Editing Protoplasm

{{Short description|Alternative term for cytoplasm or cytoplasm and nucleoplasm}}

'''Protoplasm''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|r|oʊ|t|ə|ˌ|p|l|æ|z|əm}};<ref>{{Cite dictionary |url=http://www.lexico.com/definition/protoplasm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210510025901/https://www.lexico.com/definition/protoplasm |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 10, 2021 |title=protoplasm |dictionary=[[Lexico]] UK English Dictionary |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite Dictionary.com|protoplasm}}</ref> {{plural form|'''protoplasms'''}})<ref>{{Wiktionary-inline|protoplasm}}</ref> is the part of a [[cell (biology)|cell]] that is surrounded by a [[plasma membrane]]. It is a mixture of small molecules such as ions, [[Monosaccharide|monosaccharides]], amino acids, and macromolecules such as proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, etc.

In some definitions, it is a general term for the [[cytoplasm]] (e.g., Mohl, 1846),<ref name="Cammack">{{Citation |author1=Cammack, Richard |author2=Teresa Atwood |author3=Attwood, Teresa K. |author4=Campbell, Peter Scott |author5=Parish, Howard I. |author6=Smith, Tony |author7=Vella, Frank |author8=Stirling, John |title=Oxford dictionary of biochemistry and molecular biology |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford [Oxfordshire] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-19-852917-0}}</ref> but for others, it also includes the [[nucleoplasm]] (e.g., Strasburger, 1882). For Sharp (1921), "According to the older usage the extra-nuclear portion of the [[protoplast]] [''the entire cell, excluding the cell wall''] was called "protoplasm," but the nucleus also is composed of protoplasm, or living substance in its broader sense. The current consensus is to avoid this ambiguity by employing [[Eduard Strasburger|Strasburger]]'s (1882) terms [[cytoplasm]] [''coined by [[Albert von Kölliker|Kölliker]] (1863), originally as synonym for protoplasm''] and [[nucleoplasm]] [''term coined by [[Edouard Van Beneden|van Beneden]] (1875), or [[karyoplasm]], used by [[Walther Flemming|Flemming]] (1878)'']."<ref>Sharp, L. W. (1921). ''[https://archive.org/details/introductiontocy032473mbp Introduction To Cytology]''. New York: McGraw Hill, p. 25.</ref><ref>Strasburger, E. (1882). Ueber den Theilungsvorgang der Zellkerne und das Verhältnis der Kernteilung zur Zellteilung. ''Arch Mikr Anat'', 21: 476-590, [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/49525#page/536/mode/1up BHL].</ref><ref>Beneden, E. van (1875). La maturation de l'oeuf, la fécondation et les premières de développement embryonnaire des Mammiferes d'après les recherches faites chez le lapin. ''Bull. Acad. Bel. Cl. Sci.'' 40, 2 sèr.: 686-736, [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/28486#page/714/mode/1up BHL].</ref><ref>Flemming, W. (1878). Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Zelle und ihrer Lebenserscheinungen. ''Arch. f. mikr. Anat.'', 16: 302-436, p. 360, [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/49519#page/370/mode/1up BHL].</ref><ref>Battaglia, E. (2009). [http://www.caryologia.unifi.it/past_volumes/62_4supplement/62-4_supplement.pdf Caryoneme alternative to chromosome and a new caryological nomenclature]. ''Caryologia'', 62(4), 1.</ref> The cytoplasm definition of Strasburger excluded the [[plastid]]s (''Chromatoplasm'').

Like the nucleus, whether to include the [[vacuole]] in the protoplasm concept is controversial.<ref>Parker, J. 1972. Protoplasmic resistance to water deficits, p. 125-176. In: Kozlowski, T. T. (ed.), ''Water deficits and plant growth''. Vol. III. Plant responses and control of water balance. Academic Press, New York, p. 144, [https://books.google.com/books?id=gOEr2alLRUYC].</ref>

