal activity]] as part of a fight-or-flight response.{{Sfn|Lev-Ari|McKay|2023|p=1110}}{{Sfn|Stapleton|Beers Fägersten|Stephens|Loveday|2022|pp=5–6}} Swearing has also been shown [[Hypoalgesic effect of swearing|to increase pain tolerance]], especially among people who do not regularly swear.{{Sfn|Stapleton|Beers Fägersten|Stephens|Loveday|2022|p=6}}

Compulsive swearing is called [[coprolalia]], and it is associated with neurological conditions such as [[Tourette syndrome]], [[dementia]], and [[epilepsy]].{{Sfn|Jay|Janschewitz|2008|p=271}} The ability to use profanity can remain intact even when neurological trauma causes [[aphasia]].{{Sfn|Stapleton|Beers Fägersten|Stephens|Loveday|2022|p=4}}{{Sfn|Van Lancker|Cummings|1999|p=84}} Frequent swearing is more common among people with damage to the brain or other parts of the [[nervous system]].{{Sfn|Van Lancker|Cummings|1999|p=84}} Damage to the [[ventromedial prefrontal cortex]] can negatively affect one's ability to control their use of profanity and other socially inappropriate behaviors. Damage to [[Broca's area]] and other language-processing regions of the brain can similarly make people prone to outbursts. Damage to the right hemisphere limits the ability to understand and regulate the emotional content of one's speech.{{Sfn|Jay|Janschewitz|2008|p=271}}

==Legality==
===Australia===
In every Australian state and territory it is a crime to use offensive, indecent or insulting language in or near a public place.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Methven |first1=Elyse |title=A Little Respect: Swearing, Police and Criminal Justice Discourse |journal=International Journal for Crime, Justice and Social Democracy |date=2018 |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=58–74 |doi=10.5204/ijcjsd.v7i1.428 |url=http://www5.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/UTSLRS/2018/13.html |access-date=2 February 2021|doi-access=free |hdl=10453/127530 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> These offences are classed as [[summary offences]]. This means that they are usually tried before a local or magistrates court. Police also have the power to issue fixed penalty notices to alleged offenders.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Methven |first1=Elyse |title=Commodifying Justice: Discursive Strategies Used in the Legitimation of Infringement Notices for Minor Offences |journal=International Journal for the Semiotics of Law - Revue internationale de Sémiotique juridique |date=2020 |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=353–379 |doi=10.1007/s11196-020-09710-z |s2cid=219441851 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11196-020-09710-z |access-date=2 February 2021|url-access=subscription }}</ref> It is a defence in some Australian jurisdictions to have "a reasonable excuse" to conduct oneself in the manner alleged.<ref>{{cite web |title=Summary Offences Act 1988 (NSW) s 4A |url=http://www5.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nsw/consol_act/soa1988189/s4a.html |website=AustLII |access-date=2 February 2021}}</ref>

===Brazil===
In Brazil, the [[Penal Code of Brazil|Penal Code]] does not contain any penalties for profanity in public immediately. However, direct offenses against one can be considered a [[Defamation|crime against honor]], with a penalty of imprisonment of one to three months or a fine.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://brasil.mylex.net/legislacao/codigo-penal-cp-art140_90106.html|title=Código Penal CP com jurisprudência unificada|website=brasil.mylex.net|language=pt|access-date=11 May 2018|archive-date=12 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180512044024/https://brasil.mylex.net/legislacao/codigo-penal-cp-art140_90106.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> The analysis of the offence is considered "subjective", depending on the context of the discussion and the relationship between the parts.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://wsaraiva.com/2013/06/12/calunia-difamacao-e-injuria-os-crimes-contra-a-honra/comment-page-10/|title=Calúnia, difamação e injúria: os crimes contra a honra|date=12 June 2013|work=Blog de Wellington Saraiva|access-date=11 May 2018|language=pt-BR}}</ref>

===Canada===
Section 175 of Canada's [[Criminal Code (Canada)|Criminal Code]] makes it a criminal offence to "cause a disturbance in or near a public place" by "swearing […] or using insulting or obscene language". Provinces and municipalities may also have their laws against swearing in public. For instance, the Municipal Code of [[Toronto]] bars "profane or abusive language" in public parks.<ref>[https://teeterme.com/canada-park-swearing-law/ Canada’s Surprising Park Etiquette Law: The Ban on Public Swearing], Teeterme.</ref> In June 2016, a man in [[Halifax, Nova Scotia]], was arrested for using profane language at a protest against [[Bill C-51 (41st Canadian Parliament, 2nd Session)|Bill C-51]].<ref>[https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/2016/06/24/nova-scotia-man-facing-trial-for-swearing-in-public.html Nova Scotia man facing trial for swearing in public], thestar.com.</ref>

