Editing Public Works Administration

{{Short description|Part of the New Deal of 1933 in the U.S.}}
{{distinguish|Works Progress Administration}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2022}}
{{Use American English|date=May 2022}}
[[File:1939PineCityVillageHall.JPG|thumb|right|350px|Federal Emergency Administration of Public Works project plaque in the [[Pine City, Minnesota]], City Hall]]
[[File: Public Works Administration Project, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Bonneville Power and Navigation Dam in Oregon... - NARA - 195807.tif|thumb|350px|Public Works Administration Project and [[U.S. Army Corps of Engineers]] constructing [[Bonneville Dam]] in Oregon]]

The '''Public Works Administration''' ('''PWA'''), part of the [[New Deal]] of 1933, was a large-scale public works construction agency in the United States headed by [[United States Secretary of the Interior|Secretary of the Interior]] [[Harold L. Ickes]]. It was created by the [[National Industrial Recovery Act]] in June 1933 in response to the [[Great Depression in the United States|Great Depression]]. It built large-scale [[public works]] such as dams, bridges, hospitals, and schools. Its goals were to spend $3.3 billion in the first year, and $6 billion in all, to supply employment, stabilize [[buying power]], and help revive the economy. Most of the spending came in two waves, one in 1933–1935 and another in 1938. Originally called the ''Federal Emergency Administration of Public Works'', it was renamed the Public Works Administration in 1935 and shut down in 1944.<ref>{{cite web|website=National Archives|title=Records of the Public Works Administration|url=https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/135.html|date=15 August 2016}}</ref>

The PWA spent over $7 billion on contracts with private construction firms that did the actual work. It created an infrastructure that generated national and local pride in the 1930s and is still vital nine decades later. The PWA was much less controversial than its rival agency, the [[Works Progress Administration]] (WPA), headed by [[Harry Hopkins]], which focused on smaller projects and hired unemployed unskilled workers.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Jason Scott |title=Building New Deal Liberalism: The Political Economy of Public Works, 1933–1956 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |isbn=9780521139939 |language=en}}</ref>

==Origins==
The Administration created the PWA in an attempt to help the U.S.'s economy recover after the Great Depression. Its major objective was to reduce unemployment, which was up to 24% of the work force. Furthermore, the PWA also aimed at increasing purchase power by constructing new public buildings and roads. [[Frances Perkins]] had first suggested a federally financed public works program, and the idea received considerable support from [[Harold L. Ickes]], [[James Farley]], and [[Henry A. Wallace|Henry Wallace]]. After having scaled back the initial cost of the PWA, [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] agreed to include the PWA as part of his [[New Deal]] proposals in the "Hundred Days" of spring 1933.

==Projects==
[[File: Steam shovel WDC 1933.gif|thumb|PWA-funded construction site in Washington, DC, in 1933]]
The PWA headquarters in Washington planned projects, which were built by private construction companies hiring workers on the open market. Unlike the WPA, it did not hire the unemployed directly. More than any other New Deal program, the PWA epitomized the progressive notion of "priming the pump" to encourage economic recovery. Between July 1933 and March 1939, the PWA funded and administered the construction of more than 34,000 projects including airports, large electricity-generating dams, major warships for the Navy, and bridges and 70 percent of the new schools and a third of the hospitals built in 1933–1939.

Streets and highways were the most common PWA projects, as 11,428 road projects, or 33 percent of all PWA projects, accounting for over 15 percent of its total budget. School buildings, 7,488 in all, came in second at 14 percent of spending. PWA functioned chiefly by making allotments to the various federal agencies; making loans and grants to state and other public bodies; and making loans without grants (for a brief time) to the railroads. For example, it provided funds for the Indian Division of the [[Civilian Conservation Corps]] (CCC) to build roads, bridges, and other public works on and near Indian reservations.

[[File: Fort Peck Dam (Fort Peck Montana) Spillway 01.jpg|right|thumb|[[Fort Peck Dam]] in Montana; spillway construction. One of the largest dams in the world, it continues to generate electricity. In July 1936, its construction employed 10,500 workers.]]
The PWA became, with its "[[Multiplier (economics)|multiplier-effect]]" and a first two-year budget of $3.3 billion (compared to the entire GDP of $60 billion), the driving force of America's biggest construction effort up to that date. By June 1934, the agency had distributed its entire fund to 13,266 federal projects and 2,407 non-federal projects. For every worker on a PWA project, almost two additional workers were employed indirectly. The PWA accomplished the electrification of rural America, the building of canals, tunnels, bridges, highways, streets, sewage systems, and housing areas, as well as hospitals, schools, and universities; every year, it consumed roughly half of the concrete and a third of the steel of the entire nation.<ref>George McJimsey, ''The Presidency of Franklin Delano Roosevelt'' (2000) "PWA (1939)", p 221;</ref> The PWA also electrified the [[Pennsylvania Railroad]] between [[New York City]] and [[Washington, DC]].<ref>{{citation   | title = P.R.R. WILL SPEND $77,000,000 AT ONCE; Atterbury Outlines Projects Under PWA Loan Giving Year's Work to 25,000. TO EXTEND ELECTRIC LINE Sees Buying Power Restored and Industry Stimulated by Wide Building Program   | newspaper = The New York Times   | date = January 31, 1934 | url = http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0A16F93559177A93C3AA178AD85F408385F9   | access-date = 2012-08-08   }}</ref> At the local level, it built courthouses, schools, hospitals, and other public facilities that remain in use in the 21st century.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lowry |first=Charles B. |date=April 1974 |title=The PWA in Tampa: A Case Study |journal=The Florida Historical Quarterly |publisher=Florida Historical Society |volume=52 |issue=4 |pages=363–380 |jstor=30145930 }}</ref>

