Editing Psychobiography

'''Psychobiography''' aims to understand historically significant individuals, such as [[artist]]s or [[political leader]]s, through the application of [[psychological theory]] and research.

Through its merging of [[personality psychology]] and historical evidence,<ref>B. J. Carducci, ''The Psychology of Personality'' (2009) p. 196</ref> psychobiography may be considered a historical form of therapeutic [[case study]]: it represents a growing field in the realm of [[biography]].<ref>C. Rollyson, ''Biography'' (2007)   p. 3</ref> '''Psychopathography''' is sometimes used as a term to indicate that the person being analyzed was not mentally healthy, "path" coming from ''pathos'' (πάθος)—Ancient Greek for suffering or illness.

==Background==
Psychobiography is a field within the realms of [[psychology]] and [[biography]] that analyzes the lives of historically significant individuals through psychological theory and research. Its goal is to develop a better understanding of notable individuals by [[applied psychology|applying psychological]] theories to their biographies to further explain the motives behind some of the subjects actions and decisions. Popular subjects of psychobiographies include figures such as [[Adolf Hitler]], [[Vincent van Gogh]], [[William Shakespeare]], [[Martin Luther King Jr.]], [[Abraham Lincoln]], and [[Saddam Hussein]]. A typical biography is often very descriptive, and tries to record every notable event that happened in a person's lifetime, whereas a psychobiography primarily focuses on some particular events, and tries to better understand why they happened. This field's potential has not only aided in developing a better understanding to many notable biographies throughout history, but has also inspired direction and insight into the field of psychology.

One of the first great examples of this field's utility was Dr. [[Henry Murray]]'s report on the analysis of Adolf Hitler's personality during the end of [[World War II]]. Forced to psychoanalyze from a distance, Dr. Murray used multiple sources, including Hitler's genealogy, Hitler's own writings, and biographies of Hitler, so that the Allied forces could understand his personality to better predict his behavior. By applying a theory of personality that consisted of 20 psychogenic needs, Dr. Murray presumed Hitler's personality as "counteractive narcism", and was able to correctly predict the German leader's suicide in the face of his country's defeat. This work by Dr. Murray not only helped establish personality psychology as a behavioral science, but it also showed how the field of psychobiography could be applied as a means of psychoanalysis.<ref>Murray, Henry. "The Analysis of The Personality of Adolph Hitler." The Analysis of The personality of Adolph Hitler (1943). N.p., n.d. Web</ref>

==Origins and development==
Persons who have been the subject of psychobiographical research include [[Sigmund Freud|Freud]], [[Adolf Hitler]],<ref>Waite, Robert G.L. ''[[The Psychopathic God: Adolf Hitler]].'' New York: First DaCapo Press Edition, (1993) (orig. pub. 1977). {{ISBN|0-306-80514-6}}</ref> [[Sylvia Plath]], [[Carl Jung]], [[Vincent van Gogh]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Meissner |first1=William W. |title=Vincent's Religion: The Search for Meaning |date=1997 |publisher=Lang |location=New York Washington, DC/Baltimore Bern Frankfurt am Main Berlin Vienna Paris |isbn=978-0820433905}}</ref> [[Martin Luther]],<ref>G, R, Elton, ''The Practice of History'' (1969) p. 39</ref> [[Abraham Lincoln]], [[Elvis Presley]], [[Søren Kierkegaard]], [[Friedrich Nietzsche]],<ref>Safranski, Rüdiger. ''[[Nietzsche: A Philosophical Biography]]'' Granta Books, London, (2002); Vienna, (2000); New York (2002) {{ISBN|0-393-05008-4}}</ref> [[Andrew Jackson]], [[Richard Nixon]],<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Volkan |first1=Vamik D. |title=Richard Nixon: A Psychobiography |last2=Itzkowitz |first2=Norman |last3=Dod |first3=Andrew W. |date=1997 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=0231108540 |location=New York |language=English}}</ref> and [[Ignatius of Loyola]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Meissner |first1=William W. |title=Ignatius of Loyola: The Psychology of a Saint |date=1994 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven |isbn=0300060793}}</ref>

