Editing Protest vote

{{Short description|Vote cast in an election as a form of political protest}}
{{Voting}}[[File:BRStateMuseumJuly08SpoiledBallot1940.jpg|alt=A box for spoiled ballots from a Louisiana election|thumb|310x310px|Spoiled votes may or may not be protest votes, but are often kept aside for challenges, further examination, or disposal.]]
A '''protest vote''' (also called a '''blank''', '''null''', [[spoilt vote|spoiled]], or "[[none of the above]]" vote)<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Alvarez|first1=R. Michael|last2=Kiewiet|first2=D. Roderick|last3=Núñez|first3=Lucas|date=2018|title=A Taxonomy of Protest Voting|journal=Annual Review of Political Science|volume=21|pages=135–154|doi=10.1146/annurev-polisci-050517-120425|doi-access=free}}</ref> is a [[vote]] cast in an [[election]] to demonstrate dissatisfaction with the choice of candidates or the current [[politics|political]] system.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Southwell|first1=Priscilla Lewis|last2=Everest|first2=Marcy Jean|date=1998|title=The Electoral Consequences of Alienation: Nonvoting and Protest Voting in the 1992 Presidential Race|journal=The Social Science Journal|volume=35|issue=1|pages=43–51|doi=10.1016/s0362-3319(98)90058-1}}</ref> Protest voting takes a variety of forms and reflects numerous voter motivations, including [[political apathy]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Damore|first1=David F.|last2=Waters|first2=Mallory M.|last3=Bowler|first3=Shaun|date=December 2012|title=Unhappy, Uninformed, or Uninterested? Understanding "None of the Above" Voting|journal=Political Research Quarterly|volume=65|issue=4|pages=895–907|jstor=41759322|doi=10.1177/1065912911424286| s2cid=143974182 }}</ref> Where [[Compulsory voting|voting is compulsory]], casting a blank vote is available for those who do not wish to choose a candidate, or to protest. Unlike abstention elsewhere, blank votes are counted.

Along with [[abstention]], or not voting, protest voting is a sign of unhappiness with available options. If protest vote takes the form of a blank vote, it may or may not be tallied into final results. Protest votes may be considered spoiled or, depending on the [[electoral system]], counted as "none of the above" votes.

== Types of protest vote ==

Protest votes can take many different forms:

* Blank ballots
* Null ballots
* Spoiled ballots
* None of the above votes
* Votes for a fringe candidate or party, or a less preferred candidate or party
* Organized protest votes
* Declined ballots

Protest voting tends to occur among voters who feel alienated but who have an alternative voting option, such as a [[Third party (United States)|third-party]] candidate in the United States, or who can register their displeasure with the political process by reducing the majority status of a likely winner.<ref name=":0" /> Alienation often leads to abstention from voting, but can also generate participation in the form of a protest vote. In the [[1992 United States presidential election]], for example, 14% of those who voted for [[Ross Perot]] said they would not have voted at all if he had not run.<ref name=":0" />

Protest votes can take the form of blank, null, or spoiled ballots. Blank ballots are ballots with no markings on them. Null ballots are ballots that do not result in a valid vote because the ballot was filled out incompletely or incorrectly.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Hill|first1=Lisa|last2=Young|first2=Sally|date=September 2007|title=Protest or Error? Informal Voting and Compulsory Voting|journal=Australian Journal of Political Science|volume=42|issue=3|pages=515–521|doi=10.1080/10361140701513646| s2cid=153913830 }}</ref> Spoiled ballots are ballots that have been defaced, crossed-out, or otherwise marked in a way that makes the ballot ineligible; spoiled ballots most clearly indicate the presence of a protest vote.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last1=Driscoll|first1=Amanda|last2=Nelson|first2=Michael J.|date=September 2014|title=Ignorance or Opposition? Blank and Spoiled Votes in Low-Information, Highly Politicized Environments|journal=Political Research Quarterly|volume=67|issue=3|pages=547–561|jstor=24371891|doi=10.1177/1065912914524634| s2cid=145215626 }}</ref> Write-in votes may also indicate protest voting; in the United States [[Mickey Mouse#Use in politics|Mickey Mouse]] has historically been a popular choice.