===India===
Sections 294A and 294B of Indian penal code have legal provisions for punishing individuals who use inappropriate or obscene words (either spoken or written) in public that are maliciously deliberate to outrage religious feelings or beliefs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://indiacode.nic.in/acts/1_Indian%20Penal%20Code,%201860.pdf|title=Indian Penal Code|date=1 May 1861|website=indiacode.nic.in|access-date=7 February 2019}}</ref> In February 2015, a local court in Mumbai asked police to file a [[first information report]] against 14 Bollywood celebrities who were part of the stage show of ''[[All India Bakchod]]'', a controversial comedy stage show known for vulgar and profanity based content.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.moneylife.in/article/aib-roast-court-asks-to-file-fir-against-karan-johar-deeepika-padukone-aalia-bhat-ranvir-singh-and-arjun-kapoor/40471.html|title=AIB Roast: Court asks to file FIR against Karan Johar, Deeepika Padukone, Aalia Bhat, Ranvir Singh & Arjun Kapoor|website=Moneylife NEWS & VIEWS|access-date=12 February 2019}}</ref> In May 2019 during the election campaign, Indian Prime Minister [[Narendra Modi]] listed out the abusive words the opposition Congress party had used against him and his mother during their campaign.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/news/pm-modi-lists-out-abuses-hurled-at-him-says-congress-did-not-even-spare-his-mother/articleshow/69234944.cms|title=PM Modi lists out abuses hurled at him, says Congress did not even spare his mother|date=8 May 2019|author=PTI|website=The Times of India|language=en|access-date=5 September 2019}}</ref>

In January 2016, a Mumbai-based communications agency initiated a campaign against profanity and abusive language called "[[Gaali free India]]" ({{transliteration|hi|gaali}} is the [[Hindi]] word for profanity).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.indiantelevision.com/mam/media-and-advertising/ad-campaigns/three-ad-campaigns-to-watch-out-for-on-republic-day-160125|title=Three ad campaigns to watch out for on Republic Day|date=25 January 2016|website=Indian Television Dot Com|language=en|access-date=7 March 2019}}</ref> Using creative ads, it called upon people to use swatch (clean) language on the lines of [[Swachh Bharat Mission]] for nationwide cleanliness. It further influenced other news media outlets who further raised the issue of abusive language in the society especially incest abuses against women, such as "mother fucker".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dnaindia.com/lifestyle/report-mother-sister-daughter-whose-gaali-is-it-anyway-2180156|title=Mother, sister, daughter... whose gaali is it anyway?|date=21 February 2016|website=DNA India|language=en|access-date=12 April 2019}}</ref>

In an increasing market for OTT content, several Indian web series have been using profanity and expletives to gain attention of the audiences.<ref>{{Cite web |last=vishalingale |date=1 February 2021 |title=7 Indian shows on Netflix that you should not watch with your parents |url=https://www.gqindia.com/binge-watch/collection/indian-shows-on-netflix-not-watch-parents/ |access-date=1 April 2022 |website=GQ India |language=en-IN}}</ref>

===New Zealand===
In New Zealand, the ''[[Summary Offences Act 1981]]'' makes it illegal to use "indecent or obscene words in or within hearing of any public place". However, if the defendant has "reasonable grounds for believing that his words would not be overheard" then no offence is committed. Also, "the court shall have regard to all the circumstances pertaining at the material time, including whether the defendant had reasonable grounds for believing that the person to whom the words were addressed, or any person by whom they might be overheard, would not be offended".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1981/0113/latest/whole.html#DLM53500|title=Summary Offences Act 1981 No 113 (as at 01 March 2017), Public Act – New Zealand Legislation|website=www.legislation.govt.nz}}</ref>

=== Pakistan ===
Political leaders in Pakistan have been consistently picked up for using profane, abusive language. While there is no legislation to punish abusers, the problem aggravated with abusive language being used in the parliament and even against women.<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 March 2022 |title=PTI's Use Of Abusive Language To Shame Dissident Lawmakers Exposes The Party's Deep-Rooted Problem |url=https://www.thefridaytimes.com/2022/03/19/ptis-use-of-abusive-language-to-shame-dissident-lawmakers-exposes-the-partys-deep-rooted-problem/ |access-date=1 April 2022 |website=The Friday Times - Naya Daur |language=en-US}}</ref>