==Terminology==
Besides "protoplasm", many other related terms and distinctions were used for the cell contents over time. These were as follows:<ref>Sharp (1921), p. 11, 32-34.</ref><ref name=battaglia>Battaglia, E. (1985). [https://books.google.com/books?id=gantAAAAMAAJ&q=Annali+di+botanica,+Volumes+43-45 Meiosis and mitosis: a terminological criticism]. ''Annali di Botanica'' (Rome) 43: 101–140. (Table 3, "-plasma derivatives", p. 118).</ref> 
* ''[[Urschleim]]'' ([[Lorenz Oken|Oken]], 1802, 1809),<ref>''Grundriss der Naturphilosophie''.</ref><ref>''Lehrbuch der Naturphilosophie''.</ref>
* ''Protoplasma'' (Purkinje, 1840, von Mohl, 1846),<ref name=purkinje/><ref name=Mohl/>
* ''Primordialschlauch'' (primordial utricle, von Mohl, 1846),<ref name=Mohl/>
* ''[[Amoeba#Amoebae as organisms|sarcode]]'' ([[Félix Dujardin|Dujardin]], 1835, 1841),<ref>Dujardin, F. 1835. Recherches sur les organisms inférieurs. ''Annales des Sciences Naturelles'' 4: 343–377, [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org//item/47932#page/347/mode/1up].</ref><ref>Dujardin, F. (1841). ''Histoire Naturelle des Zoophytes Infusoires''. Paris: Librarie Encyclopedique de Roret. p. 26.</ref>
* ''[[Cytoplasm]]a'' ([[Rudolf von Kölliker|Kölliker]], 1863),<ref>Kölliker, R. A. v. (1863). [https://books.google.com/books?id=5mtARc4NAi0C ''Handbuch der Gewebelehre des Menschen.''] 4. Auflage. Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann.</ref>
* ''Hautschicht/Körnerschicht'' ([[ectoplasm (cell biology)|ectoplasm]]/[[endoplasm]], Pringsheim, 1854; Hofmeister, 1867),<ref name="Wayne 2009, p. 134">Wayne (2009), p. 134.</ref><ref>Vines, S. H. (1877). An account of Prof. Strasburger's observation on protoplasm. ''Quart. J. Micr. Sc.'', Lond., 1877, n. s., 17, pp. 124-132. [https://books.google.com/books?id=kYLzAAAAMAAJ link].</ref>
* ''Grundsubstanz'' ([[ground substance]], [[Cienkowski]], 1863),<ref>Cienkowski, L. 1863. Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Myxomyceten. ''Jahrb. Wiss. Bot.'' 3: 325-337, [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/30570#page/341/mode/1up].</ref>
* [[metaplasm]]/protoplasm (Hanstein, 1868),<ref name="Wayne 2009, p. 134"/> 
* [[deutoplasm]]/protoplasm (van Beneden, 1870),<ref>Van Beneden, E. ''Recherches sur la composition et la signification de l'œuf''. F. Hayez, Bruxelles, 1870 (Extrait du tome XXXIV des ''Mém. cour. des savants étrangers'', publiés par l'Académie royale des sciences, des lettres et des beaux-arts de Belgique). [https://books.google.com/books?id=IvYYAAAAYAAJ link].</ref>
* bioplasm (Beale, 1872),<ref name=beale/>
* paraplasm/protoplasm (Kupffer, 1875),<ref>Kupffer, K. W. 1875. Ueber Differenzierung des Protoplasmas an den Zellen tierischer Gewebe. ''Schriften des Naturwissenschaft, Vereins für Schleswig-Holstein'', 1 (3), 229-242, [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/43486#page/253/mode/1up link].</ref> 
* inter-filar substance theory (Velten, 1876)<ref>Velten, W. 1876. Die physikalische Beschaffenhoit des pflanzlichon Protoplasmas. ''Sitzber. Akad. Wiss. Wien, Math.-Nat. Kl.'', 73: I 131-151, [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/35550#page/155/mode/1up].</ref>
* ''[[Hyaloplasm]]a'' (Pfeffer, 1877),<ref>Pfeffer, W. ''Osmotische Untersuchungen''. W. Engelmann, Leipzig. [https://books.google.com/books?id=XTEbAAAAYAAJ link].</ref> 
* ''[[Protoplast]]'' (Hanstein, 1880),<ref>Hanstein (1880), p. 45.</ref> 
* ''Enchylema/Hyaloplasma'' (Hanstein, 1880),<ref>Hanstein (1880), pp. 24, 39.</ref> 
* ''Kleinkörperchen'' or ''Mikrosomen'' (small bodies or [[microsomes]], Hanstein, 1882),<ref name="Wayne 2009, p. 134"/>
* paramitome (Flemming, 1882),<ref>Flemming, W. (1882). ''Zellsubstanz, Kern, und Zelltheilung''. Vogel, Leipzig, [https://archive.org/details/zellsubstanzker02flemgoog].</ref> 
* ''[[Idioplasm]]a'' (Nageli, 1884),<ref name=battaglia/> 
* ''Zwischensubstanz'' (inter-alveolar substance, [[Otto Bütschli|Bütschli]], 1892),<ref>Bütschli, O. 1892. ''Untersuchungen über mikroskopische Schäume und das Protoplasma''. Leipzig, [https://archive.org/details/untersuchungen00btuoft].</ref> 
* ''Grundplasma'' (ground plasma, Schütt, 1895),<ref>Schütt, F. (1895). Die Peridineen der Plankton Expedition. Ergebnisse der Plankton-Expedition des Humbold-Stiftung, Bd IV, p. 1–27, Lipsius & Tischer, Kiel. [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_TxQWAAAAYAAJ link].</ref>
* ''[[ergastoplasm]]e'' (Garnier, 1897),<ref name=battaglia/>
* phaneroplasm/cryptoplasm (Seifriz, 1931),<ref>Seifriz, W. (1931). The structure of protoplasm. ''Science'' 73, 648-649. [https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.73.1902.648 link].</ref>
* cytoplasmic matrix (Munson, 1899; ''zytoplasmatische Matrix'', Bergmann, 1956),<ref>Munson, J. P., 1899 The Ovarian Egg of Limulus. Athenaeum Press, Boston, Massachusetts</ref><ref>Bargmann, W. (1956). Über einige Probleme und Ergebnisse des elektronen-mikroskopischen Studiums der Zelle. ''Dtsch. med. Wschr.'' 81 (28): 1109-1125.</ref>
* ''Protoplasma- oder Zelleinschlüsse'' (protoplasmic or cellular [[Cytoplasmic inclusion|inclusions]], Szymonowicz, 1901),<ref>Szymonowicz, L. (1901). ''Lehrbuch der Histologie und der mikroskopischen Anatomie.'' Stuber, Würzburg. [https://books.google.com/books?id=nctyflUBQgAC link].</ref><ref>Szymonowicz, L. (1902). ''Textbook of histology and microscopic anatomy of the human body, including microscopic technique''. Philadelphia, Lea Bros. [https://archive.org/details/textbookofhistol00szymrich link].</ref>
* kinoplasm/trophoplasm (Strasburger et at., 1912),<ref name="Wayne 2009, p. 134"/>
* [[cytosol]] (Lardy, 1965).<ref name=lardy/>