Major psychobiographical authors include [[Erik Erikson]],<ref>Carducci, p. 197</ref> James William Anderson,<ref>{{Cite web |title=James Anderson |url=https://chicagoanalysis.org/faculty/james-anderson/ |access-date=2023-10-25 |website=Chicago Psychoanalytic Institute |language=en}}</ref> [[Henry Murray]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Henry Alexander Murray {{!}} Encyclopedia.com |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/medicine/psychology-and-psychiatry-biographies/henry-alexander-murray |access-date=2023-10-25 |website=www.encyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[George E. Atwood]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Atwood |first1=George E. |last2=Tomkins |first2=Silvan S. |date=April 1976 |title=On the Subjectivity of Personality Theory |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/1520-6696(197604)12:23.0.CO;2-Y |journal=Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences |language=en |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=166–177 |doi=10.1002/1520-6696(197604)12:2<166::aid-jhbs2300120208>3.0.co;2-y|pmid=1029746 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> and William Runyan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=William Runyan {{!}} Berkeley Social Welfare |url=https://socialwelfare.berkeley.edu/people/william-runyan |access-date=2023-10-25 |website=socialwelfare.berkeley.edu}}</ref>

Many psychobiographies are [[Psychoanalysis|Freudian]] or [[Psychodynamics|psychodynamic]] in orientation, but other commonly used theories include narrative models of identity such as the life story model, [[script theory]], [[Object relations theory|object relations]], and [[existentialism]]/[[Existential phenomenology|phenomenology]]; and psychobiographers are increasingly looking for explanatory complexity through an eclectic approach.<ref>Alan C. Elms, ''Uncovering Lives'' (1997) p. 9</ref>

Though there were other psychobiographies written before [[Freud]]'s ''[[Leonardo da Vinci, A Memory of His Childhood]]'' in 1910, it is considered the most significant contribution of its time, despite its flaws. Psychobiographies about [[William Shakespeare]] (Jones, 1910), [[Giovanni Segantini]] (Abraham, 1912), [[Richard Wagner]] (Graf, 1911), [[Amenhotep IV]] (Abraham, 1912), [[Martin Luther]] (Smith, 1913), and [[Socrates]] (Karpas, 1915) were also published between 1910 and 1915, but are not as well known.<ref name="Runyan">Runyan, W., M. (1988). Progress in psychobiography. Journal of Personality, 56, 295-326.</ref> Between 1920 and 1926, psychobiographies of [[Margaret Fuller]] (Anthony, 1920), [[Samuel Adams]] (Harlow, 1923), [[Edgar Allan Poe]] (Krutch, 1926), and [[Abraham Lincoln]] (Clark, 1923) were published by authors from a psychoanalytic perspective without a background in psychoanalysis. During the 1930s [[Tolstoy]], [[Dostoevsky]], [[Molière]], [[George Sand|Sand]], [[Goethe]], [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge|Coleridge]], [[Nietzsche]], Poe, [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]], [[Caesar]], Lincoln, [[Napoleon]], [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]], and [[Alexander the Great]] were the subjects of psychobiographies, and soon afterward in 1943 a psychobiography of [[Adolf Hitler]], predicting his suicide, was written during World War II, but was not published until 1972. Recent, significant contributions between 1960 and 1990 include psychobiographies of [[Henry James]] (Edel, 1953–72), [[Isaac Newton]] (Manuel, 1968), [[Mohandas Gandhi]] (Erikson, 1969), [[Max Weber]] (Mitzman, 1969), [[Emily Dickinson]] (Cody, 1971), [[Joseph Stalin]] (Tucker, 1973), [[James Mill|James]] and [[John Stuart Mill]] ([[Bruce Mazlish|Mazlish]], 1975), [[T. E. Lawrence]] (Mack, 1976), Adolf Hitler (Waite, 1977), [[Beethoven]] (Solomon, 1977), [[Samuel Johnson]] (Bate, 1977), [[Alice James]] (Strouse, 1980), [[Wilhelm Reich]] (Sharaf, 1983), and [[William James]] (Feinstein, 1984).<ref name="Schultz">[[William Todd Schultz|Schultz, W., T.]] (2005). Handbook of psychobiography. New York, NY: Oxford University Press</ref> Some psychobiographies at this time were also written about groups of people, focusing on an aspect they had in common such as American presidents, philosophers, utopians, revolutionary leaders, and personality theorists. These psychobiographies are the most well known, but since 1910 there have been over 4000 psychobiographies published.<ref name="Runyan" />