Declined ballots occur where a voter shows up to the polling place, and declines to vote. This is an option in multiple Canadian provinces, including [[Ontario]]. However, this option does not exist in federal elections. To decline a ballot, one may return the ballot to the poll worker while stating that they decline to vote.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ottawacitizen.com/news/national/declining-your-ballot-not-in-the-next-federal-election|title= Declining your ballot? Not in the next federal election|first=Jordan|last=press|date=24 June 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.elections.on.ca/en/voting-in-ontario/frequently-asked-questions.html|title=Frequently asked questions}}</ref>

None of the above (NOTA) voting is rarely an option in U.S. politics, although it has been an option on Nevada ballots since 1976.<ref name=":2" /> NOTA voting is proposed as a state-legitimized method of allowing voters to signal discontent, although selecting a "none" option does not always indicate protest.<ref name=":2" />

Other types of protest voting relate more to the choice of candidate or party selected for a valid vote than the ballot itself. Voting for a [[minor party|fringe candidate]] or less preferred party can be a way of signaling dissatisfaction with a leading candidate, party, or policy, or of reducing the margin of victory of the likely winner.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Myatt|first=David|date=September 2015|title=A Theory of Protest Voting|journal=The Economic Journal|volume=127|issue=603|pages=1527–1567|doi=10.1111/ecoj.12333| s2cid=12835208 }}</ref>

Protest voting organized by political parties or leaders also occurs, but tends to be rare and associated with extreme circumstances.<ref name=":1" />

== Determining the presence of a protest vote ==

Distinguishing between ballots that have been deliberately cast as protest votes and those that are blank, null, or spoiled by an individual trying but failing to cast a valid vote is challenging. Blank votes are often associated with protest voting, but can also be indicators of a lack of information.<ref name=":4" /> Votes are blank, null, and spoiled more frequently in areas with high levels of illiteracy or limited language competency.<ref name=":3" /> Spoiled ballots, especially those that have been deliberately defaced or otherwise ruined, are a more reliable indicator of protest votes and of political sophistication.<ref name=":4" />

== Significant protest vote events ==

One United States court case determined that voting is not an issue of free speech or expression, but rather about electing officials; in ''Burdick v. Takushi, 1992'', the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] upheld a ban on write-in votes after Alan B. Burdick argued that Hawaii should be required to count his protest vote for [[Donald Duck]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/91-0535.ZO.html|title=Burdick v. Takushi, 504 U.S. 428 (1992)|website=Cornell University Law School Legal Information Institute}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hill|first=Lisa|date=2006|title=Low Voter Turnout in the United States: Is Compulsory Voting a Viable Solution?|journal=Journal of Theoretical Politics|volume=18|issue=2|pages=207–232|doi=10.1177/0951629806061868|citeseerx=10.1.1.1005.9634| s2cid=154361874 }}</ref>

In the [[Parliament|parliamentary elections]] in Finland and Sweden, voters have also used Donald Duck as a protest vote.<ref>Kallionpää, Katri. "[http://www.hs.fi/english/article/Donald+Duck+holds+his+own+in+the+north/1135226493131 Donald Duck holds his own in the north] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131227085047/http://www.hs.fi/english/article/Donald+Duck+holds+his+own+in+the+north/1135226493131|date=2013-12-27}}." ''[[Helsingin Sanomat]]''. March 7, 2007. Retrieved on March 4, 2009.</ref> In Ukraine, the [[Internet Party of Ukraine|Internet Party]] nominated [[Darth Vader]] for mayoral elections in [[2014 Kyiv local election|Kyiv]] and [[Odesa]], and tried to nominate Darth Vader for [[2014 Ukrainian presidential election|presidency]], although this application was rejected.<ref>[http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/ukraine-crisis/vote-dark-side-darth-vader-runs-mayor-ukraine-n94781 Vote Dark Side: 'Darth Vader' Runs for Mayor in Ukraine — NBC News]</ref>

Protest voting is common in [[Latin America]], where over 5.5% of ballots in presidential elections since 1980 have been blank or spoiled.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cohen|first=Mollie J.|date=April 22, 2018|title=A dynamic model of the invalid vote: How a changing candidate menu shapes null voting behavior|journal=Electoral Studies|volume=53|pages=111–121|doi=10.1016/j.electstud.2018.04.015| s2cid=158301581 |doi-access=free}}</ref> During the [[2000 Peruvian general election|2000 presidential elections]] in [[Peru]], candidate [[Alejandro Toledo]] withdrew over concerns about election integrity and encouraged his supporters to spoil their ballots as protest—an example of organized protest voting.<ref name=":1" /> In that election, around 31% of ballots cast were spoiled or blank.<ref name=":1" />