===Philippines===
{{See also|Tagalog profanity}}
[[File:Obscene Graffiti on Pinaglabanan Memorial Shrine San Juan.jpg|thumb|Tagalog-language graffiti in [[San Juan, Metro Manila]], depicting a penis and the text {{lang|tl|Docdocos burat titi}}, claiming that "Docdocos" has an [[Circumcision|uncircumcised penis]].|alt=refer to caption]]

The Department of Education in the Philippine city of Baguio expressed that while cursing was prohibited in schools, children were not following this prohibition at home. Thus as part of its anti profanity initiative, in November 2018, the [[Baguio]] city government in the Philippines passed an anti profanity law that prohibits cursing and profanity in areas of the city frequented by children. This move was welcomed by educators<ref name=PNA/> and the Department of Education in Cordillera.<ref name=PNA>{{Cite web|url=http://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1053326|title=Educators only have good words for Baguio's anti-cursing law|work=[[Philippine News Agency]]|language=en|access-date=6 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.abs-cbn.com/news/11/07/18/bawal-magmura-anti-profanity-ordinance-passed-in-baguio|title=Bawal magma: Anti-profanity ordinance passed in Baguio|date=7 November 2018|work=[[ABS-CBNnews.com]]|access-date=6 March 2019}}</ref>

===Russia===
Swearing in public is an administrative crime in Russia. However, law enforcement rarely targets swearing people. The punishment is a fine of 500–1000 roubles or even a 15-day imprisonment.<ref>The Code of Administrative Offences of the Russian Federation, 20:1.</ref>

===United Kingdom===
====In public====
Swearing, in and of itself, is not usually a [[crime|criminal offence]] in the [[United Kingdom]] although in context may constitute a component of a crime. However, it may be a criminal offence in [[Salford Quays]] under a [[public spaces protection order]] which outlaws the use of "foul and abusive language" without specifying any further component to the offence, although it appears to be unclear as to whether all and every instance of swearing is covered. [[Salford City Council]] claims that the defence of "reasonable excuse" allows all the circumstances to be taken into account.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.itv.com/news/granada/2016-03-02/salford-council-tries-to-outlaw-swearing-at-the-quays/|title=Salford Council tries to outlaw swearing at The Quays|date=2 March 2016}}</ref> In [[England and Wales]], swearing in public where it is seen to cause [[harassment, alarm or distress]] may constitute an offence under section 5(1) and (6) of the [[Public Order Act 1986]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1986/64|title=Public Order Act 1986|publisher=Legislation.gov.uk|access-date=19 November 2012}}</ref> In [[Scotland]], a similar common law offence of [[breach of the peace]] covers issues causing public alarm and distress.

====In the workplace====
In the United Kingdom, swearing in the workplace can be an act of [[Misconduct|gross misconduct]] under certain circumstances. In particular, this is the case when swearing accompanies insubordination against a superior or humiliation of a subordinate employee. However, in other cases, it may not be grounds for instant dismissal.<ref>[http://www.lindermyers.co.uk/is-swearing-in-the-workplace-legal/ Swearing in the Workplace]. Retrieved 19 November 2012.</ref> According to a UK site on work etiquette, the "fact that swearing is a part of everyday life means that we need to navigate away through a day in the office without offending anyone, while still appreciating that people do swear. Of course, there are different types of swearing and, without spelling it out, you really ought to avoid the 'worst words' regardless of who you're talking to".<ref name="worketiquette">[http://www.worketiquette.co.uk/swearing-workplace.html Work Etiquette&nbsp;– Swearing in the Workplace]. Retrieved 19 November 2012</ref> Within the UK, the appropriateness of swearing can vary largely by a person's industry of employment, though it is still not typically used in situations where employees of a higher position than oneself are present.<ref name="worketiquette" />

In 2006, ''[[The Guardian]]'' reported that "36% of the 308 UK senior managers and directors having responded to a survey accepted swearing as part of workplace culture", but warned about specific inappropriate uses of swearing such as when it is discriminatory or part of bullying behaviour. The article ended with a quotation from Ben Wilmott (Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development): "Employers can ensure professional language in the workplace by having a well-drafted policy on bullying and harassment that emphasises how bad language has potential to amount to [[harassment]] or [[bullying]]."<ref>{{cite news|author=Matt Keating|url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2006/jun/03/careers.work|title=Should swearing be tolerated in the workplace?|newspaper=Guardian|date=3 June 2006|access-date=12 May 2010|location=London}}</ref>