==History==
The word "protoplasm" comes from the Greek ''protos'' for ''first'', and ''plasma'' for ''thing formed'', and was originally used in religious contexts.<ref>Wayne, R. 2009. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=t_biw80LgjwC Plant Cell Biology: From Astronomy to Zoology]''. Amsterdam: Elsevier/Academic Press, p. 133.</ref> It was used in 1839 by [[Jan Evangelista Purkyně|J. E. Purkinje]] for the material of the animal embryo.<ref name=purkinje>Purkinje J.E. 1840. [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/120979#page/85/mode/1up Über die Analogien in den Strukturelementen des thierischen und pflanzichen Organismus]. In: ''Übersicht der Arbeiten und Veränderungen der schlesischen Gesellschaft für vaterländische Kultur'', Jahre 1839: 81.</ref><ref>Bynum, W. F., Browne, E. J. & Porter, R. (1981). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Ian_AwAAQBAJ Dictionary of the history of science]''. Princeton University Press.</ref> Later, in 1846 [[Hugo von Mohl]] redefined the term (also named as ''Primordialschlauch'', "primordial utricle") to refer to the "tough, slimy, granular, semi-fluid" substance within plant cells, to distinguish this from the [[cell wall]] and the [[cell sap]] (''Zellsaft'') within the [[vacuole]].<ref name=Mohl>von Mohl, H. 1846. [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/101480#page/47/mode/1up Ueber die Saftbewegung im Inneren der Zellen]. ''Bot. Ztg.'' 4: 73-78, 89-94.</ref><ref>Larson, P. R. (1994). ''The Vascular Cambium: Development and Structure.'' Springer-Verlag: New York and Berlin, p. 30-31, [https://books.google.com/books?id=7mLwCAAAQBAJ].</ref><ref>Evert, R. F. 2006. ''Esau's Plant Anatomy: Meristems, Cells, and Tissues of the Plant Body: Their Structure, Function, and Development''. 3rd.ed. John Wiley & Sons, Inc: Hoboken, New.Jersey, p. 16, [https://books.google.com/books?id=0DhEBA5xgbkC].</ref> [[Max Schultze]] in 1861 proposed the  "Protoplasm Doctrine" which states that ''all living cells are made of a living substance called Protoplasm''.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Candid ICSE Biology Class 9|publisher=Evergreen Publications (India) Ltd.|year=2020|isbn=9788173133718|location= New Delhi |pages=1.3}}</ref> [[Thomas Henry Huxley|Thomas Huxley]] (1869) later referred to it as the "physical basis of life" and considered that the property of life resulted from the distribution of molecules within this substance.<ref>Huxley, T. H. 1869. ''[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/24707#/summary The Physical Basis of Life]''. New Haven, Conn., The College Courant.</ref> The protoplasm became an "[[Experimental system|epistemic thing]]".<ref>Brain, R.M. "Protoplasmania: Huxley, Haeckel, and the Vibratory Organism in Fin de Siècle Visual Cultures", in ''The Art of Evolution: Darwin, Darwinisms, and Visual Cultures'', F. Brauer and Larson, B. University Presses of New England, 2009, pp. 92-123, [https://books.google.com/books?id=kZisTVt0GJQC].</ref> Its composition, however, was mysterious and there was much controversy over what sort of substance it was.<ref name="Harvey2004">{{citation | author = Harvey, E. N. | year = 1938 | title = Some Physical Properties of Protoplasm | journal = Journal of Applied Physics | volume = 9 | pages = 68–80 | doi = 10.1063/1.1710397 | url = http://link.aip.org/link/?JAPIAU/9/68/1 | issue = 2 | bibcode = 1938JAP.....9...68H | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://archive.today/20130112050146/http://link.aip.org/link/?JAPIAU/9/68/1 | archive-date = 2013-01-12 | url-access = subscription }}</ref>

