Editing Radio-frequency identification

{{Short description|Electronic tracking technology}}
{{redirect|RFID|restrictive food intake disorder|Avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder}}
{{About|2=the practice of identifying frequencies of broadcast stations|3=Station identification}}

[[Image:RFID - Tag laverie avec EPC imprimé.png|thumb|Textile RFID tag for laundry with printed [[Electronic Product Code|EPC]] and [[QR code]].]]

'''Radio-frequency identification''' ('''RFID''') uses [[electromagnetic field]]s to automatically [[Automatic identification system|identify]] and [[Tracking system|track]] tags attached to objects. An RFID system consists of a tiny radio [[transponder]] called a tag, a [[radio receiver]], and a [[transmitter]]. When triggered by an electromagnetic interrogation pulse from a nearby RFID reader device, the tag transmits digital data, usually an [[Identifier|identifying inventory number]], back to the reader. This number can be used to track [[inventory]] goods.<ref>{{Cite web |date=February 28, 2014 |title=RFID Inventory Tracking |url=https://www.controltekusa.com/news/rfid-inventory-tracking/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516185819/https://www.controltekusa.com/news/rfid-inventory-tracking/ |archive-date=May 16, 2021 |access-date=May 12, 2022 |website=CONTROLTEK}}</ref>

Passive tags are powered by energy from the RFID reader's interrogating [[radio wave]]s. Active tags are powered by a battery and thus can be read at a greater range from the RFID reader, up to hundreds of meters.

Unlike a [[barcode]], the tag does not need to be within the [[Line-of-sight propagation|line of sight]] of the reader, so it may be embedded in the tracked object. RFID is one method of [[automatic identification and data capture]] (AIDC).<ref>[http://www.mhi.org/fundamentals/automatic-identification Automatic Identification and Data Collection (AIDC)] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160505190510/http://www.mhi.org/fundamentals/automatic-identification |date=May 5, 2016}}</ref>

RFID tags are used in many industries. For example, an RFID tag attached to an automobile during production can be used to track its progress through the [[assembly line]],{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} RFID-tagged pharmaceuticals can be tracked through warehouses,{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} and [[Microchip implant (animal)|implanting RFID microchips]] in livestock and pets enables positive identification of animals.<ref>{{Cite web |date=March 23, 2021 |title=USDA Announces Intent to Pursue Rulemaking on Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) Use in Animal Disease Traceability |url=https://www.aphis.usda.gov/aphis/newsroom/news/sa_by_date/sa-2021/rfid-traceability-rulemaking |access-date=May 12, 2022 |website=USDA APHIS}}</ref> Tags can also be used in shops to expedite checkout, and to [[anti-theft system|prevent theft]] by customers and employees.<ref>{{Cite web |last=D'Onofrio |first=Tony |date=2022-05-01 |title=Then and Now: RFID, Self-Checkout, and IoT |url=https://losspreventionmedia.com/then-and-now-rfid-self-checkout-and-iot/ |access-date=2022-05-12 |website=Loss Prevention Media |language=en-US}}</ref>

Since RFID tags can be attached to physical money, clothing, and possessions, or implanted in animals and people, the possibility of reading personally-linked information without [[consent]] has raised serious [[Right to privacy|privacy]] concerns.<ref name="Angell">{{cite journal |journal=Communications of the ACM |year=2006 |volume=49 |issue=12 |pages=90–96 |title=RFID and the end of cash? |author=Angell, I. |author2=Kietzmann, J. |doi=10.1145/1183236.1183237 |s2cid=3559353 |url=http://beedie.sfu.ca/files/Research/Journal_Articles/Journal_Articles_misc/RFID_and_the_end_of_Cash.pdf |access-date=9 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140224155226/http://beedie.sfu.ca/files/Research/Journal_Articles/Journal_Articles_misc/RFID_and_the_end_of_Cash.pdf |archive-date=2014-02-24 | issn = 0001-0782}}</ref> These concerns resulted in standard specifications development addressing privacy and security issues.

In 2014, the world RFID market was worth US$8.89 [[billion]], up from US$7.77 billion in 2013 and US$6.96 billion in 2012. This figure includes tags, readers, and software/services for RFID cards, labels, fobs, and all other form factors. The market value is expected to rise from US$12.08 billion in 2020 to US$16.23 billion by 2029.<ref>{{cite book |title=RFID Forecasts, Players and Opportunities 2019-2029b |publisher=IDTechEx |url=https://www.idtechex.com/en/research-report/rfid-forecasts-players-and-opportunities-2019-2029/700 |date=2020-02-27}}</ref>

==History==
{{See also|History of radar}}
[[Image:FasTrak transponder.jpg|right|frame|[[FasTrak]], an RFID tag used for [[electronic toll collection]] in California]]

In 1945, [[Leon Theremin]] invented [[Thing (listening device)|the "Thing", a listening device]] for the [[Soviet Union]] which retransmitted incident radio waves with the added audio information. Sound waves vibrated a [[diaphragm (acoustics)|diaphragm]] which slightly altered the shape of the [[resonator]], which modulated the reflected radio frequency. Even though this device was a [[covert listening device]], rather than an identification tag, it is considered to be a predecessor of RFID because it was passive, being energised and activated by waves from an outside source.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Hacking Exposed Linux: Linux Security Secrets & Solutions|publisher=McGraw-Hill Osborne Media|edition=third|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f5Vz08spzw8C|year=2008|page=298|isbn=978-0-07-226257-5}}</ref>

Similar technology, such as the [[Identification friend or foe]] [[transponder]], was routinely used by the Allies and Germany in [[World War II]] to identify aircraft as friendly or hostile. [[Transponder (aviation)|Transponders]] are still used by most powered aircraft.<ref>{{Cite web|title=What are IFF Technologies?|url=https://www.baesystems.com/en-us/definition/what-are-iff-technologies|access-date=2021-03-29|website=BAE Systems - United States|language=en}}</ref> An early work exploring RFID is the landmark 1948 paper by Harry Stockman,<ref>{{citation|first=Harry|last=Stockman|title=Communication by Means of Reflected Power|journal=Proceedings of the IRE|volume=36|issue=10|pages=1196–1204|doi=10.1109/JRPROC.1948.226245|date=October 1948|s2cid=51643576}}</ref> who predicted that "Considerable research and development work has to be done before the remaining basic problems in reflected-power communication are solved, and before the field of useful applications is explored."

[[Mario Cardullo]]'s device, patented on January 23, 1973, was the first true ancestor of modern RFID,<ref name="rfidjournal1">{{cite web|url=http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/view/392/1/2|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090307013857/http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/view/392/1/2|archive-date=March 7, 2009|title=Genesis of the Versatile RFID Tag|date=10 October 2012|publisher=RFID Journal|access-date=2013-09-22}}</ref> as it was a passive radio transponder with memory.<ref>{{Cite patent|inventor-last=Cardullo|inventor-first=Mario W.|inventor2-last=Parks|inventor2-first=William L.|title=Transponder apparatus and system|country-code=US|patent-number=3713148|publication-date=May 21, 1970|issue-date=Jan 23, 1973}}</ref> The initial device was passive, powered by the interrogating signal, and was demonstrated in 1971 to the [[Port Authority of New York and New Jersey|New York Port Authority]] and other potential users. It consisted of a transponder with 16 [[bit]] memory for use as a [[electronic toll collection|toll device]]. The basic Cardullo patent covers the use of radio frequency (RF), sound and light as transmission carriers. The original business plan presented to investors in 1969 showed uses in transportation (automotive vehicle identification, automatic toll system, [[electronic license plate]], electronic manifest, vehicle routing, vehicle performance monitoring), banking (electronic chequebook, electronic credit card), security (personnel identification, automatic gates, surveillance) and medical (identification, patient history).<ref name="rfidjournal1"/>

In 1973, an early demonstration of ''reflected power'' (modulated backscatter) RFID tags, both passive and semi-passive, was performed by Steven Depp, Alfred Koelle and Robert Freyman at the [[Los Alamos National Laboratory]].<ref name=shrouds>{{cite web|author=Landt, Jerry| year=2001| title=Shrouds of Time: The history of RFID|work=AIM, Inc.| url=http://www.transcore.com/pdf/AIM%20shrouds_of_time.pdf|access-date=2006-05-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327005501/http://www.transcore.com/pdf/AIM%20shrouds_of_time.pdf|archive-date=2009-03-27}}</ref> The portable system operated at 915&nbsp;MHz and used 12-bit tags. This technique is used by the majority of today's UHFID and microwave RFID tags.<ref>
{{cite web|url=http://www.clarinox.com/docs/whitepapers/RealTime_main.pdf|title= Real Time Location Systems|publisher=clarinox|access-date=2010-08-04}}</ref>

In 1983, the first patent to be associated with the abbreviation RFID was granted to [[Charles Walton (inventor)|Charles Walton]].<ref>Charles A. Walton "Portable radio frequency emitting identifier" {{US Patent|4,384,288}} issue date May 17, 1983</ref>

In 1996, the first patent for a batteryless RFID passive tag with limited interference was granted to David Everett, John Frech, Theodore Wright, and Kelly Rodriguez.<ref>David F. Everett, John W. Frech, Theodore Wright, Kelly M. Rodriguez "Identification system and method with passive tag" {{US Patent|5,491,468}} issue date February 13, 1996</ref>

==Design==
A radio-frequency identification system uses ''tags'', or ''labels'' attached to the objects to be identified. Two-way radio transmitter-receivers called ''interrogators'' or ''readers'' send a signal to the tag and read its response.<ref>{{cite web|title=RFID-Tag|date=July 2018|url=https://www.behance.net/gallery/67918923/RFID-Tag|publisher=Behance|access-date=15 July 2018}}</ref>

===Tags===
RFID tags are made out of three pieces: 
* a micro chip (an [[integrated circuit]] which stores and processes information and [[modulation|modulates]] and [[demodulation|demodulates]] [[radio-frequency]] (RF) signals)
* an [[antenna (radio)|antenna]] for receiving and transmitting the signal 
* a substrate<ref name="constr">{{Cite web|url=https://rfid4u.com/rfid-basics-resources/dig-deep-rfid-tags-construction/|title=Construction of RFID Tags - RFID chip and antenna|date=n.d.|website=RFID4U|language=en-US|access-date=2020-03-01}}</ref>