As psychobiography gained recognition, authors from a variety of professions contributed their own work from alternate perspectives and varying methods of analysis of the psychobiographical subjects, significantly expanding psychobiography beyond the [[psychoanalysis|psychoanalytical perspective]]. Apart from psychoanalysts and [[Psychiatry|psychiatrists]] who wrote the first psychobiographies, there have been historians, [[political science|political scientists]], [[personality psychology|personality psychologists]], literary critics, [[sociology|sociologists]], and [[anthropology|anthropologists]] that have contributed to the growth of the field.<ref name="Runyan" />
Psychobiography has also conflicted with contemporary views of science since its origin because it contains no controlled variables or experimentation. In its early years it was dismissed as unscientific and not a legitimate addition to the field of [[psychology]] due to the push towards experimentation focused on physiological and biological factors, and away from philosophical psychology, to establish it as a natural science. The value of psychobiography to psychology is comparable to [[forensic science]] and [[archaeology]], offering detailed analyses of subjects with an emphasis on contextual information, but due to the qualitative nature of this information it remains a challenge to validate psychobiographical works as empirically based applications of psychology.<ref name="Schultz" />

==Methodology==
{{unreferenced section|date=June 2013}}

The discipline of psychobiography has developed various methodological guidelines for psychobiographical study. Some of the most prominent are these:

# The use of prototypical scenes in the life of the subject to serve as a model of their personality pattern<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=A |first1=Jareño Gómez |last2=C |first2=Chiclana Actis |last3=C |first3=Noriega García |date=2019-11-20 |title=Qualitative Methodology: Psychobiography |url=https://crimsonpublishers.com/index.php |journal=Psychology and Psychotherapy: Research Study |language=English |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=1–6}}</ref>
# The use of a series of indicators of salience, markers such as primacy, frequency, and uniqueness of an event in a life, to identify significant patterns<ref name=":0" />
# The identification of pregnant [[metaphor]]s or images that organize autobiographical narratives
# Logical coherence or consistency as a criterion for adequate psychological interpretations

Scholars untrained in the discipline who do not follow these guidelines continue to produce psychobiographical studies.

==Contributors==
===Sigmund Freud===
Freud's psychoanalytic approach (Freudian perspective) is not commonly used in its entirety in psychobiography, but it has had a lasting influence on the analysis of behavior in other areas of psychology. To sift through a lifetime of information and locate significant areas in the subject's development requires a system of identification, and psychoanalysis provided the base for this. Primacy, the initial exposure or experience, was recognized by Freud as an important factor in personality development and has remained an important aspect of personality psychology, [[psychotherapy]], and psychobiography. Frequency, repeated exposure or actions, is also important, but its significance can vary. If the frequency of an action is low then it is seen as unimportant, and if the frequency is too high it becomes passive and overlooked, also becoming less important in psychobiography. Freud's knowledge of the importance of frequency is shown in the analysis of dreams, slips, errors, and humor by recognizing that repetition leads people to disregard these behaviors or stimuli. The importance of error in psychobiography, including [[Freudian slip|slips]] and distortions, is also rooted in Freudian psychoanalysis and is used to identify hidden motives.<ref>Alexander, I., E. (1988). Personality, psychological assessment, and psychobiography. Journal of Personality, 56, 1.</ref>