===United States===
{{See also|Actionable indecency|United States obscenity law}}
[[File:Virginia Beach No-Bad-Behavior sign.jpg|thumb|right|Local law in [[Virginia Beach]] prohibits the use of profanity along the boardwalk of Atlantic Avenue]]
In the United States, courts have generally ruled that the government does not have the right to prosecute someone solely for the use of an expletive, which would be a violation of their [[freedom of speech|right to free speech]] enshrined in the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]]. On the other hand, they have upheld convictions of people who used profanity to incite riots, harass people, or [[breach of the peace|disturb the peace]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://people.howstuffworks.com/swearing3.htm |title=How Swearing Works |website=HowStuffWorks |first=Tracy V. |last=Wilson|date=30 November 2005 }}</ref> In 2011, a [[North Carolina]] statute that made it illegal to use "indecent or profane language" in a "loud and boisterous manner" within earshot of two or more people on any public road or highway was struck down as unconstitutional.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.aclu.org/news/states-anti-profanity-law-unconstitutional-rules-superior-court-judge |title=State's Anti-Profanity Law Unconstitutional Rules Superior Court Judge |website=ACLU |date=7 January 2011}}</ref> In 2015, the city of [[Myrtle Beach, South Carolina]] passed an ordinance that makes profane language punishable with fines up to $500 and/or 30 days in jail.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://wlos.com/news/local/watch-your-mouth-profanity-could-cost-you-in-myrtle-beach|title=Watch your mouth! Profanity could cost you in Myrtle Beach|author=WPDE Staff|date=27 August 2018|website=WLOS|access-date=12 February 2019}}</ref> An amount of $22,000 was collected from these fines in 2017 alone.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/myrtle-beach-profanity-fines-swearing-tickets-south-carolina-a8515016.html|title=A beach in South Carolina made over $22,000 by charging people for swearing|date=30 August 2018|website=The Independent|language=en|access-date=12 February 2019}}</ref>

==Religious views==
{{see also|Blasphemy}}

===Judaism===
Rabbi Yisroel Cotlar wrote in [[Chabad.org]] that [[Judaism]] forbids the use of profanity as contradicting the [[Torah]]'s command to "Be holy", which revolves around the concept of separating oneself from worldly practices (including the use of vulgar language).<ref name="Cotlar2022">{{cite web |last1=Cotlar |first1=Rabbi Yisroel |title=The Torah on Dirty Words |url=https://www.chabad.org/parshah/article_cdo/aid/1237003/jewish/The-Torah-on-Dirty-Words.htm |publisher=[[Chabad.org]] |access-date=16 February 2022 |language=English}}</ref> The [[Talmud]] teaches that the words that leave the mouth make an impact on the heart and mind; he stated that the use of profanity thus causes the regression of the soul.<ref name="Cotlar2022"/> Judaism thus teaches that ''shemirat halashon'' (guarding one's tongue) is one of the first steps to spiritual improvement.<ref name="Cotlar2022"/>