After the [[2002 French presidential election]], in which [[far-right]] leader [[Jean-Marie Le Pen]] arrived second behind conservative candidate [[Jacques Chirac]], protest vote was named a contributing factor. The [[2017 French presidential election]], won by [[Emmanuel Macron]], saw the highest level of protest voting and abstention in France since the late 1960s, with 4 million blank or spoiled ballots and an additional 12 million abstentions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/french-election-protest-vote-nobody-was-highest-half-century-n756261|title=French Election: Protest Vote for 'Nobody' Was Highest In Half a Century|last=Smith|first=Saphora|date=May 8, 2017|website=NBC News}}</ref>

In [[Colombia]], the blank vote has a legal path to force a repetition of an election and a change of the candidates in that election. According to the paragraph 1 of the article 258 of the [[Colombian Constitution of 1991|Political Constitution of Colombia]], if the [[:es:Voto en blanco#Voto en blanco en Colombia|blank vote in Colombia]] becomes the most voted option, the elections should be repeated once and, depending on the nature of the election, the parties should present new candidates or new lists of candidates. This gives the protest vote a way to express dissent with real electoral consequences. So far, the blank vote has not been majoritarian in presidential or congress elections in Colombia, but it already has forced to repeat some elections for mayor's office.<ref>Freeman, Daniel E. "[https://colombiareports.com/blank-vote-explained-colombia-biggest-electoral-gamble/ The blank vote explained: Colombia’s biggest electoral gamble]". March 7, 2014.</ref>

In certain parts of the United States, especially in the [[Southern United States|South]], protest candidates often receive a large number of votes in [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] presidential primaries due to a large presence of [[Conservative Democrat|conservative Democrats]] who, while registered Democrats, often vote [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] at the federal level. This phenomenon received significant attention in the [[2012 Democratic Party presidential primaries|2012 Democratic primaries]], where attorney [[John Wolfe Jr.]] polled at 42% against incumbent President [[Barack Obama]] in the [[Arkansas]] primary, and prisoner [[Keith Russell Judd|Keith Judd]] received 41% in [[West Virginia]]. In Oklahoma, non-Obama candidates gathered a combined total of 43%, with the highest number of votes going to anti-abortion activist [[Randall Terry]].<ref name="greenpapersElectionDate">{{cite web|url=http://www.thegreenpapers.com/P12/events.phtml?s=c|title=2012 Presidential Primaries, Caucuses, and Conventions: Chronologically|work=The Green Papers|date=August 28, 2013|access-date=January 31, 2020}}</ref> The phenomenon showed up in later elections but on a smaller scale (as many former Democrats left the party). In the [[2016 West Virginia Democratic primary]], [[favorite son]] [[Paul T. Farrell Jr.]] received 9% of the vote and placed ahead of eventual nominee [[Hillary Clinton]] in one county.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/politics/first-draft/2016/05/11/protest-candidate-paul-farrell-wins-9-percent-of-west-virginia-primary-vote/|title=Protest Candidate, Paul Farrell, Wins 9 Percent of West Virginia Primary Vote|last=Rappeport|first=Alan|date=2016-05-11|website=The New York Times - First Draft|language=en-US|access-date=2017-06-27}}</ref> In the [[2020 West Virginia Democratic primary|2020 primary in that state]], fellow favorite son David Rice received a similar 8%.<ref name="WV-SOS-results">{{cite web |title=Results – Democratic Contests |url=https://results.enr.clarityelections.com/WV/103231/web.247524/#/summary?category=C_2 |website=results.enr.clarityelections.com/ |publisher=West Virginia Secretary of State |access-date=June 10, 2020}}</ref>

During the [[2024 Democratic Party presidential primaries|2024 Democratic presidential primaries]], a [[Gaza war protest vote movements|significant protest vote movement]] formed against Biden's support of Israel during the [[Gaza war]].