===Elms===
Elms has contributed to psychobiography through many published works including psychobiographies on [[Gordon Allport|Allport]] (1972), Freud (1980), [[B. F. Skinner|Skinner]] (1981), and [[Henry Murray|Murray]] (1987). He has also written about the subject of psychobiography in ''Psychobiography and Case Study Methods'' and ''Uncovering Lives: The Uneasy Alliance of Biography and Psychology'' defining psychobiography and its methods, and explaining the value of psychobiography in psychology.<ref>Elms, A. C. (2007). Psychobiography and case study methods. In R. W. Robins, R. C. Fraley, & R. F. Krueger (Eds.), The Handbook of Research Methods in Personality Psychology. New York: Guilford Press, pp. 97-113.</ref><ref>Elms, A. C. (1994). Uncovering Lives: The Uneasy Alliance of Biography and Psychology. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press. Paperback reprint, 1997.</ref>

==Criticism==
Psychobiography has faced criticism from the very start,<ref>Gay, p. 312-3</ref> crystallised above all in the production of what Erikson caricatured as "originology"—the explaining away of significant public events and actions as the product of some minute childhood detail.<ref>Elms, p. 4</ref>

Bad psychobiography—using mechanical psychologising, a selective mining of the facts,<ref>Barzun, p. 203</ref> overdeterminism, and a tendency to pathologise<ref>Elms, p. 10-11</ref>—is considered easy to write. The haphazard historical evolution of the discipline has not helped reduce its prevalence.<ref>Elms, p. 8</ref>

==See also==
* [[Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler]]
* [[Retrospective diagnosis]]
* [[Leadership analysis|Leadership Analysis]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em|}}

==Further reading==
* Krasovska, N. & [[Claude-Hélène Mayer|Mayer, C.-H.]] (2021). A psychobiography of Viktor E. Frankl. Using adversity for life transformation. Springer Briefs in Psychology. Cham, Switzerland: Springer Briefs.
* [[Claude-Hélène Mayer|Mayer, C.-H.]]; van Niekerk, R., Fouché, P.J. & Ponterotto, J. (2023). Beyond WEIRD: Psychobiography in Times of Transcultural and Transdisciplinary Perspectives. Cham, Switzerland: Springer.
* [[Claude-Hélène Mayer|Mayer, C.-H.]], Fouché, P.J., & van Niekerk, R. (2021). Psychobiographical illustrations on meaning and identity in sociocultural contexts. Sociocultural Psychology of the Lifecourse Series. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillian. [[Claude-Hélène Mayer|Mayer, C.-H.]] (2017). The life and creative works of Paulo Coelho. A Psychobiography from a Positive Psychology Perspective. Cham, Switzerland: Springer.
* [[Claude-Hélène Mayer|Mayer, C.-H.]] & Kovary, Z. (2019). New Trends in Psychobiography. Cham, Switzerland: Springer
* Ogilvie, Dan (2004). ''Fantasies of Flight''. New York: Oxford University Press.
* Runyan, William (1982). ''Life Histories and Psychobiography''. New York: Oxford University Press.
* Schultz, William Todd (2005). ''Handbook of Psychobiography''. New York: Oxford University Press.

==External links==
* Psychobiography Forum, https://psychobiographyforum.com/
* [http://williamtoddschultz.wordpress.com/what-is-psychobiography/ What is Psychobiography?]
* [http://www.lawschool.cornell.edu/library/whatwehave/specialcollections/donovan/hitler/ Analysis of the Personality of Hitler]

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Applied psychology]]
[[Category:Biography (genre)]]
[[Category:Cultural history]]
[[Category:Fields of history]]
[[Category:Freudian psychology]]
[[Category:Interdisciplinary historical research]]