The tag information is stored in a non-volatile memory.<ref name="constr"/> The RFID tags includes either fixed or programmable logic for processing the transmission and sensor data, respectively.{{citation needed|date=April 2021}}

RFID tags can be either passive, active or battery-assisted passive. An active tag has an on-board battery and periodically transmits its ID signal.<ref name="constr"/> A battery-assisted passive tag has a small battery on board and is activated when in the presence of an RFID reader. A passive tag is cheaper and smaller because it has no battery; instead, the tag uses the radio energy transmitted by the reader. However, to operate a passive tag, it must be illuminated with a power level roughly a thousand times stronger than an active tag for signal transmission.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bays|first1=Barbara|last2=McGowan|first2=Mike|date=2016|title=Use of RFID for Tracking Government Property - Proof of Concept/Pilot|journal=Sandia National Laboratories|publisher=Sandia Corporation|page=24}}</ref>

Tags may either be read-only, having a factory-assigned serial number that is used as a key into a database, or may be read/write, where object-specific data can be written into the tag by the system user. Field programmable tags may be write-once, read-multiple; "blank" tags may be written with an electronic product code by the user.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Want|first=Roy|date=January–March 2006|title= An Introduction to RFID Technology |journal= IEEE Pervasive Computing|volume= 5|pages=25–33|doi=10.1109/MPRV.2006.2|s2cid=130729}}</ref>

The RFID tag receives the message and then responds with its identification and other information. This may be only a unique tag serial number, or may be product-related information such as a stock number, lot or batch number, production date, or other specific information. Since tags have individual serial numbers, the RFID system design can discriminate among several tags that might be within the range of the RFID reader and read them simultaneously.

===Readers===
RFID systems can be classified by the type of tag and reader. There are 3 types:<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.makeuseof.com/tag/technology-explained-how-do-rfid-tags-work/|title=How Does RFID Technology Work?|website=MakeUseOf|date=June 2017|language=en-US|access-date=2019-04-22}}</ref>

* A '''Passive Reader Active Tag''' ('''PRAT''') system has a passive reader which only receives radio signals from active tags (battery operated, transmit only). The reception range of a PRAT system reader can be adjusted from {{convert|1|-|2000|ft|-2}}, allowing flexibility in applications such as asset protection and supervision.
* An '''Active Reader Passive Tag''' ('''ARPT''') system has an active reader, which transmits interrogator signals and also receives authentication replies from passive tags.
* An '''Active Reader Active Tag''' ('''ARAT''') system uses active tags activated with an interrogator signal from the active reader. A variation of this system could also use a Battery-Assisted Passive (BAP) tag which acts like a passive tag but has a small battery to power the tag's return reporting signal.

Fixed readers are set up to create a specific interrogation zone which can be tightly controlled. This allows a highly defined reading area for when tags go in and out of the interrogation zone. Mobile readers may be handheld or mounted on carts or vehicles.

===Frequencies===
{| class="wikitable"
|+ RFID frequency bands<ref name=Sen09>{{Citation|first1=Dipankar|last1=Sen|first2=Prosenjit|last2=Sen|first3=Anand M.|last3=Das|title=RFID For Energy and Utility Industries|publisher=PennWell|year=2009|isbn=978-1-59370-105-5}}, pp.&nbsp;1-48</ref><ref name=Weis>{{Citation|first=Stephen A.|last=Weis|title=RFID (Radio Frequency Identification): Principles and Applications|publisher=MIT CSAIL|year=2007<!-- Year from PDF document properties; 2006 from access dates in article -->|citeseerx=10.1.1.182.5224}}</ref>
|-
! Band
! Regulations
! Range
! Data speed
! [[ISO/IEC 18000]]<br/>section
! Remarks
! Approximate tag<br/>cost in volume<br/>(2006) 
|-
| LF: 120–150&nbsp;kHz
| Unregulated
| {{convert|10|cm|0|abbr=on}}
| Low
| [http://www.iso.org/iso/home/store/catalogue_ics/catalogue_detail_ics.htm?csnumber=46146 Part 2]
| Animal identification, factory data collection
| US$1
|-
| HF: 13.56&nbsp;MHz
| [[ISM band]] worldwide
| {{convert|0.1|-|1|m|sigfig=1|abbr=on}}
| Low to moderate
| [[ISO/IEC 18000-3|Part 3]]
| Smart cards ([[ISO/IEC 15693]], [[ISO/IEC 14443]] A, B),<br/>ISO-non-compliant memory cards ([[Mifare]] Classic, iCLASS, Legic, [[FeliCa]] ...),<br/>ISO-compatible microprocessor cards (Desfire EV1, Seos)
| US$0.05 to US$5
|-
| UHF: 433&nbsp;MHz 
| Short range devices
| {{convert|1–100|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=on}}
| Moderate
| [https://www.iso.org/standard/57336.html Part 7]
| Defense applications, Underground Miner Tracking with active tags
| US$5
|-
| UHF: 865–868&nbsp;MHz (Europe)<br/>902–928&nbsp;MHz (North America)
| ISM band
| {{convert|1–12|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=on}}
| Moderate to high
| [https://www.iso.org/standard/59644.html Part 6]
| EAN, various standards; used by railroads<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.railway-technology.com/features/feature1684/|title=RFID and Rail: Advanced Tracking Technology – Railway Technology|date=16 March 2008|access-date=14 March 2018}}</ref>
| US$0.04 to US$1.00<br/>(passive tags)
|-
| [[microwave]]: 2450–5800&nbsp;MHz
| ISM band
| {{convert|1–2|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=on}}
| High
| [http://www.iso.org/iso/home/store/catalogue_ics/catalogue_detail_ics.htm?csnumber=62539 Part 4]
| 802.11 WLAN, Bluetooth standards
| US$25 (active tags)
|-
| microwave: 3.1–10&nbsp;GHz
| Ultra wide band
| up to {{convert|200|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=on}}
| High
| Not&nbsp;defined
| Requires semi-active or active tags
| US$5 projected
|-
| mm-wave: 24.125&nbsp;GHz <ref name="Kaleja">{{cite book|year=1999|volume=4|pages=1497–1500 |doi=10.1109/MWSYM.1999.780237|isbn=0-7803-5135-5|s2cid=22463766|chapter=Imaging RFID system at 24 GHZ for object localization|title=1999 IEEE MTT-S International Microwave Symposium Digest (Cat. No.99CH36282)|last1=Kaleja|first1=M.M.|last2=Herb|first2=A.J.|last3=Rasshofer|first3=R.H.|last4=Friedsam|first4=G.|last5=Biebl|first5=E.M.}}</ref><ref name="Hester">{{cite book|year=2017|pages=1557–1560 |doi=10.1109/MWSYM.2017.8058927|isbn=978-1-5090-6360-4|s2cid=20439390 |chapter=A Mm-wave ultra-long-range energy-autonomous printed RFID-enabled van-atta wireless sensor: At the crossroads of 5G and IoT |title=2017 IEEE MTT-S International Microwave Symposium (IMS) |last1=Hester |first1=Jimmy G.D. |last2=Tentzeris |first2=Manos M. }}</ref><ref name="Soltanaghaei">{{cite book|year=2021|pages=69–82 |doi=10.1145/3447993.3448627|isbn=978-1-4503-8342-4|s2cid=231833014|doi-access=free |chapter=Millimetro: MmWave retro-reflective tags for accurate, long range localization |title=Proceedings of the 27th Annual International Conference on Mobile Computing and Networking |last1=Soltanaghaei |first1=Elahe |last2=Prabhakara |first2=Akarsh |last3=Balanuta |first3=Artur |last4=Anderson |first4=Matthew |last5=Rabaey |first5=Jan M. |last6=Kumar |first6=Swarun |last7=Rowe |first7=Anthony }}</ref> 
| [[ISM band]] worldwide
| {{convert|10-200|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=on}}
| High
| Not defined
| Requires semi-passive tags. Uses retrodirective backscatter approaches to achieve extended ranges
| US$10 projected
|}

===Signaling===
[[File:A3tag.jpg|thumb|RFID hard tag]]
Signaling between the reader and the tag is done in several different incompatible ways, depending on the frequency band used by the tag. Tags operating on LF and HF bands are, in terms of radio wavelength, very close to the reader antenna because they are only a small percentage of a wavelength away. In this [[Near and far field|near field]] region, the tag is closely coupled electrically with the transmitter in the reader. The tag can modulate the field produced by the reader by changing the electrical loading the tag represents. By switching between lower and higher relative loads, the tag produces a change that the reader can detect. At UHF and higher frequencies, the tag is more than one radio wavelength away from the reader, requiring a different approach. The tag can [[backscatter]] a signal. Active tags may contain functionally separated transmitters and receivers, and the tag need not respond on a frequency related to the reader's interrogation signal.<ref name="Dobkin08">Daniel M. Dobkin, ''The RF in RFID: Passive UHF RFID In Practice'', Newnes 2008 {{ISBN|978-0-7506-8209-1}}, chapter 8</ref>

An [[Electronic Product Code]] (EPC) is one common type of data stored in a tag. When written into the tag by an RFID printer, the tag contains a 96-bit string of data. The first eight bits are a header which identifies the version of the protocol. The next 28 bits identify the organization that manages the data for this tag; the organization number is assigned by the EPCGlobal consortium. The next 24 bits are an object class, identifying the kind of product. The last 36 bits are a unique serial number for a particular tag. These last two fields are set by the organization that issued the tag. Rather like a [[Uniform resource locator|URL]], the total electronic product code number can be used as a key into a global database to uniquely identify a particular product.<ref>John R. Vacca ''Computer and information security handbook'', Morgan Kaufmann, 2009 {{ISBN|0-12-374354-0}}, page 208</ref>