===Christianity===
Various [[Christianity|Christian]] writers have condemned the use of "foul language" as being [[Christian views on sin|sinful]], a position held since the time of the [[early Church]].<ref name="Wogaman1993">{{cite book |last1=Wogaman |first1=J. Philip |title=Christian Ethics: A Historical Introduction |date=1 January 1993 |publisher=[[Westminster John Knox Press]] |isbn=978-0-664-25163-5 |page=30}}</ref><ref name="Didache"/> To this end, the [[Bible]] commands including "Don't use foul or abusive language. Let everything you say be good and helpful, so that your words will be an encouragement to those who hear them" (Ephesians 4:29)<ref>{{Bibleverse|Ephesians|4:29|NLT}}</ref> and also "Let there be no filthiness nor foolish talk nor crude joking, which are out of place, but instead let there be thanksgiving" (Ephesians 5:4).<ref>{{Bibleverse|Ephesians|5:4|ESV}}</ref> These teachings are echoed in Ecclesiasticus 20:19,<ref>{{Bibleverse|Ecclesiasticus|20:19|KJV}}</ref> Ecclesiasticus 23:8-15,<ref>{{Bibleverse|Ecclesiasticus|23:8-15|KJV}}</ref> and Ecclesiasticus 17:13-15,<ref>{{Bibleverse|Ecclesiasticus|27:13-15|KJV}}</ref> all of which are found in the [[Deuterocanon]]/[[Biblical Apocrypha|Apocrypha]].<ref name="Hultin2008">{{cite book |last1=Hultin |first1=Jeremy F. |title=The Ethics of Obscene Speech in Early Christianity and Its Environment |date=31 August 2008 |publisher=Brill Academic Publishers |isbn=978-90-474-3367-5 |pages=167, 215 |language=English}}</ref> [[Jesus]] taught that "by your words you will be justified, and by your words you will be condemned." (cf. Matthew 12:36-37<ref>{{Bibleverse|Matthew|12:36-37|ESV}}</ref>),<ref name="DiMarzio2019">{{cite book |last1=DiMarzio |first1=Johnny |title=The View From the Pew |date=9 October 2019 |publisher=Covenant Books |isbn=978-1-64559-615-8 |language=en}}</ref> with revilers being listed as being among the damned in 1 Corinthians 6:9-10.<ref>{{Bibleverse|1 Corinthians|6:9-10|KJV}}</ref><ref name="Loader2012">{{cite book |last1=Loader |first1=William |title=The New Testament on Sexuality |date=13 September 2012 |publisher=[[Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing]] |isbn=978-0-8028-6724-7 |page=326 |language=English}}</ref> Profanity revolving around the dictum "[[Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain]]", one of the [[Ten Commandments]], is regarded as [[blasphemy]] as Christians regard it as "an affront to God's holiness".<ref>{{cite web |title=Thou Shalt Not Thou Shalt Not Take the Lord's Name in Vain: Blasphemy Is Still a Sin |url=https://www.churchpop.com/2016/08/09/thou-shalt-not-take-the-lords-name-in-vain-blasphemy-is-still-a-sin/ |publisher=ChurchPOP |access-date=16 February 2022 |language=English |date=9 August 2016}}</ref><ref name="Bright2005">{{cite book |author1=[[Bill Bright]] |title=The Joy of Faithful Obedience |date=2005 |publisher=Cook Communications |isbn=978-0-7814-4252-7 |page=52 |language=English}}</ref> [[Paul the Apostle]] defines the ridding of filthy language from one's lips as being evidence of living in a relationship with Jesus (cf. Colossians 3:1-10<ref>{{Bibleverse|Colossians|3:1-10|KJV}}</ref>).<ref name="Jensen2012">{{cite book |last1=Jensen |first1=Robin M. |title=Baptismal Imagery in Early Christianity: Ritual, Visual, and Theological Dimensions |date=June 2012 |publisher=[[Baker Publishing Group]] |isbn=978-0-8010-4832-6 |page=169 |language=English }}</ref> The [[Epistle to the Colossians]] teaches that controlling the tongue "is the key to gaining mastery over the whole body."<ref name="Hultin2008"/> The [[Didache]] 3:3 included the use of "foul language" as being part of the lifestyle that puts one on the way to eternal death.<ref name="Didache">{{cite web |title=The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles to the Nations, known as The Didache |url=https://legacyicons.com/content/didache.pdf |publisher=Legacy Icons |access-date=16 February 2022 |pages=6 |language=English |date=2016|quote=But the way of death is this. First of all, it is evil and full of curses: murder, adultery, lust, promiscuity, theft, idolatry, magical arts, witchcraft, robbery, false testimony, hypocrisy, duplicity, treachery, pride, malice, stubbornness, greed, foul language, jealousy, arrogance, pride, and boasting.}}</ref> The same document commands believers not to use profanity as it "breeds adultery".<ref name="Wogaman1993"/> [[John Chrysostom]], an [[early Church Father]], taught that those engaged in the use of profanity should repent of the sin.<ref name="Old1998">{{cite book |last1=Old |first1=Hughes Oliphant |title=The Reading and Preaching of the Scriptures in the Worship of the Christian Church, Volume 2: The Patristic Age |date=1998 |publisher=[[Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing]] |isbn=978-0-8028-4357-9 |page=189 |language=English |quote=The city was stunned with fear when John Chrysostom entered the pulpit to prepare his congregation to enter the forty-day fast. Never was a congregation more ripe for repentance than the Christians of Antioch were at the beginning of the fast that year. The preacher lamented the sins of the city and challenged its citizens not merely to fast but to lay aside every form of sin, especially the sins of swearing and cursing. All through the twenty-one sermons John preached during the fast, this theme keeps recurring. Perhaps our preacher planned to mount a special crusade against the making of oaths, the use of foul language, and other expressions of anger during the fasting season, or maybe he had intended to challenge his congregation to rid themselves of the sins of the...}}</ref> The [[Epistle of James]] holds that "blessing God" is the primary function of the Christian's tongue, not speaking foul language.<ref name="Hultin2008"/> [[Tikhon of Zadonsk|Saint Tikhon of Zadonsk]], a bishop of [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], lambasted profanity and blasphemy, teaching that it is "extremely unbefitting [for] Christians" and that believers should guard themselves from ever using it.<ref name="Bobosh2018">{{cite web |last1=Bobosh |first1=Ted |title=The Problem of Profanity |url=https://orthochristian.com/113857.html |publisher=OrthoChristian |access-date=16 February 2022 |language=English |date=21 June 2018}}</ref>