In the [[2024 Russian presidential election]], amid the exclusion of [[Anti-war protests in Russia (2022–present)|anti-war]] candidates from challenging incumbent President [[Vladimir Putin]], anti-Putin activists employed the protest voting tactic known as [[Noon Against Putin]], first proposed by jailed Russian opposition leader [[Alexei Navalny]] before his death.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Ebel |first1=Francesca |last2=Dixon |first2=Robyn |date=2024-03-18 |title=Russian voters, answering Navalny's call, protest as Putin extends his rule |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2024/03/17/russia-presidential-election-putin-protest/ |access-date=2024-03-20 |newspaper=Washington Post |language=en-US |issn=0190-8286}}</ref> This involved gathering at polling stations on the last day of voting around midday to advocate for spoilt ballots such as writing Navalny's name or to cast votes for [[New People (political party)|New People]] candidate [[Vladislav Davankov]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Sauer |first=Pjotr |date=2024-03-17 |title=Russians form long queues at polling stations in 'noon against Putin' protest |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/mar/17/russians-urged-to-disrupt-final-day-of-vladimir-putins-presidential-election |access-date=2024-03-20 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> While perceived as aligned with the Kremlin, Davankov incorporated anti-war sentiments reminiscent of the barred candidates, rendering him an alternative candidate to opposition voters as a means of protest voting.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-03-10 |title=Who is Vladislav Davankov – a new hope for opposition in the presidential election? |url=https://www.russian-election-monitor.org/who-is-vladislav-davankov-a-new-hope-for-opposition-in-the-presidential-election.html |access-date=2024-03-20 |website=www.russian-election-monitor.org |language=en}}</ref> Despite the action, Davankov nevertheless received officially only 4% of the official vote, while independent exit polling conducted showed him overwhelmingly defeating Putin.{{Citation needed|date=April 2024}}

== Protest vote and abstention == 
{{main|Abstention}}

Abstention may be a type of protest vote when it is not solely the result of [[political apathy]] or indifference towards politics. In systems where [[compulsory voting|voting is compulsory]], abstention may be an act of [[civil disobedience|political disappointment]]. The [[anarchist]] movement rejects [[representative democracy]] in favor of a more [[direct democracy|direct form]] of government and has historically called for abstention as a form of protest.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Evans|first=Danny|date=September 2016|title='Ultra-left' anarchists and anti-fascism in the Second Republic|url=http://hira.hope.ac.uk/id/eprint/2792/1/Danny%20Evans%20Ultra-Left%20Anarchists.%20Published%20IJIS.%202016.docx|journal=International Journal of Iberian Studies|volume=29|issue=3|pages=241–256|doi=10.1386/ijis.29.3.241_1|access-date=2019-12-17|archive-date=2021-12-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211212061901/https://hira.hope.ac.uk/id/eprint/2792/1/Danny%20Evans%20Ultra-Left%20Anarchists.%20Published%20IJIS.%202016.docx|url-status=dead|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Active protest voting, whether through spoiled or blank ballots, tends to communicate dissatisfaction more effectively than abstention.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Hill|first=Lisa|date=2006|title=Low Voter Turnout in the United States. Is Compulsory Voting a Viable Solution?|journal=Journal of Theoretical Politics|volume=18|issue=2|pages=207–232|doi=10.1177/0951629806061868|citeseerx=10.1.1.1005.9634| s2cid=154361874 }}</ref>

Abstaining increases the proportion of votes for the most popular candidate or party, while using a protest vote against the popular candidate or party can shrink a margin of victory. Reducing the margin may result in a [[hung parliament]] or a smaller difference between the parties in government, thus limiting the chance a single party will have control over the system.{{citation needed|date=April 2024}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Politics}}
* [[Anti-politics]]
* [[Donkey vote]]
* [[Joke candidate]]
* [[Joke political party]]
* [[List of democracy and elections-related topics]]
* [[Motion of no confidence]]
* [[Political apathy]]
* [[Single-issue politics]]
* [[Spoiler effect]]
* [[Uncommitted (voting option)]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20040602135355/http://www.nota.org/ Voters For None of the Above]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20100514132036/http://www.protestvote.co.uk/ Protest Vote]
*[http://prospect.org/article/if-you-give-mouse-vote If You Give a Mouse a Vote]
*[https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2017/dec/30/alabama-election-roy-moore-write-in-votes Mickey Mouse and Jesus among write-in votes that helped sink Roy Moore]

[[Category:Elections]]
[[Category:Voting]]
[[Category:Protest tactics]]

[[da:Blank stemme]]
[[el:Λευκή ψήφος]]
[[fr:Vote blanc]]
[[sv:Blankröst]]