Often more than one tag will respond to a tag reader. For example, many individual products with tags may be shipped in a common box or on a common pallet. Collision detection is important to allow reading of data. Two different types of protocols are used to [[Singulation|"singulate"]] a particular tag, allowing its data to be read in the midst of many similar tags. In a [[ALOHAnet|slotted Aloha]] system, the reader broadcasts an initialization command and a parameter that the tags individually use to pseudo-randomly delay their responses. When using an "adaptive binary tree" protocol, the reader sends an initialization symbol and then transmits one bit of ID data at a time; only tags with matching bits respond, and eventually only one tag matches the complete ID string.<ref>Bill Glover, Himanshu Bhatt,''RFID essentials'', O'Reilly Media, Inc., 2006 {{ISBN|0-596-00944-5}}, pages 88–89</ref>
[[File:RFID search environment.png|thumb|right|An example of a binary tree method of identifying an RFID tag]]
Both methods have drawbacks when used with many tags or with multiple overlapping readers.{{Citation needed|reason=See talk page|date=July 2021}}

===Bulk reading===
"Bulk reading" is a strategy for interrogating multiple tags at the same time, but lacks sufficient precision for inventory control. A group of objects, all of them RFID tagged, are read completely from one single reader position at one time. However, as tags respond strictly sequentially, the time needed for bulk reading grows linearly with the number of labels to be read. This means it takes at least twice as long to read twice as many labels. Due to collision effects, the time required is greater.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rfidjournal.com/site/faqs|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130328095357/http://www.rfidjournal.com/site/faqs|archive-date=March 28, 2013|title=Frequently Asked Questions|website=www.rfidjournal.com|access-date=2019-04-22}}</ref>

A group of tags has to be illuminated by the interrogating signal just like a single tag. This is not a challenge concerning energy, but with respect to visibility; if any of the tags are shielded by other tags, they might not be sufficiently illuminated to return a sufficient response. The response conditions for inductively coupled [[High frequency|HF]] RFID tags and coil antennas in magnetic fields appear better than for UHF or SHF dipole fields, but then distance limits apply and may prevent success.{{Citation needed|reason=See talk page|date=July 2021}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Paret|first=Dominique|title=RFID at ultra and super high frequencies: theory and application}}</ref>

Under operational conditions, bulk reading is not reliable. Bulk reading can be a rough guide for logistics decisions, but due to a high proportion of reading failures, it is not (yet){{When|date=January 2021}} suitable for inventory management. However, when a single RFID tag might be seen as not guaranteeing a proper read, multiple RFID tags, where at least one will respond, may be a safer approach for detecting a known grouping of objects. In this respect, bulk reading is a [[Fuzzy mathematics|fuzzy]] method for process support. From the perspective of cost and effect, bulk reading is not reported as an economical approach to secure process control in logistics.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nerc.com/files/SGTF_Report_Final_posted_v1.1.pdf|title=STGF Report}}</ref>

===Miniaturization===
RFID tags are easy to conceal or incorporate in other items. For example, in 2009 researchers at [[Bristol University]] successfully glued RFID micro-transponders to live [[ant]]s in order to study their behavior.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/bristol/8011998.stm|title=Ants' home search habit uncovered|work=BBC News|date=2009-04-22|access-date=2013-09-03}}</ref> This trend towards increasingly miniaturized RFIDs is likely to continue as technology advances.

Hitachi holds the record for the smallest RFID chip, at 0.05&nbsp;mm × 0.05&nbsp;mm. This is 1/64th the size of the previous record holder, the mu-chip.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.engadget.com/2007/02/14/hitachis-rfid-powder-freaks-us-the-heck-out|title=Hitachi's RFID powder freaks us the heck out|date=15 February 2007 |publisher=Engadget|access-date=2010-04-24}}</ref> Manufacture is enabled by using the [[silicon-on-insulator]] (SOI) process. These dust-sized chips can store 38-digit numbers using 128-bit [[Read Only Memory]] (ROM).<ref>{{cite web|author=TFOT|year=2007|title=Hitachi Develops World's Smallest RFID Chip|url=http://thefutureofthings.com/news/1032/hitachi-develops-worlds-smallest-rfid-chip.html|access-date=2009-03-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090416235559/http://thefutureofthings.com/news/1032/hitachi-develops-worlds-smallest-rfid-chip.html|archive-date=2009-04-16}}</ref> A major challenge is the attachment of antennas, thus limiting read range to only millimeters.

====TFID (Terahertz Frequency Identification)====
In early 2020, MIT researchers demonstrated a [[terahertz (unit)|terahertz]] frequency identification (TFID) tag that is barely 1 square millimeter in size. The devices are essentially a piece of silicon that are inexpensive, small, and function like larger RFID tags. Because of the small size, manufacturers could tag any product and track logistics information for minimal cost.<ref>{{cite news|last=Zewe|first=Adam|url=https://news.mit.edu/2021/ruonan-han-circuits-1118|title=Pushing the limits of electronic circuits|work=MIT News|date=2021-11-18|access-date=2021-11-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Matheson|first=Rob|url=https://news.mit.edu/2020/cryptographic-tag-supply-chain-0220|title=Cryptographic "tag of everything" could protect the supply chain|work=MIT News|date=2020-02-20|access-date=2021-11-18}}</ref>

==Uses==
An RFID tag can be affixed to an object and used to track tools, equipment, inventory, assets, people, or other objects.

RFID offers advantages over manual systems or use of [[barcode]]s. The tag can be read if passed near a reader, even if it is covered by the object or not visible. The tag can be read inside a case, carton, box or other container, and unlike barcodes, RFID tags can be read hundreds at a time; barcodes can only be read one at a time using current devices. Some RFID tags, such as battery-assisted passive tags, are also able to monitor temperature and humidity.<ref>{{cite web|title=EPTLS - The Electronic Product Tag & Labelling Scheme|url=http://eptls.org/rfid.html|access-date=2019-04-22|website=eptls.org}}</ref>

In 2011, the cost of passive tags started at US$0.09 each; special tags, meant to be mounted on metal or withstand gamma sterilization, could cost up to US$5. Active tags for tracking containers, medical assets, or monitoring environmental conditions in data centers started at US$50 and could be over US$100 each.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2011-10-07|title=Barcoding Inc. - FAQ - How much does an RFID tag cost?|url=http://www.barcoding.com/faq/rfid-tag-cost.shtml|access-date=2022-03-06|website=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007191020/http://www.barcoding.com/faq/rfid-tag-cost.shtml|archive-date=7 October 2011}}</ref> Battery-Assisted Passive (BAP) tags were in the US$3–10 range.{{Citation needed|reason=See talk page|date=July 2021}}

RFID can be used in a variety of applications,<ref>{{cite web|author=Martein Meints|date=June 2007|title= D3.7 A Structured Collection on Information and Literature on Technological and Usability Aspects of Radio Frequency Identification (RFID), FIDIS deliverable 3(7)|url=http://www.fidis.net/resources/deliverables/hightechid/#c1782|access-date=2013-09-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Paolo Magrassi|author-link=Paolo Magrassi|year=2001|url=http://www.gartner.com|title=A World Of Smart Objects: The Role Of Auto Identification Technologies|access-date=2007-06-24}}</ref> such as:

[[File:RFkey.jpg|thumb|Electronic key for RFID based lock system]]
* Access management
* Tracking of goods
* Tracking of persons and animals<ref>Silva, S., Lowry, M., Macaya-Solis, C., Byatt, B., & Lucas, M. C. (2017). [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0925857417300940 Can navigation locks be used to help migratory fishes with poor swimming performance pass tidal barrages?] A test with lampreys. Ecological engineering, 102, 291–302.</ref>
* Toll collection and [[contactless payment]]
* [[machine-readable passport|Machine readable travel documents]]
* [[Smartdust]] (for massively distributed [[sensor]] networks)
* Locating lost airport baggage<ref>{{cite news|author=Pete Harrison|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/rbssIndustryMaterialsUtilitiesNews/idUSLS63631320090728|title=EU considers overhauling rules for lost air luggage|access-date=2009-09-09| work=Reuters| date=2009-07-28}}</ref>
* [[chip timing|Timing sporting events]]
* Tracking and billing processes
* Monitoring the physical state of perishable goods<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Vivaldi|first1=F.|last2=Melai|first2=B.|last3=Bonini|first3=A.|last4=Poma|first4=N.|last5=Salvo|first5=P.|last6=Kirchhain|first6=A.|last7=Tintori|first7=S.|last8=Bigongiari|first8=A.|last9=Bertuccelli|first9=F.|last10=Isola|first10=G.|last11=Di Francesco|first11=F.|date=October 2020|title=A Temperature-Sensitive RFID Tag for the Identification of Cold Chain Failures|journal=Sensors Actuators A: Physical|volume=313|page=112182|doi=10.1016/j.sna.2020.112182|bibcode=2020SeAcA.31312182V |s2cid=224856329|url=https://figshare.com/articles/A_Temperature-Sensitive_RFID_Tag_for_the_Identification_of_Cold_Chain_Failures/12197784|access-date=2020-09-27|archive-date=2020-12-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201202003902/https://figshare.com/articles/A_Temperature-Sensitive_RFID_Tag_for_the_Identification_of_Cold_Chain_Failures/12197784}}</ref>

In 2010, three factors drove a significant increase in RFID usage: decreased cost of equipment and tags, increased performance to a reliability of 99.9%, and a stable international standard around HF and UHF passive RFID. The adoption of these standards were driven by EPCglobal, a joint venture between [[GS1]] and GS1 US, which were responsible for driving global adoption of the barcode in the 1970s and 1980s. The EPCglobal Network was developed by the [[Auto-ID Labs|Auto-ID Center]].<ref>[Miles, Stephen Bell (2011). RFID Technology and Applications. London: Cambridge University Press. pp. 6–8]</ref>