=== Islam ===
According to Ayatullah Ibrahim Amini, the use of "bad words" is [[haram]] in Islam. Additionally, impertinence and slander are considered immoral acts.<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 January 2013 |title=Chapter 62: Tongue Lashing and Impertinence |url=https://www.al-islam.org/principles-upbringing-children-ibrahim-amini/chapter-62-tongue-lashing-and-impertinence |access-date=7 November 2022 |website=www.al-islam.org |language=en}}</ref>

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
*{{annotated link|Animal epithet}}
*{{annotated link|Bleep censor}}
*{{annotated link|Expletive deleted}}
*{{annotated link|Fighting words}}
*{{annotated link|Flyting}}
*{{annotated link|Lists of pejorative terms for people}}
*{{annotated link|Maledictology}}
*{{annotated link|Profanity in science fiction}}
*{{annotated link|Scunthorpe problem}}
*{{annotated link|Sexual slang}}
*{{annotated link|Swear jar}}
*{{annotated link|Use–mention distinction}}
*{{annotated link|Verbal abuse}}
*{{annotated link|Vulgarism}}
*{{annotated link|Wordfilter}}
{{div col end}}

== Notes ==
{{Reflist}}

== References ==
* {{Cite book |last=Hughes |first=Geoffrey |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781315706412/encyclopedia-swearing-geoffrey-hughes |title=An Encyclopedia of Swearing: The Social History of Oaths, Profanity, Foul Language, and Ethnic Slurs in the English-speaking World |year=2015 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9781315706412 |isbn=978-1-315-70641-2 |url-access=subscription}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Jay |first1=Timothy |last2=Janschewitz |first2=Kristin |year=2008 |title=The Pragmatics of Swearing |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/JPLR.2008.013/html |journal=Journal of Politeness Research. Language, Behaviour, Culture |volume=4 |issue=2 |doi=10.1515/JPLR.2008.013 |issn=1612-5681 |pages=267–288 |url-access=subscription}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=Danette Ifert |last2=Lewis |first2=Nicole |year=2010 |title=Perceptions of Swearing in the Work Setting: An Expectancy Violations Theory Perspective |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08934215.2010.511401 |journal=Communication Reports |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=106–118 |doi=10.1080/08934215.2010.511401 |issn=0893-4215 |url-access=subscription}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Kapoor |first=Hansika |year=2016 |title=Swears in Context: The Difference Between Casual and Abusive Swearing |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10936-014-9345-z |journal=Journal of Psycholinguistic Research |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=259–274 |doi=10.1007/s10936-014-9345-z |pmid=25480107 |issn=0090-6905 |url-access=subscription}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Lev-Ari |first1=Shiri |last2=McKay |first2=Ryan |year=2023 |title=The Sound of Swearing: Are There Universal Patterns in Profanity? |journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=1103–1114 |doi=10.3758/s13423-022-02202-0 |issn=1069-9384 |pmc=10264537 |pmid=36471228}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ljung |first=Magnus |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1057/9780230292376/ |title=Swearing: A Cross-Cultural Linguistic Study |year=2011 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |doi=10.1057/9780230292376 |isbn=978-0-230-57631-5 |url-access=subscription}}