===List of most notable PWA projects===
{{Multiple image
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| image1            = Public Works Administration Project, Army Corps of Engineers, Dam - NARA - 196578.tif
| caption1          = PWA Project and Army Corps of Engineers [[Lock and Dam No. 10|Lock & Dam #10]] construction
| image2            = Public Works Administration Project, Army Corps of Engineers, Lock - NARA - 197013.tif
| caption2          = PWA Project and Army Corps of Engineers [[Lock and Dam No. 16|Lock & Dam #16]] construction
}}
* [[Bankhead Tunnel]] in [[Mobile, Alabama]]
* [[Lincoln Tunnel]] in New York City

====Water/wastewater====

* Detroit Sewage Disposal Project

====Bridges====
* [[Bourne Bridge]]
* [[Cape Cod Canal Railroad Bridge]]
* [[Overseas Highway]] connecting [[Key West, Florida]], to the mainland
* [[Sagamore Bridge]]
* [[Triborough Bridge]]

====Dams====
* [[Fort Peck Dam]]
* [[Grand Coulee Dam]] in Washington state
* [[Hoover Dam]]
* [[Mansfield Dam]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.austincc.edu/lpatrick/his2341/new.html|title="New Deal Work Programs in Central Texas" 
|date=26 March 2015|access-date=13 December 2018}}</ref>
* [[Pensacola Dam]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://livingnewdeal.org/projects/pensacola-dam-grand-lake-ok/|title=Pensacola Dam - Grand Lake OK - Living New Deal|date=26 March 2015|access-date=26 September 2017|url-status=bot: unknown|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150326094454/http://livingnewdeal.org/projects/pensacola-dam-grand-lake-ok/|archive-date=26 March 2015}}</ref>
* [[Tom Miller Dam]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://livingnewdeal.org/projects/tom-miller-dam-austin-tx/|title=Tom Miller Dam - Austin TX - Living New Deal|date=26 March 2015|access-date=26 September 2017|url-status=bot: unknown|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150326095815/http://livingnewdeal.org/projects/tom-miller-dam-austin-tx/|archive-date=26 March 2015}}</ref>
* [[List of locks and dams of the Upper Mississippi River|Upper Mississippi River locks and dams]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://livingnewdeal.org/projects/upper-mississippi-river-dam-winona-mn/|title=Upper Mississippi River Dam - Winona MN - Living New Deal|date=26 March 2015|access-date=26 September 2017|url-status=bot: unknown|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150326010333/http://livingnewdeal.org/projects/upper-mississippi-river-dam-winona-mn/|archive-date=26 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://cgee.hamline.edu/rivers/Resources/Voices/transportation3.htm |title=Rivers of Life: History of Transportation, part 3 |website=Cgee.hamline.edu |access-date=2016-12-09 |archive-date=May 19, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160519012349/http://cgee.hamline.edu/rivers/resources/voices/transportation3.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

====Airports====
* [[Austin–Bergstrom International Airport]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=New Deal Category: Airports |url=https://livingnewdeal.org/new-deal-categories/infrastructure/airports/ |access-date=May 3, 2022 |website=Living New Deal |language=en-US}}</ref>
* [[Charlotte Douglas International Airport]]<ref name=":0" />
* [[Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport]]<ref name=":0" />
* [[Logan International Airport]]<ref name=":0" />
* [[Los Angeles International Airport]]<ref name=":0" />
* [[Nashville International Airport]]<ref name=":0" />
* [[Philadelphia International Airport]]<ref name=":0" />
* [[Portland International Airport]]<ref name=":0" />
* [[Salt Lake City International Airport]]<ref name=":0" />
* [[Tampa International Airport]]<ref name=":0" />