===Commerce===
[[Image:EPC-RFID-TAG.svg|thumb|An [[Electronic Product Code|EPC]] RFID tag used by [[Walmart]]{{citation needed|date=January 2024}}]]
[[Image:RFID tag textile front-through-back.png|thumb|Sewn-in RFID label in garment manufactured by the French sports supplier [[Decathlon (retailer)|Decathlon]]. Front, back, and transparency scan.]]
RFID provides a way for organizations to identify and manage stock, tools and equipment ([[asset tracking]]), etc. without manual data entry. Manufactured products such as automobiles or garments can be tracked through the factory and through shipping to the customer. Automatic identification with RFID can be used for inventory systems. Many organisations require that their vendors place RFID tags on all shipments to improve [[supply chain management]].{{Citation needed|reason=See talk page|date=July 2021}} Warehouse Management System{{clarify|date=January 2024}}<!-- is this a proper noun?--> incorporate this technology to speed up the receiving and delivery of the products and reduce the cost of labor needed in their warehouses.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-12-19|title=Crucial Factors for Implementing Warehouse Management System - SIPMM Publications|url=https://publication.sipmm.edu.sg/crucial-factors-implementing-warehouse-management-system/|website=publication.sipmm.edu.sg|language=en-US}}</ref>

====Retail====
RFID is used for [[item-level tagging]] in retail stores. This can enable more accurate and lower-labor-cost supply chain and store inventory tracking, as is done at [[Lululemon]], though physically locating items in stores requires more expensive technology.<ref name="McKinsey">{{cite web |url=https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/retail/our-insights/rfids-renaissance-in-retail |title=RFID's renaissance in retail |date=May 7, 2021 |publisher=McKinsey |author1=Praveen Adhi |author2=Tyler Harris |author3=Gerry Hough}}</ref> RFID tags can be used at checkout; for example, at some stores of the French retailer [[Decathlon (retailer)|Decathlon]], customers perform [[self-checkout]] by either using a smartphone or putting items into a bin near the register that scans the tags without having to orient each one toward the scanner.<ref name="McKinsey" /> Some stores use RFID-tagged items to trigger systems that provide customers with more information or suggestions, such as fitting rooms at [[Chanel]] and the "Color Bar" at [[Kendra Scott]] stores.<ref name="McKinsey" />

Item tagging can also provide protection against theft by customers and employees by using [[electronic article surveillance]] (EAS). Tags of different types can be physically removed with a special tool or deactivated electronically when payment is made.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.controltekusa.com/controltek-news/benefits-of-rfid-in-theft-protection/|title=Benefits of RFID in Theft Protection – CONTROLTEK|website=Controltek|date=14 February 2014|access-date= 11 October 2017}}</ref> On leaving the shop, customers have to pass near an RFID detector; if they have items with active RFID tags, an alarm sounds, both indicating an unpaid-for item, and identifying what it is.

Casinos can use RFID to authenticate [[casino chip|poker chip]]s, and can selectively invalidate any chips known to be stolen.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.minyanville.com/businessmarkets/articles/bellagio-wynn-casino-rfid-gambling-las/12/15/2010/id/31714|title=RFID-Tagged Gaming Chips Render Hotel Bellagio Robbery Haul Worthless|last=Rohrlich|first=Justin|date=15 December 2010|publisher=[[Minyanville|Minyanville Financial Media]]|access-date=16 December 2010}}</ref>

====Access control====
[[File:RFID antenna 2007.jpg|thumb|RFID antenna for vehicular access control]]
RFID tags are widely used in [[identity document|identification badge]]s, replacing earlier [[digital card#Magnetic stripe card|magnetic stripe]] cards. These badges need only be held within a certain distance of the reader to authenticate the holder. Tags can also be placed on vehicles, which can be read at a distance, to allow entrance to controlled areas without having to stop the vehicle and present a card or enter an access code.{{Citation needed|reason=See talk page|date=July 2021}}

====Advertising====
In 2010, Vail Resorts began using UHF Passive RFID tags in ski passes.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2010-11-15|title=RFID use raises on-slope privacy concerns|url=https://www.espn.com/action/news/story?id=5810585|access-date=2021-03-23|website=ESPN.com|language=en}}</ref>

Facebook is using RFID cards at most of their live events to allow guests to automatically capture and post photos.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}{{When|date=January 2021}}

Automotive brands have adopted RFID for social media product placement more quickly than other industries. Mercedes was an early adopter in 2011 at the [[PGA Championship|PGA Golf Championships]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mashable.com/2011/08/11/mercedes-rfid-facebook/|title=Mercedes Provides RFID Facebook Checkins at PGA Championship|publisher=Mashable.com|date=2011-08-11|access-date=2013-09-22}}</ref> and by the 2013 Geneva Motor Show many of the larger brands were using RFID for social media marketing.<ref>{{cite web|author=Patrick Sweeney|url=http://socialmediatoday.com/pjsweeney/1322626/social-media-winner-s-circle-geneva-motor-show|title=Social Media Winner's Circle at Geneva Motor Show [Video|publisher=Social Media Today|date=2013-03-26|access-date=2013-09-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927053606/http://socialmediatoday.com/pjsweeney/1322626/social-media-winner-s-circle-geneva-motor-show|archive-date=2013-09-27}}</ref>{{Explain|reason=Please explain the way in which automotive brands are using RFID for advertising.|date=January 2021}}

====Promotion tracking====
To prevent retailers diverting products, manufacturers are exploring the use of RFID tags on promoted merchandise so that they can track exactly which product has sold through the supply chain at fully discounted prices.<ref>{{cite web|title=Keeping Track of Promotion Progress: How Marketing Will Become the Greatest Advocate of RFID|author1=James P. Farrell|author2=Ralf Saykiewicz|name-list-style=amp|publisher=Consumer Goods Technology|url=http://www.consumergoods.com/ME2/dirmod.asp?sid=&nm=&type=Publishing&mod=Publications%3A%3AArticle&mid=8F3A7027421841978F18BE895F87F791&tier=4&id=07CA1C544D3E4FD1916C7A6D2638913E|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080411211453/http://www.consumergoods.com/ME2/dirmod.asp?sid=&nm=&type=Publishing&mod=Publications%3A%3AArticle&mid=8F3A7027421841978F18BE895F87F791&tier=4&id=07CA1C544D3E4FD1916C7A6D2638913E|archive-date=2008-04-11|access-date=2008-04-10}}</ref>{{When|date=January 2021}}

===Transportation and logistics===
Yard management, shipping and freight and distribution centers use RFID tracking. In the [[rail transport|railroad]] industry, RFID tags mounted on locomotives and rolling stock identify the owner, identification number and type of equipment and its characteristics. This can be used with a database to identify the type, origin, destination, etc. of the commodities being carried.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aeitag.com/aeirfidtec.html|title=AEI technology|publisher=Softrail|access-date=2008-10-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080406031000/http://www.aeitag.com/aeirfidtec.html|archive-date=2008-04-06}}</ref>

In commercial aviation, RFID is used to support maintenance on commercial aircraft. RFID tags are used to identify baggage and cargo at several airports and airlines.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.qantas.com.au/travel/airlines/next-generation-checkin/global/en|title=Qantas Next Generation Check-in|publisher=Qantas Airways Limited|access-date=2010-12-27}}</ref><ref name="cargo-box">[http://www.cargo-box.com] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150801102438/http://www.cargo-box.com/|date=August 1, 2015}}</ref>

Some countries are using RFID for vehicle registration and enforcement.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/view/3321|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070523234412/http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/view/3321/|archive-date=May 23, 2007|title=Bermuda's RFID Vehicle Registration System Could Save $2 Million/Year|publisher=Rfidjournal.com|date=2007-05-18|access-date=2013-09-03}}</ref> RFID can help detect and retrieve stolen cars.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/view/89|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031018095931/http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/view/89|archive-date=October 18, 2003|title=Smart License May Cut Car Theft|publisher=Rfidjournal.com|date=2002-10-11|access-date=2013-09-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tollroadsnews.com/node/4513|title=Mexico's Electronic Vehicle Registration system opens with Sirit open road toll technology, Dec 29, 2009|publisher=Tollroadsnews.com|access-date=2013-09-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130703170620/http://www.tollroadsnews.com/node/4513|archive-date=2013-07-03}}</ref>

[[File:TransCore RFID reader and antenna.jpg|thumb|RFID E-ZPass reader attached to the pole and mast arm (right) used in traffic monitoring in New York City]]
RFID is used in [[intelligent transportation system]]s. In [[New York City]], RFID readers are deployed at intersections to track [[E-ZPass]] tags as a means for monitoring the traffic flow. The data is fed through the broadband wireless infrastructure to the traffic management center to be used in [[adaptive traffic control]] of the traffic lights.<ref>{{cite news|title=New York's award-winning traffic control system|url=http://www.itsinternational.com/sections/nafta/features/new-yorks-award-winning-traffic-control-system/|access-date=3 May 2014|newspaper=ITS International|date=January–February 2013}}</ref>

Where ship, rail, or highway tanks are being loaded, a fixed RFID antenna contained in a transfer hose can read an RFID tag affixed to the tank, positively identifying it.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Andrea Rosová |author2=Michal Balog |author3=Žofia Šimeková |date=2013|title=The use of the RFID in rail freight transport in the world as one of the new technologies of identification and communication.|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/292665484|journal=Acta Montanistica Slovaca|volume=18|issue=1|pages=26–32}}</ref>

===Infrastructure management and protection===
At least one company has introduced RFID to identify and locate underground infrastructure assets such as [[natural gas|gas]] [[pipeline]]s, [[sewerage|sewer line]]s, electrical cables, communication cables, etc.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://solutions.3m.com/wps/portal/3M/en_US/Telecom/Home/Products/LocatingMarking/|title=Locating and Marking Products|publisher=3M Company|access-date=25 June 2012}}</ref>

===Passports===
{{See also|Biometric passport}}
The first RFID passports ("[[Biometric passport|E-passport]]") were issued by [[Malaysia]] in 1998. In addition to information also contained on the visual data page of the passport, Malaysian e-passports record the travel history (time, date, and place) of entry into and exit out of the country.{{Citation needed|reason=See talk page|date=July 2021}}

Other countries that insert RFID in passports include Norway (2005),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digi.no/php/art.php?id=275753|title=Datatilsynet misfornøyd med nye pass|publisher=Digi.no|access-date=2013-09-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080405212252/http://www.digi.no/php/art.php?id=275753|archive-date=2008-04-05}}</ref> Japan (March 1, 2006), most [[European Union|EU]] countries (around 2006), Singapore (2006), Australia, Hong Kong, the United States (2007), the United Kingdom and Northern Ireland (2006), India (June 2008), Serbia (July 2008), Republic of Korea (August 2008), Taiwan (December 2008), Albania (January 2009), The Philippines (August 2009), Republic of Macedonia (2010), Argentina (2012), Canada (2013), Uruguay (2015)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.minterior.gub.uy/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3227|title=Uruguay a la vanguardia con nuevo pasaporte electrónico|publisher=Ministerio del Interior|access-date=2021-02-23|archive-date=2021-02-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210223164859/https://www.minterior.gub.uy/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3227|date=2015-10-15}}</ref> and Israel (2017).