In 1872, [[Lionel Smith Beale|Beale]] created the [[vitalist]] term "bioplasm", to contrast with the [[materialism]] of Huxley.<ref name=beale>Beale, L. S. (1872). ''[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/31392#/summary Bioplasm]''. London: J. & A. Churchill.</ref><ref>Bynum et al. (1981), p. 344.</ref> In 1880, term [[protoplast]] was proposed by [[Johannes von Hanstein|Hanstein]] (1880) for the entire cell, excluding the cell wall,<ref>Hanstein, J. (1880). ''[https://archive.org/details/DasProtoplasma Das Protoplasma]''. Heidelberg.</ref><ref>Sharp (1921), p. 24.</ref> and some authors like [[Julius von Sachs]] (1882) preferred that name instead of cell.<ref>Wayne (2009), p. 15.</ref>

In 1965, Lardy introduced the term "[[cytosol]]", later redefined to refer to the liquid inside cells.<ref name=lardy>Lardy, H. A. 1965. On the direction of pyridine nucleotide oxidation-reduction reactions in gluconeogenesis and lipogenesis. In: ''Control of energy metabolism'', edited by B. Chance, R. Estabrook, and J. R. Williamson. New York: Academic, 1965, p. 245, [https://books.google.com/books?id=MUueBQAAQBAJ].</ref>

By the time Huxley wrote, a long-standing debate was largely settled over the fundamental unit of life: was it the cell or was it protoplasm? By the late 1860s, the debate was largely settled in favor of protoplasm. The cell was a container for protoplasm, the fundamental and universal material substance of life. Huxley's principal contribution was to establish protoplasm as incompatible with a [[vitalism|vitalistic theory of life]].<ref name="Geison1969">{{citation | author = Geison, Gerald| year = 1969 | title = The Protoplasmic Theory of Life and the Vitalist-Mechanist Debate| journal = Isis | volume = 60 | issue = 3 | pages = 272–292 | doi=10.1086/350498| pmid = 4919832 | s2cid = 39167693 }}</ref> Attempts to investigate the [[origin of life]] through the creation of synthetic "protoplasm" in the laboratory were not successful.<ref name="Lazcano2008">{{citation |author1=Lazcano, A. |author2=Capone, S. |author3=Walde, P. |author4=Seebach, D. |author5=Ishikawa, T. |author6=Caputo, R. | year = 2008 | title = What Is Life? A Brief Historical Overview | journal = Chemistry & Biodiversity | volume = 5 | pages = 1–15 | doi = 10.1002/cbdv.200890001 | pmid = 18205130 | issue = 1|s2cid=6722644 }}</ref>