==Housing==
[[File:NYCHA Williamsburg Houses April 2022 003.jpg|thumb|Williamsburg Houses as of April, 2022]]
The PWA was supposed to be the centerpiece of the New Deal's drive to [[Subsidized housing in the United States|build public housing]] for the urban poor. [[Public housing]] was a new concept in the United States, tested for the first time during the New Deal. With this in mind the PWA constructed a total of 52 housing communities for a total of 29,000 units, which was less than what many supporters of public housing had hoped for. The first public housing community built by PWA was the [[Racial segregation in the United States|whites-only]] [[Techwood Homes]] in [[Atlanta, Georgia]].<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Perry-Brown |first1=Nena |date=2020-05-29 |title=A brew of advocacy and agency concocted the US public housing system that we know today |url=https://ggwash.org/view/77803/how-the-us-public-housing-system-came-to-be |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=ggwash.org |language=en}}</ref> The PWA also built one of the first public housing projects in [[New York City]], the [[Williamsburg Houses]] in [[Brooklyn]].

==Criticism==
The PWA spent over $6 billion but did not succeed in returning the level of industrial activity to pre-Depression levels.<ref name="Roosevelt1985">{{Cite book |last=Roosevelt |first=Franklin Delano |title=Franklin D. Roosevelt: His Life and Times : an Encyclopedic View |publisher=G.K. Hall |year=1985 |isbn=9780816186679 |editor-last=Graham |editor-first=Otis L. |pages=336–337 |editor-last2=Wander |editor-first2=Meghan Robinson}}</ref><ref name="Leuchtenburg1963">{{Cite book |last=Leuchtenburg |first=William E. |title=Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal: 1932-1940 |publisher=Harper Perennial |year=1963 |isbn=9780061836961 |pages=133–134 |language=en }}</ref> Though successful in many aspects, it has been acknowledged that the PWA's objective of constructing a substantial number of quality, affordable housing units was a major failure.<ref name="Roosevelt1985" /><ref name="Leuchtenburg1963" /> Some have argued that because Roosevelt was opposed to deficit spending, there was not enough money spent to help the PWA achieve its housing goals.<ref name="Roosevelt1985" /><ref name="Leuchtenburg1963" />

Reeves (1973) argues that Roosevelt's competitive theory of administration proved to be inefficient and produced delays. The competition over the size of expenditure, the selection of the administrator, and the appointment of staff at the state level, led to delays and the ultimate failure of PWA as a recovery instrument. As director of the budget, [[Lewis Douglas]] overrode the views of leading senators in reducing appropriations to $3.5 billion and in transferring much of that money to other agencies instead of their own specific appropriations. The cautious and penurious Ickes won out over the more imaginative [[Hugh S. Johnson]] as chief of public works administration. Political competition between rival [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] state organizations and between Democrats and [[Progressive Republican]]s led to delays in implementing PWA efforts on the local level. Ickes instituted quotas for hiring skilled and unskilled black people in construction financed through the PWA. Resistance from employers and unions was partially overcome by negotiations and implied sanctions. Although results were ambiguous, the plan helped provide African Americans with employment, especially among unskilled workers.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kruman |first=Marc W. |year=1975 |title=Quotas for blacks: The public works administration and the black construction worker |journal=Labor History |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=37–51 |doi=10.1080/00236567508584321}}</ref>

==Termination==
[[File:USS Yorktown (CV-5) and USS Enteprise (CV-6) fitting out at Newport News Shipbuilding, 8 February 1937.jpg|thumb|Image of Yorktown and Enterprise Aircraft carriers]]
When Roosevelt moved industry toward [[World War II]] production, the PWA was abolished and its functions were transferred to the [[Federal Works Agency]] in June 1943.<ref>{{cite web |author=Roosevelt |first=Franklin D. |date=June 30, 1943 |editor=Woolley |editor-first=John T. |editor2-last=Peters |editor2-first=Gerhard |title=Executive Order 9357 - Transferring the Functions of the Public Works Administration to the Federal Works Agency |url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/210188 |work=The American Presidency Project |publisher=University of California}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Olson |first=James Stuart |title=Historical Dictionary of the Great Depression, 1929-1940 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=2001 |isbn=9780313306181}}</ref> The PWA played an indirect hand in the war by helping fund the construction of two aircraft carriers, Yorktown and Enterprise. Both of these ships played a significant role in the victory in [[Midway Atoll|Midway]] when they sank four Japanese aircraft carriers.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=Thompson |first=Lisa |date=November 18, 2016 |title=Public Works Administration (PWA), 1933-1943 |url=https://livingnewdeal.org/glossary/public-works-administration-pwa-1933-1943/ |access-date=May 11, 2022 |website=The Living New Deal}}</ref> The PWA also built four cruisers, four heavy destroyers, light destroyers, submarines, planes, engines, and even instruments for these vessels.<ref name=":02" /> The PWA helped get the US get ready to fight in World War II, giving the US an advantage with fresh boats, planes, and equipment.