Standards for RFID passports are determined by the [[International Civil Aviation Organization]] (ICAO), and are contained in ICAO Document 9303, Part 1, Volumes 1 and 2 (6th edition, 2006). ICAO refers to the [[ISO/IEC 14443]] RFID chips in e-passports as "contactless integrated circuits". ICAO standards provide for e-passports to be identifiable by a standard e-passport logo on the front cover.

Since 2006, RFID tags included in new [[United States passport]]s store the same information that is printed within the passport, and include a digital picture of the owner.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.contactlessnews.com/2006/11/30/contactless-inlays-from-smartrac-ordered-for-us-epassport-project|title = Contactless inlays from SMARTRAC ordered for US ePassport project|access-date=2009-03-25}}</ref> The United States Department of State initially stated the chips could only be read from a distance of {{convert|10|cm}}, but after widespread criticism and a clear demonstration that special equipment can read the test passports from {{convert|10|m}} away,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2006/01/30/dutch_biometric_passport_crack/|title=Face and fingerprints swiped in Dutch biometric passport crack: Chip skimmed, then security breached|last=Lettice|first=John|date=30 January 2006|website=The Register|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060131005717/https://www.theregister.co.uk/2006/01/30/dutch_biometric_passport_crack/|archive-date=31 January 2006|access-date=9 September 2013}}</ref> the passports were designed to incorporate a thin metal lining to make it more difficult for unauthorized readers to [[RFID skimming|skim]] information when the passport is closed. The department will also implement [[basic access control|Basic Access Control]] (BAC), which functions as a [[personal identification number]] (PIN) in the form of characters printed on the passport data page. Before a passport's tag can be read, this PIN must be entered into an RFID reader. The BAC also enables the encryption of any communication between the chip and interrogator.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://rfidjournal.com/article/articleview/1951/1/132/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060409081514/http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/articleview/1951/1/132/|archive-date=April 9, 2006|title=United States sets date for E-passports|date=19 June 2015}}</ref>

===Transportation payments===
In many countries, RFID tags can be used to pay for mass transit fares on bus, trains, or subways, or to collect tolls on highways.

Some [[bicycle locker|bike locker]]s are operated with RFID cards assigned to individual users. A prepaid card is required to open or enter a facility or locker and is used to track and charge based on how long the bike is parked.{{Citation needed|reason=See talk page|date=July 2021}}

The [[Zipcar]] car-sharing service uses RFID cards for locking and unlocking cars and for member identification.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/view/3839/2|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322030622/http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/view/3839/2|archive-date=March 22, 2012|title=RFID Is Key to Car Clubs' Success|author= Mary Catherine O'Connor|date= 7 January 2008|publisher= RFID Journal|access-date=9 May 2011}}</ref>

In Singapore, RFID replaces paper Season Parking Ticket (SPT).<ref>{{cite web|first=Lay|last=Tay|url=http://www.rfid-asia.info/2007/11/hdb-introduce-rfid-season-parking.htm|title=HDB Introduces RFID Season Parking Ticket|publisher=RFID Asia|date=2007-11-01|access-date=2009-10-17}}</ref>

===Animal identification===
RFID tags for animals represent one of the oldest uses of RFID. Originally meant for large ranches and rough terrain, since the outbreak of [[Bovine spongiform encephalopathy|mad-cow disease]], RFID has become crucial in [[animal identification]] management. An [[Microchip implant (animal)|implantable RFID tag]] or [[transponder]] can also be used for animal identification. The transponders are better known as PIT (Passive Integrated Transponder) tags, passive RFID, or "chips" on animals.<ref>[http://www.thenation.com/doc/20071231/pentland_gumpert USDA Bets the Farm on Animal ID Program]</ref> The [http://www.canadaid.com/ Canadian Cattle Identification Agency] began using RFID tags as a replacement for barcode tags. Currently, CCIA tags are used in [[Wisconsin]] and by United States farmers on a voluntary basis. The [[United States Department of Agriculture|USDA]] is currently developing its own program.

RFID tags are required for all cattle sold in Australia and in some states, sheep and goats as well.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mla.com.au/Meat-safety-and-traceability/National-Livestock-Identification-System|title=National Livestock Identification System|publisher=Meat & Livestock Australia Limited|access-date=2013-09-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130820085741/http://www.mla.com.au/Meat-safety-and-traceability/National-Livestock-Identification-System|archive-date=2013-08-20}}</ref>

===Human implantation===
[[File:Dr Mark Gasson has an RFID microchip implanted in his left hand by a surgeon (March 16 2009).jpg|thumb|A surgeon implants British scientist Dr [[Mark Gasson]] in his left hand with an RFID microchip (March 16, 2009).]]
[[biocompatibility|Biocompatible]] [[microchip implant (human)|microchip implants]] that use RFID technology are being routinely implanted in humans. The first-ever human to receive an RFID microchip implant was American artist [[Eduardo Kac]] in 1997.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://acervo.folha.com.br/leitor.do?numero=13700&keyword=Kac&anchor=282247&origem=busca&originURL=&pd=e5616b5794dde0ab6a687a693c931980/|first=Mario Cesar|last=Carvalho|title=Artista implanta hoje chip no corpo|date=November 11, 1997|language=Portuguese| website=Folha de S.Paulo|access-date=14 June 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ekac.org:80/lanacion.html/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170201160159/http://www.ekac.org/lanacion.html/|archive-date=1 February 2017|title=Un hombre llamado 026109532|website=Internet Archive Wayback Machine|publisher=La Nación|language=Spanish|date=December 15, 1997|last=Esnal|first=Luis|access-date=14 June 2021}}</ref> Kac implanted the microchip live on television (and also live on the Internet) in the context of his artwork ''Time Capsule''.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7y2tbPaYqfQ| title = 1º implante de chip ao vivo - Jornal das 10 - Canal 21 - SP - 1997| website=[[YouTube]]| date = 16 January 2019}}</ref>
A year later, British professor of [[cybernetics]] [[Kevin Warwick]] had an RFID chip implanted in his arm by his [[general practitioner]], George Boulos.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://edition.cnn.com/TECH/computing/9901/14/chipman.idg/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020308225945/http://edition.cnn.com/TECH/computing/9901/14/chipman.idg/|url-status=dead|archive-date=March 8, 2002|title=CNN – Is human chip implant wave of the future? – January 14, 1999|first=Sam|last=Witt|website=CNN|access-date=14 March 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/professor-has-worlds-first-silicon-chip-implant-1174101.html|title=Professor has world's first silicon chip implant|date=26 August 1998|access-date=14 March 2018}}</ref> In 2004, the '[[Baja Beach Club]]' operated by [[Conrad Chase]] in [[Barcelona]]<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3697940.stm|title=Technology &#124; Barcelona clubbers get chipped|work=BBC News|date=2004-09-29|access-date=2013-09-22}}</ref> and [[Rotterdam]] offered implanted chips to identify their VIP customers, who could in turn use it to pay for service. In 2009, British scientist [[Mark Gasson]] had an advanced glass capsule RFID device surgically implanted into his left hand and subsequently demonstrated how a computer virus could wirelessly infect his implant and then be transmitted on to other systems.<ref name="istas">{{Cite book| doi = 10.1109/ISTAS.2010.5514651| chapter = Human Enhancement: Could you become infected with a computer virus?| title = 2010 IEEE International Symposium on Technology and Society| pages = 61–68| year = 2010| last1 = Gasson| first1 = M. N.| isbn = 978-1-4244-7777-7| s2cid = 3098538| chapter-url = http://centaur.reading.ac.uk/29329/1/GASSON_ISTAS2010.pdf}}</ref>

The [[Food and Drug Administration]] in the United States approved the use of RFID chips in humans in 2004.<ref>{{cite web|author=Greene, Thomas C.|year=2004| title=Feds approve human RFID implants|website=[[The Register]]|url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/10/14/human_rfid_implants/|access-date=2007-03-01}}</ref>

There is controversy regarding human applications of implantable RFID technology including concerns that individuals could potentially be tracked by carrying an identifier unique to them. Privacy advocates have protested against implantable RFID chips, warning of potential abuse. Some are concerned this could lead to abuse by an authoritarian government, to removal of freedoms,<ref>Monahan, Torin and Tyler Wall. 2007. [http://www.surveillance-and-society.org/articles4(3)/somatic.pdf Somatic Surveillance: Corporeal Control through Information Networks]. Surveillance & Society 4 (3): 154–173 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160615201126/http://www.surveillance-and-society.org/articles4(3)/somatic.pdf|date=2016-06-15}}</ref> and to the emergence of an "ultimate [[panopticon]]", a society where all citizens behave in a socially accepted manner because others might be watching.<ref name="Kietzmann">{{cite journal|journal=Communications of the ACM|year=2010|volume=53|issue=6|pages=135–138|title=Panopticon revisited|author=Kietzmann, J. |author2=Angell, I.|doi=10.1145/1743546.1743582|s2cid=10487109|url=http://beedie.sfu.ca/files/Research/Journal_Articles/Journal_Articles_2010/Panopticon_revisited.pdf|access-date=9 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140224154000/http://beedie.sfu.ca/files/Research/Journal_Articles/Journal_Articles_2010/Panopticon_revisited.pdf|archive-date=2014-02-24}}</ref>