The idea that protoplasm of eukaryotes is simply divisible into a ground substance called "cytoplasm" and a structural body called the [[cell nucleus]] reflects the more primitive knowledge of cell structure that preceded the development of [[electron microscopy]], when it seemed that cytoplasm was a homogeneous fluid and the existence of most sub-cellular compartments, or how cells maintain their shape, was unknown.<ref name="Satir2004">{{citation | author = Satir, P. | year = 2005 | title = Tour of organelles through the electron microscope: A reprinting of Keith R. Porter's classic Harvey Lecture with a new introduction | journal = The Anatomical Record Part A: Discoveries in Molecular, Cellular, and Evolutionary Biology | volume = 287A | pages = 1184–1204 | doi = 10.1002/ar.a.20222 | pmid = 16265625 | issue = 2| doi-access = free }}</ref> Today, it is known that the cell contents are structurally very complex and contain multiple [[organelle]]s, the cytoskeleton and [[biomolecular condensate]]s.the word protoplasm is mainly divided in to two parts cytoplasm and nucleus.

== Description ==

===Physical nature===
Protoplasm is physically [[Transparency and translucency|translucent]], [[Granularity|granular]] slimy, semifluid or [[Viscosity|viscous]]. In it, [[Granule (cell biology)|granules]] of different shapes and sizes are suspended in solution. It may exist in two interchangeable states which are more liquid-like sol state and more solid-like gel state which is like jelly. The constituent molecules are free to move in sol state, while in gel state, the constituent molecules are compactly arranged. Protoplasm becomes [[Opacity (optics)|opaque]]  when it is heated. It also [[Coagulation|coagulates]] on heating. It occurs everywhere in the cell.<ref name=":0" /> In [[eukaryote]]s, the portion of protoplasm surrounding the [[cell nucleus]] is known as the [[cytoplasm]] and the portion inside the nucleus as the [[nucleoplasm]]. In [[prokaryote]]s the material inside the plasma membrane is the bacterial cytoplasm, while in [[Gram-negative bacteria]] the region outside the plasma membrane but inside the outer membrane is the [[periplasmic space|periplasm]].<ref name="Cammack" />

=== Chemical composition ===
There are about 30 elements, like [[carbon]], [[hydrogen]], [[oxygen]], [[phosphorus]], [[Sulfur|sulphur]], [[calcium]] and many others which are identified in protoplasm of different cells. They form compounds, like [[water]] (65-80%), [[Carbohydrate|carbohydrates]], [[Ion|ions]], [[Protein|proteins]], [[Lipid|lipids]], [[Nucleic acid|nucleic acids]] ([[DNA]] and [[RNA]]), [[Fatty acid|fatty acids]], [[glycerol]], [[Nucleotide|nucleotides]], [[Nucleoside|nucleosides]] and [[Mineral|minerals]]. They are living as long as they are part of protoplasm. They are not able to perform functions of life independently. The composition of protoplasm is inconsistent and continuous changes take place in it.<ref name=":0" />

=== Functions ===
Some functions of protoplasm are:

# It provides place where all life functions occur
# The cells respond to various stimuli like temperature, light, chemicals, gravitation, pricking, electric shocks and others because of properties of protoplasm.
# [[Cytoplasmic streaming|Cyclosis]] (the streaming movement of protoplasm is known as [[Cytoplasmic streaming|Cyclosis]]. It helps in even distribution of various materials in the cells.)<ref name=":0" />

==See also==
* [[Molecular evolution|Chemical evolution]]
* [[Membrane]]
* [[Symplast]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Protoplasm|short=x}}

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[[Category:Cell biology]]
[[Category:1839 introductions]]