== Legacy ==
[[File:Triborough_Bridge,_February_2022.jpg|thumb|left|Image of Triborough Bridge in February, 2022.]]

The PWA was responsible for the construction of about 34,000 buildings, bridges, and homes many of which are still in use today.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Public Works Administration (PWA), 1933-1943 |url=https://livingnewdeal.org/glossary/public-works-administration-pwa-1933-1943/ |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=Living New Deal |language=en-US}}</ref> Among these is one of the most recognizable bridges in the U.S., the [[Robert F. Kennedy Bridge|Triborough Bridge]], which was renamed the Robert F. Kennedy Bridge.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Public Works Administration (PWA), 1933-1943 |url=https://livingnewdeal.org/glossary/public-works-administration-pwa-1933-1943/ |access-date=2022-04-26 |website=Living New Deal |language=en-US}}</ref> PWA funded workers to construct the [[San Francisco Mint]], which cost $1,072,254 to build,<ref>{{Cite web |title=United States Mint - San Francisco CA |url=https://livingnewdeal.org/projects/united-states-mint-san-francisco-ca/ |access-date=2022-04-26 |website=Living New Deal |language=en-US}}</ref> as well as the Keys Overseas Highway in Florida. Although this highway was already built prior to the PWA's existence, PWA funding made the road usable again. The 1935 Labor Day hurricane had heavily damaged the highway, and the Florida East Coast Railway was only able to repair the bridge after the PWA came in and offered assistance.<ref>{{Cite web |date=November 2, 2014 |title=Overseas Highway - Florida Keys FL |url=https://livingnewdeal.org/projects/overseas-highway-florida-keys-fl/ |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=Living New Deal |language=en-US}}</ref> A large majority of PWA projects are still in use today because of one big reason: the PWA allowed the state and local governments to pick what they wanted to have built or repaired, where they wanted the project as well as who they wanted to build it. Such freedom gave local governments the ability to select a truly useful building that could be used for years down the line.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Public Works Administration (PWA), 1933-1943 |url=https://livingnewdeal.org/glossary/public-works-administration-pwa-1933-1943/ |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=Living New Deal |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Contrast with WPA==
The PWA should not be confused with its great rival, the [[Works Progress Administration]] (WPA), though both were part of the New Deal. The WPA, headed by [[Harry Hopkins]], engaged in smaller projects in close cooperation with local governments—such as building city halls, sewers, or sidewalks. The PWA projects were much larger in scope, such as giant dams. The WPA hired only people on relief who were paid directly by the federal government, while in contrast, the PWA gave contracts to private firms that hired workers for projects on the private sector job market. The WPA also had youth programs (the [[National Youth Administration]]), projects for women, and art projects that the PWA did not have.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Taylor |first=Nick |title=American-made: The Enduring Legacy of the WPA : when FDR Put the Nation to Work |publisher=Bantam Books |year=2009 |isbn=9780553381320}}</ref>

== Citations ==
{{Reflist}}

== General and cited sources ==
* {{Cite book |last=Clarke |first=Jeanne Nienaber |title=Roosevelt's Warrior: Harold L. Ickes and the New Deal |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |year=1996 |isbn=9780801850943}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ickes |first=Harold L. |title=Back to Work: The Story of Pwa |publisher=Creative Media Partners, LLC |year=2018 |isbn=9780344562273}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Ickes |first=Harold L. |date=May 1935 |title=The Place of Housing in National Rehabilitation |journal=The Journal of Land & Public Utility |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=109–116 |doi=10.2307/3158654 |jstor=3158654 }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Reeves |first=William D. |date=September 1973 |title=PWA and Competition Administration in the New Deal |journal=The Journal of American History |publisher=Oxford University Press |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=357–372 |doi=10.2307/2936780 |jstor=2936780 }}
* {{Cite book |work=United States. Public Works Administration |title=America Builds: The Record of P.W.A. Public Works Administration |publisher=CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform |year=1939 |isbn=9781978016040}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* [http://www.texashousing.org/phdebate/past3.html The past: Public Works Administration builds housing (PWA housing in Texas)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520191546/http://texashousing.org/phdebate/past3.html |date=May 20, 2011 }}
* [https://livingnewdeal.org/new-deal-agencies/works-progress-administration-wpa/ Public Works Administration projects list] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170616164048/https://livingnewdeal.org/new-deal-agencies/works-progress-administration-wpa/ |date=June 16, 2017 }}
* [https://livingnewdeal.org/new-deal-categories/infrastructure/airports/ List of New Deal airports]

{{New Deal}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Public Works Administration| ]]
[[Category:1933 establishments in Washington, D.C.]]
[[Category:1943 disestablishments in Washington, D.C.]]
[[Category:Defunct agencies of the United States government]]
[[Category:Government agencies established in 1933]]
[[Category:New Deal agencies]]
[[Category:Work relief programs]]