On July 22, 2006, Reuters reported that two hackers, Newitz and Westhues, at a conference in New York City demonstrated that they could clone the RFID signal from a human implanted RFID chip, indicating that the device was not as secure as was previously claimed.<ref>{{cite web|last=Fulton|first=Nic|url=http://blogs.reuters.com/mediafile/2006/07/22/high-tech-cloning/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202020437/http://blogs.reuters.com/mediafile/2006/07/22/high-tech-cloning/|archive-date=2017-02-02|title=Reuters|publisher=Blogs.reuters.com|date= 2006-07-22|access-date=2013-09-03}}</ref>

The UFO religion [[Universe People]] is notorious online for their vocal opposition to human RFID chipping, which they claim is a [[Reptilian humanoid|saurian]] attempt to enslave the human race; one of their web domains is "dont-get-chipped".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-06-07 |title=Stop Chipping image by Universe People |url=http://www.angels-light.org/english/img_4000/obr4007.jpg |access-date=2024-08-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150607025253/http://www.angels-light.org/english/img_4000/obr4007.jpg |archive-date=2015-06-07 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-11-26 |title=EN - TALKS WITH TEACHINGS FROM MY COSMIC FRIENDS - space-people.org |url=http://www.universe-people.com/ |access-date=2024-08-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201126212624/http://www.universe-people.com/ |archive-date=2020-11-26 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=admin |date=2024-02-09 |title=Universe People |url=https://newreligiousmovements.org/u/universe-people/ |access-date=2024-08-01 |website=New Religious Movements |language=en-US}}</ref>

===Institutions===

====Hospitals and healthcare====
Adoption of RFID in the medical industry has been widespread and very effective.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rosenbaum|first=Benjamin P.|date=28 February 2014|title=Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) in Health Care: Privacy and Security Concerns Limiting Adoption|journal=Journal of Medical Systems|volume=38|issue=3|page=19|doi=10.1007/s10916-014-0019-z|pmid=24578170|s2cid=11368940}}</ref> Hospitals are among the first users to combine both active and passive RFID.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lahtela|first=Antti|title=2009 Fourth International Conference on Systems and Networks Communications|chapter=A Short Overview of the RFID Technology in Healthcare|chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/703195|year=2009|pages=165–169|doi=10.1109/ICSNC.2009.77|isbn=978-1-4244-4772-5|s2cid=16524713|language=en}}</ref> Active tags track high-value, or frequently moved items, and passive tags track smaller, lower cost items that only need room-level identification.<ref>{{cite web|title=RFID Frequently Asked Questions|url=http://www.rfidjournal.com/faq/show?68|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130523091646/http://www.rfidjournal.com/faq/show?68|archive-date=May 23, 2013|work=RFIDJournal.com|access-date=2013-05-20}}</ref> Medical facility rooms can collect data from transmissions of RFID badges worn by patients and employees, as well as from tags assigned to items such as mobile medical devices.<ref>{{cite news|title=Group Health Reinvents Patient Care With RTLS|url=http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/print/9828|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130630055052/http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/print/9828|archive-date=June 30, 2013|newspaper=RFID Journal|date=22 August 2012}}</ref> The [[United States Department of Veterans Affairs|U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (VA)]] recently announced plans to deploy RFID in hospitals across America to improve care and reduce costs.<ref>{{cite news|title=Veterans Affairs to Install RFID in Hospitals across America|url=http://www.impinj.com/blog/veteran-affairs-to-install-rfid-in-hospitals-across-america/|newspaper=Impinj|date=14 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140319083312/http://www.impinj.com/blog/veteran-affairs-to-install-rfid-in-hospitals-across-america/|archive-date=19 March 2014}}</ref>

Since 2004, a number of U.S. hospitals have begun implanting patients with RFID tags and using RFID systems; the systems are typically used for workflow and inventory management.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Fisher, Jill A. |author2=Monahan, Torin |year= 2012|title= Evaluation of Real-time Location Systems in their Hospital Contexts|doi=10.1016/j.ijmedinf.2012.07.001|pmid= 22857790|journal=International Journal of Medical Informatics|volume=81|issue=10|pages= 705–712|url=http://publicsurveillance.com/papers/Fisher_Monahan_IJMI-2012.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Fisher, Jill A. |author2=Monahan, Torin|year= 2008|title= Tracking the Social Dimensions of RFID Systems in Hospitals|doi=10.1016/j.ijmedinf.2007.04.010|pmid= 17544841|journal=International Journal of Medical Informatics|volume=77|issue=3|pages= 176–183|url=http://publicsurveillance.com/papers/Fisher_Monahan_RFID_IJMI.pdf}}</ref><ref>Fisher, Jill A. 2006. [http://media.wix.com/ugd/e5e1e1_9618d4aaaa1240f4bfa2e6fc8178b144.pdf Indoor Positioning and Digital Management: Emerging Surveillance Regimes in Hospitals]. In T. Monahan (Ed), ''Surveillance and Security: Technological Politics and Power in Everyday Life'' (pp. 77–88). New York: Routledge.</ref>
The use of RFID to prevent mix-ups between [[spermatozoon|sperm]] and [[egg cell|ova]] in [[in vitro fertilisation|IVF]] clinics is also being considered.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn7209|title=Electronic tags for eggs, sperm and embryos – life – 30 March 2005|magazine=New Scientist|access-date=2010-04-24}}</ref>

In October 2004, the FDA approved the USA's first RFID chips that can be implanted in humans. The 134&nbsp;kHz RFID chips, from VeriChip Corp. can incorporate personal medical information and could save lives and limit injuries from errors in medical treatments, according to the company. Anti-RFID activists [[Katherine Albrecht]] and [[Liz McIntyre (writer)|Liz McIntyre]] discovered an [[FDA warning letter|FDA Warning Letter]] that spelled out health risks.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spychips.com/devices/verichip-fda-report.html|title=Verichip Special Report|publisher=spychips.com|access-date=2013-09-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323031257/http://www.spychips.com/devices/verichip-fda-report.html|archive-date=2012-03-23}}</ref> According to the FDA, these include "adverse tissue reaction", "migration of the implanted transponder", "failure of implanted transponder", "electrical hazards" and "magnetic resonance imaging [MRI] incompatibility."

====Libraries====
[[Image:RFID Tags.jpg|thumb|RFID tags used in libraries: square book tag, round CD/DVD tag and rectangular VHS tag]]
Libraries have used RFID to replace the barcodes on library items. The tag can contain identifying information or may just be a key into a database. An RFID system may replace or supplement bar codes and may offer another method of inventory management and self-service checkout by patrons. It can also act as a [[security]] device, taking the place of the more traditional [[electronic article surveillance|electromagnetic security strip]].<ref name="butters">{{cite journal|last1=Butters|first1=Alan|title=Radio Frequency Identification: An Introduction for Library Professionals|journal=Australasian Public Libraries and Information Services|volume=19|issue=4| date=December 2006|pages=164–74|url=http://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=312996058408409;res=IELHSS|issn=1030-5033}}</ref>

It is estimated that over 30 million library items worldwide now contain RFID tags, including some in the [[Vatican Library]] in [[Rome]].<ref name="singh">{{cite journal|doi=10.6017/ital.v25i1.3326|title=The State of RFID Applications in Libraries|year=2013|last1=Sing|first1=Jay|last2=Brar|first2=Navjit|last3=Fong|first3=Carmen|journal=Information Technology and Libraries|volume=25–32|page=24|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Since RFID tags can be read through an item, there is no need to open a book cover or DVD case to scan an item, and a stack of books can be read simultaneously. Book tags can be read while books are in motion on a [[conveyor belt]], which reduces staff time. This can all be done by the borrowers themselves, reducing the need for library staff assistance. With portable readers, inventories could be done on a whole shelf of materials within seconds.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Radio Frequency Identification|first1=Rachel|last1=Wadham|journal=Library Mosaics|volume=14|issue=5|year=2003|page=22}}</ref>
However, as of 2008, this technology remained too costly for many smaller libraries, and the conversion period has been estimated at 11 months for an average-size library. A 2004 Dutch estimate was that a library which lends 100,000 books per year should plan on a cost of €50,000 (borrow- and return-stations: 12,500 each, detection porches 10,000 each; tags 0.36 each). RFID taking a large burden off staff could also mean that fewer staff will be needed, resulting in some of them getting laid off,<ref name="singh"/> but that has so far not happened in North America where recent surveys have not returned a single library that cut staff because of adding RFID.{{citation needed|date=November 2020}}<ref name="ChellappandiSivankalai2013">{{Cite journal|last1=Chellappandi|first1=P|last2=Sivankalai|first2=S|date=October 2013|others=ISSN: 2321 – 788X|title=Implementation Of RFID Technology In Library – Book Exhausting and Retrieval For Readers|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259854363|journal=Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science & Humanities|volume=1|issue=2|pages=25–32|via=ResearchGate}}</ref> In fact, library budgets are being reduced for personnel and increased for infrastructure, making it necessary for libraries to add automation to compensate for the reduced staff size.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}<ref name="ChellappandiSivankalai2013"/> Also, the tasks that RFID takes over are largely not the primary tasks of librarians.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}<ref name="ChellappandiSivankalai2013"/> A finding in the Netherlands is that borrowers are pleased with the fact that staff are now more available for answering questions.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}<ref name="ChellappandiSivankalai2013"/>