* {{Cite book |last=Matusz |first=Łukasz |chapter=Taboos and Swearing: Cross-Linguistic Universalities and Peculiarities |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-56892-8 |title=Multiculturalism, Multilingualism and the Self: Studies in Linguistics and Language Learning |series=Second Language Learning and Teaching |year=2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-56892-8 |editor-last=Gabryś-Barker |editor-first=Danuta |editor-last2=Gałajda |editor-first2=Dagmara |editor-last3=Wojtaszek |editor-first3=Adam |editor-last4=Zakrajewski |editor-first4=Paweł|pages=33–47|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-56892-8 |url-access=subscription}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Stapleton |first1=Karyn |last2=Beers Fägersten |first2=Kristy |last3=Stephens |first3=Richard |last4=Loveday |first4=Catherine |year=2022 |title=The Power of Swearing: What We Know and What We Don't |journal=Lingua |volume=277 |doi=10.1016/j.lingua.2022.103406 |doi-access=free}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Van Lancker |first1=D |last2=Cummings |first2=J.L |year=1999 |title=Expletives: Neurolinguistic and Neurobehavioral Perspectives on Swearing |journal=Brain Research Reviews |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=83–104 |doi=10.1016/S0165-0173(99)00060-0 |pmid=10611497 |doi-access=free}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite journal|last=Almond|first=Ian|title=Derrida and the Secret of the Non-Secret: On Respiritualising the Profane|journal=Literature and Theology|year=2003|volume=17|issue=4|pages=457–471|doi=10.1093/litthe/17.4.457}}
* Bryson, Bill (1990) ''The Mother Tongue''
* {{cite book|last=Bulcke|first=Camille|year=2001|title=An English-Hindi Dictionary|edition=3rd|place=Ramnagar, New Delhi|publisher=Chand|isbn=81-219-0559-1|orig-year=1968}}
* {{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.langsci.2010.11.005|title=Slurs|journal=Language Sciences|volume=33|issue=3|pages=343–358|year=2011|last1=Croom|first1=Adam M.}}
* {{cite book |title=This Book Is Taboo: An Introduction to Linguistics through Swearing |first=Randall |last=Eggert |publisher=Kendall Hunt Publishing |year=2011 |isbn=978-0757586422}}
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yR1sZmrIBeoC&q=hindi|title=Swearing: A Social History of Foul Language, Oaths and Profanity in English|last=Hughes|first=Geoffrey|year=2004|orig-year=1991|publisher=Penguin UK|isbn=9780141954325|language=en}}
* {{cite book |title=Cursing in America: A psycholinguistic study of dirty language in the courts, in the movies, in the schoolyards and on the streets |first=Timothy |last=Jay |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company |year=1992 |isbn=978-1556194511}}
* Johnson, Sterling (2004) ''Watch Your F*cking Language''
* McEnery, Tony (2006) ''Swearing in English: bad language, purity and power from 1586 to the present'', [[Routledge]] {{ISBN|0-415-25837-5}}.
* {{cite book| title=Nine Nasty Words: English in the Gutter: Then, Now, and Forever |year=2021 |first=John |last=McWhorter |publisher=Avery |isbn=978-0593188798}}
* O'Connor, Jim (2000) ''[[Cuss Control]]''
* {{cite book |title=For F*ck's Sake: Why Swearing is Shocking, Rude, and Fun |first=Rebecca |last=Roache |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2023 |isbn=978-0190665067}}
* Sagarin Edward (1962) ''The Anatomy of Dirty Words''
* Sheidlower, Jesse (2009) ''The F-Word'' (3rd ed.)
* Spears, Richard A. (1990) ''Forbidden American English''
* {{cite web|last=Stollznow|first=Karen|author-link=Karen Stollznow|title=Swearing is bad?|url=http://www.bad-language.com/arse|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070521231712/http://www.bad-language.com/arse|archive-date=21 May 2007}}
* Wajnryb, Ruth (2005) ''Expletive Deleted: A Good Look at Bad Language''

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{wikiquote}}
{{Wiktionary}}
* [http://onlineslangdictionary.com/lists/most-vulgar-words/ Most vulgar words in The Online Slang Dictionary] (as voted by visitors)
* {{Gutenberg|no=5402|name=Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue|author=[[Francis Grose]]|year=1811}}

{{Profanity}}
{{Aspects of workplaces|state=collapsed}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Profanity]]
[[Category:Blasphemy]]
[[Category:Obscenity]]
[[Category:Censorship]]
[[Category:Connotation]]
[[Category:Harassment and bullying]]