Privacy concerns have been raised surrounding library use of RFID.<ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/221609472|doi=10.1145/1030083.1030112 |chapter=Privacy and security in library RFID: Issues, practices, and architectures |title=Proceedings of the 11th ACM conference on Computer and communications security |date=2004 |last1=Molnar |first1=David |last2=Wagner |first2=David |pages=210–219 |isbn=1-58113-961-6 }}</ref><ref>{{Citation|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270618836|doi=10.1177/0961000613518572|title=How do libraries manage the ethical and privacy issues of RFID implementation? A qualitative investigation into the decision-making processes of ten libraries|year=2015|last1=Ferguson|first1=Stuart|last2=Thornley|first2=Clare|last3=Gibb|first3=Forbes|journal=Journal of Librarianship and Information Science|volume=47|issue=2|pages=117–130|hdl=10197/5242|s2cid=28009426|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Because some RFID tags can be read up to {{convert|100|m}} away, there is some concern over whether sensitive information could be collected from an unwilling source. However, library RFID tags do not contain any patron information,<ref>{{cite journal|first=David|last=Dorman|title=RFID Poses No Problem for Patron Privacy|journal=American Libraries|volume=34|issue=11| date=December 2003|page=86|url=http://www.ala.org/PrinterTemplate.cfm?section=archive&template=/ContentManagement/ContentDisplay.cfm&ContentID=50931}}</ref> and the tags used in the majority of libraries use a frequency only readable from approximately {{convert|10|ft}}.<ref name="butters"/> Another concern is that a non-library agency could potentially record the RFID tags of every person leaving the library without the library administrator's knowledge or consent. One simple option is to let the book transmit a code that has meaning only in conjunction with the library's database. Another possible enhancement would be to give each book a new code every time it is returned. In future, should readers become ubiquitous (and possibly networked), then stolen books could be traced even outside the library. Tag removal could be made difficult if the tags are so small that they fit invisibly inside a (random) page, possibly put there by the publisher.{{Citation needed|reason=See talk page|date=July 2021}}

====Museums====
RFID technologies are now{{When|date=January 2021}} also implemented in end-user applications in museums.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Rowe|first=Paul|date=November 9, 2011|title=RFID Technology in use at the Otago Museum|url=https://vernonsystems.com/rfid-technology-in-use-at-the-otago-museum/|website=Vernon Systems}}</ref> An example was the custom-designed temporary research application, "eXspot", at the [[Exploratorium]], a science museum in [[San Francisco]], [[California]]. A visitor entering the museum received an RF tag that could be carried as a card. The eXspot system enabled the visitor to receive information about specific exhibits. Aside from the exhibit information, the visitor could take photographs of themselves at the exhibit. It was also intended to allow the visitor to take data for later analysis. The collected information could be retrieved at home from a "personalized" website keyed to the RFID tag.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1145/1081992.1082021|title=RFID enhances visitors' museum experience at the Exploratorium|year=2005|last1=Hsi|first1=Sherry|last2=Fait|first2=Holly|journal=Communications of the ACM|volume=48|issue=9|pages=60–5|s2cid=8334725}}</ref>

====Schools and universities====
In 2004, school authorities in the Japanese city of [[Osaka]] made a decision to start chipping children's clothing, backpacks, and student IDs in a primary school.<ref name=LAN>{{cite web|url=http://networks.silicon.com/lans/0,39024663,39122042,00.htm|title=Schoolchildren to be RFID-chipped|publisher=Networks.silicon.com|access-date=2013-09-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120427003216/http://networks.silicon.com/lans/0,39024663,39122042,00.htm|archive-date=April 27, 2012}}</ref> Later, in 2007, a school in [[Doncaster]], England, piloted a monitoring system designed to keep tabs on pupils by tracking radio chips in their uniforms.<ref>{{cite web|last=Williams|first=Christopher|url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2007/10/22/kid_chipping_doncaster_go/|title=Schoolkid chipping trial 'a success'|publisher=Theregister.co.uk|date=2007-10-22|access-date=2013-09-03}}</ref>{{When|date=January 2021}} [[List of further education colleges in England#S|St Charles Sixth Form College]] in west [[London]], England, starting in 2008, uses an RFID card system to check in and out of the main gate, to both track attendance and prevent unauthorized entrance. Similarly, [[Whitcliffe Mount School]] in [[Cleckheaton]], England, uses RFID to track pupils and staff in and out of the building via a specially designed card. In the Philippines, during 2012, some schools already{{When|date=January 2021}} use RFID in IDs for borrowing books.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Baghya Lakshmi|date=2012-09-16|title=Using rfid technology to develop an attendance system and avoid traffic congestion around kindergartens |website=Slideshare|url=https://www.slideshare.net/baghyaharini/using-rfid-technology-to-develop-an-attendance-system-and-avoid-traffic-1}}</ref>{{rs|date=February 2025}} Gates in those particular schools also have RFID scanners for buying items at school shops and canteens. RFID is also used in school libraries, and to sign in and out for student and teacher attendance.<ref name="ChellappandiSivankalai2013"/>

===Sports===
[[File:2008 Nike+ Human Race in Taipei the ChampionChip.jpg|thumb|ChampionChip]]
[[chip timing|RFID for timing races]] began in the early 1990s with pigeon racing, introduced by the company [[Deister Electronics]] in Germany. RFID can provide race start and end timings for individuals in large races where it is impossible to get accurate stopwatch readings for every entrant.{{Citation needed|reason=See talk page|date=July 2021}}

In races using RFID, racers wear tags that are read by antennas placed alongside the track or on mats across the track. UHF tags provide accurate readings with specially designed antennas. Rush error,{{Clarify|reason=|date=January 2021}} lap count errors and accidents at race start are avoided, as anyone can start and finish at any time without being in a batch mode.{{Clarify|reason=|date=January 2021}}
[[File:Marathon Zeitnahme.JPG|thumb|left|J-Chip 8-channel receiver next to timing mat. The athlete wears a chip on a strap around their ankle. [https://web.archive.org/web/19961218232821/http://www.ironman.de/ Ironman Germany] 2007 in Frankfurt.]]

The design of the chip and of the antenna controls the range from which it can be read. Short range compact chips are twist tied to the shoe, or strapped to the ankle with {{Avoid wrap|[[hook-and-loop fastener]]s}}. The chips must be about 400&nbsp;mm from the mat, therefore giving very good temporal resolution. Alternatively, a chip plus a very large (125{{nbsp}}mm square) antenna can be incorporated into the bib number worn on the athlete's chest at a height of about {{convert|1.25|m|ft|abbr=on}}.{{Citation needed|reason=See talk page|date=July 2021}}

Passive and active RFID systems are used in off-road events such as [[Orienteering]], [[Enduro]] and Hare and Hounds racing. Riders have a transponder on their person, normally on their arm. When they complete a lap they swipe or touch the receiver which is connected to a computer and log their lap time.{{Citation needed|reason=See talk page|date=July 2021}}

RFID is being{{When|date=January 2021}} adapted by many recruitment agencies which have a PET (physical endurance test) as their qualifying procedure, especially in cases where the candidate volumes may run into millions (Indian Railway recruitment cells, police and power sector).

A number of [[ski resort]]s have adopted RFID tags to provide skiers hands-free access to [[ski lift]]s. Skiers do not have to take their passes out of their pockets. Ski jackets have a left pocket into which the chip+card fits. This nearly contacts the sensor unit on the left of the turnstile as the skier pushes through to the lift. These systems were based on high frequency (HF) at 13.56{{nbsp}}MHz. The bulk of ski areas in Europe, from Verbier to Chamonix, use these systems.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cliqology.com/2010/09/epic-mix-skiiers-and-snowboards-social-media-dream/|title=Epic Mix – Skiiers [sic] and Snowboarders Social Media Dream|date=2010-09-07|access-date=2013-09-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://snowboard-mag.com/content/vail-resorts-launches-epic-mix-39814|title=Vail Resorts Launches Epic Mix &#124; SNOWBOARD MAGAZINE|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100904085254/http://snowboard-mag.com/content/vail-resorts-launches-epic-mix-39814|access-date=2020-03-01|archive-date=2010-09-04}}</ref><ref>Kinsella, Bret. (2010-09-07) [http://blog.odintechnologies.com/odin-rfid-blog/bid/51179/Vail-shows-that-Consumer-RFID-delivers-a-better-experience Vail shows that Consumer RFID delivers a better experience] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101106030526/http://blog.odintechnologies.com/odin-rfid-blog/bid/51179/Vail-shows-that-Consumer-RFID-delivers-a-better-experience|date=2010-11-06}}. Blog.odintechnologies.com. Retrieved on 2013-08-16.</ref>

The [[National Football League|NFL]] in the United States equips players with RFID chips that measures speed, distance and direction traveled by each player in real-time. Currently, cameras stay focused on the [[quarterback]]; however, numerous plays are happening simultaneously on the field. The RFID chip will provide new insight into these simultaneous plays.<ref>{{cite web|title=How a pair of microchips could transform football into an intricate dance of data|url=http://www.dailydot.com/technology/nfl-rfid-player-tracking-zebra-technologies/|website=DailyDot|access-date=1 September 2015|date=2015-08-12}}</ref> The chip triangulates the player's position within six inches and will be used to digitally [[broadcasting|broadcast]] replays. The RFID chip will make individual player information accessible to the public. The data will be available via the NFL 2015 app.<ref>{{cite web|title=The NFL has a (RFID) Chip on its shoulder|url=http://news.surgogroup.com/nfl-has-a-rfid-chip-on-its-shoulder/|website=News Surgo Group|access-date=1 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906105747/http://news.surgogroup.com/nfl-has-a-rfid-chip-on-its-shoulder/|archive-date=2015-09-06}}</ref> The RFID chips are manufactured by [[Zebra Technologies]]. Zebra Technologies tested the RFID chip in 18 stadiums last year{{when|date=November 2019}} to track vector data.<ref>{{cite magazine|title=All NFL Players Are Getting RFID Chips This Season|url=https://www.wired.com/2015/08/nfl-players-getting-rfid-chips-season/|magazine=Wired|access-date=1 September 2015|date=2015-08-07|last1=Moynihan|first1=Tim}}</ref>

===Complement to barcode===
{{Unreferenced section|date=January 2021}}
RFID tags are often a complement, but not a substitute, for [[Universal Product Code]] (UPC) or [[European Article Number]] (EAN) barcodes. They may never completely replace barcodes, due in part to their higher cost and the advantage of multiple data sources on the same object. Also, unlike RFID labels, barcodes can be generated and distributed electronically by e-mail or mobile phone, for printing or display by the recipient. An example is airline [[boarding pass]]es. The new [[Electronic Product Code|EPC]], along with several other schemes, is widely available at reasonable cost.

The storage of data associated with tracking items will require many [[byte|terabyte]]s. Filtering and categorizing RFID data is needed to create useful information. It is likely that goods will be tracked by the pallet using RFID tags, and at package level with UPC or EAN from unique barcodes.

The unique identity is a mandatory requirement for RFID tags, despite special choice of the numbering scheme. RFID tag data capacity is large enough that each individual tag will have a unique code, while current barcodes are limited to a single type code for a particular product. The uniqueness of RFID tags means that a product may be tracked as it moves from location to location while being delivered to a person. This may help to combat theft and other forms of product loss. The tracing of products is an important feature that is well supported with RFID tags containing a unique identity of the tag and the serial number of the object. This may help companies cope with quality deficiencies and resulting recall campaigns, but also contributes to concern about tracking and profiling of persons after the sale.

===Waste management===
Since around 2007, there has been increasing development in the use of RFID {{When|date=January 2021}} in the [[waste management]] industry. RFID tags are installed on waste collection carts, linking carts to the owner's account for easy billing and service verification.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Chowdhury|first1=Belal|last2=Chowdhury|first2=Morshed|title=2007 Australasian Telecommunication Networks and Applications Conference|chapter=RFID-based real-time smart waste management system|date=December 2, 2007|chapter-url=http://dro.deakin.edu.au/eserv/DU:30008105/chowdhury-rfidbased-2007.pdf|volume=1|pages=175–180|doi=10.1109/ATNAC.2007.4665232|hdl=10536/DRO/DU:30008105|isbn=978-1-4244-1557-1|s2cid=18506491|via=Deakin University DRO|hdl-access=free}}</ref> The tag is embedded into a garbage and recycle container, and the RFID reader is affixed to the garbage and recycle trucks.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.waste360.com/route-optimization/rfid-still-early-stages-adoption-waste-industry|title=RFID Still In Early Stages of Adoption by Waste Industry|date=2016-08-10}}</ref> RFID also measures a customer's set-out rate and provides insight as to the number of carts serviced by each waste collection vehicle. This RFID process replaces traditional "[[pay as you throw]]" (PAYT) [[municipal solid waste]] usage-pricing models.

===Telemetry===
Active RFID tags have the potential to function as low-cost remote sensors that broadcast [[telemetry]] back to a base station. Applications of tagometry data could include sensing of road conditions by implanted [[Bluetooth Low Energy beacon|beacons]], weather reports, and noise level monitoring.<ref>{{ISSN link|0001-0782}}</ref>

Passive RFID tags can also report sensor data. For example, the [[wireless identification and sensing platform|Wireless Identification and Sensing Platform]] is a passive tag that reports temperature, acceleration and capacitance to commercial Gen2 RFID readers.

It is possible that active or battery-assisted passive (BAP) RFID tags could broadcast a signal to an in-store receiver to determine whether the RFID tag – and by extension, the product it is attached to – is in the store.{{Citation needed|reason=See talk page|date=July 2021}}

==Regulation and standardization==
To avoid injuries to humans and animals, RF transmission needs to be controlled.<ref name="regs">{{Cite web|url=https://rfid4u.com/rfid-basics-resources/basics-rfid-regulations/|title=RFID Regulations|date=n.d.|website=RFID4U|language=en-US|access-date=2020-03-01}}</ref>
A number of organizations have set standards for RFID, including the [[International Organization for Standardization]] (ISO), the [[International Electrotechnical Commission]] (IEC), [[ASTM International]], the [[DASH7]] Alliance and [[EPCglobal]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Yang|first1=Kuo-pao|last2=Beaubouef|first2=Theresa|date=2011-04-01|title=Radio frequency identification (RFID) projects for computer science|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/abs/10.5555/1953573.1953586|journal=Journal of Computing Sciences in Colleges|volume=26|issue=4|pages=78–84|doi=|issn=1937-4771}}</ref>

Several specific industries have also set guidelines, including the Financial Services Technology Consortium (FSTC) for tracking IT Assets with RFID, the Computer Technology Industry Association [[CompTIA]] for certifying RFID engineers, and the [[International Air Transport Association]] (IATA) for luggage in airports.{{citation needed|date=March 2020}}

Every country can set its own rules for [[frequency allocation]] for RFID tags, and not all radio bands are available in all countries. These frequencies are known as the [[ISM band]]s (Industrial Scientific and Medical bands). The return signal of the tag may still cause [[interference (communication)|interference]] for other radio users.{{citation needed|date=March 2020}}

* Low-frequency (LF: 125–134.2&nbsp;kHz and 140–148.5&nbsp;kHz) (LowFID) tags and high-frequency (HF: 13.56&nbsp;MHz) (HighFID) tags can be used globally without a license.
* Ultra-high-frequency (UHF: 865–928&nbsp;MHz) (Ultra-HighFID or UHFID) tags cannot be used globally as there is no single global standard, and regulations differ from country to country.

In North America, UHF can be used unlicensed for 902–928&nbsp;MHz (±13&nbsp;MHz from the 915&nbsp;MHz center frequency), but restrictions exist for transmission power.{{citation needed|date=March 2020}} In Europe, RFID and other low-power radio applications are regulated by [[ETSI]] recommendations [[EN 300 220]] and [[EN 302 208]], and [[European Radiocommunications Office|ERO]] recommendation 70 03, allowing RFID operation with somewhat complex band restrictions from 865–868&nbsp;MHz.{{citation needed|date=March 2020}} Readers are required to monitor a channel before transmitting ("Listen Before Talk"); this requirement has led to some restrictions on performance, the resolution of which is a subject of current{{When|date=January 2021}} research. The North American UHF standard is not accepted in France as it interferes with its military bands.{{citation needed|date=March 2020}} On July 25, 2012, Japan changed its UHF band to 920&nbsp;MHz, more closely matching the United States' 915&nbsp;MHz band, establishing an international standard environment for RFID.{{citation needed|date=March 2020}}

In some countries, a site license is needed, which needs to be applied for at the local authorities, and can be revoked.{{citation needed|date=March 2020}}

As of 31 October 2014, regulations are in place in 78 countries representing approximately 96.5% of the world's GDP, and work on regulations was in progress in three countries representing approximately 1% of the world's GDP.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gs1.org/docs/epc/UHF_Regulations.pdf|title=Regulatory status for using RFID in the EPC Gen 2 band (860 to 960 MHz) of the UHF spectrum|publisher=GS1.org|date=2014-10-31|access-date=2015-03-23|archive-date=2017-11-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171121042759/https://www.gs1.org/docs/epc/uhf_regulations.pdf}}</ref>

[[Technical standard|Standards]] that have been made regarding RFID include:
* [[ISO 11784 and ISO 11785|ISO 11784/11785]] – Animal identification. Uses 134.2&nbsp;kHz.
* [[ISO 14223]] – Radiofrequency identification of animals – Advanced transponders
* [[ISO/IEC 14443]]: This standard is a popular HF (13.56&nbsp;MHz) standard for HighFIDs which is being used as the basis of RFID-enabled passports under ICAO 9303. The [[Near Field Communication]] standard that lets mobile devices act as RFID readers/transponders is also based on ISO/IEC 14443.
* [[ISO/IEC 15693]]: This is also a popular HF (13.56&nbsp;MHz) standard for HighFIDs widely used for non-contact [[smart payment]] and credit cards.
* [[ISO/IEC 18000]]: Information technology—Radio frequency identification for item management:
* [[ISO/IEC 18092]] Information technology—Telecommunications and information exchange between systems—Near Field Communication—Interface and Protocol (NFCIP-1)
* [[ISO 18185]]: This is the industry standard for electronic seals or "e-seals" for tracking cargo containers using the 433&nbsp;MHz and 2.4&nbsp;GHz frequencies.
* [[ISO/IEC 21481]] Information technology—Telecommunications and information exchange between systems—Near Field Communication Interface and Protocol −2 (NFCIP-2)
* [[ASTM]] D7434, Standard Test Method for Determining the Performance of Passive Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) Transponders on Palletized or Unitized Loads
* [[ASTM]] D7435, Standard Test Method for Determining the Performance of Passive Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) Transponders on Loaded Containers
* [[ASTM]] D7580, Standard Test Method for Rotary Stretch Wrapper Method for Determining the Readability of Passive RFID Transponders on Homogenous Palletized or Unitized Loads
* ISO 28560-2— specifies encoding standards and data model to be used within libraries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_tc/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=50997|title=ISO 28560-2:2011 – Information and documentation – RFID in libraries – Part 2: Encoding of RFID data elements based on rules from ISO/IEC 15962|website=www.iso.org|access-date=14 March 2018}}</ref>

In order to ensure global interoperability of products, several organizations have set up additional standards for [[RFID testing]]. These standards include conformance, performance and interoperability tests.{{Citation needed|reason=See talk page|date=July 2021}}

===EPC Gen2===
EPC Gen2 is short for ''EPCglobal UHF Class 1 Generation 2''.

EPCglobal, a joint venture between [[GS1]] and GS1 US, is working on international standards for the use of mostly passive RFID and the [[Electronic Product Code]] (EPC) in the identification of many items in the [[supply chain]] for companies worldwide.

One of the missions of EPCglobal was to simplify the Babel of protocols prevalent in the RFID world in the 1990s. Two tag air interfaces (the protocol for exchanging information between a tag and a reader) were defined (but not ratified) by EPCglobal prior to 2003. These protocols, commonly known as Class 0 and Class 1, saw significant commercial implementation in 2002–2005.<ref>{{cite web| url=https://rfid4u.com/rfid-basics-resources/how-to-select-a-correct-rfid-tag-standards-mandates/|title = RFID Standards and Mandates}}</ref>

In 2004, the Hardware Action Group created a new protocol, the Class 1 Generation 2 interface, which addressed a number of problems that had been experienced with Class 0 and Class 1 tags. The EPC Gen2 standard was approved in December 2004. This was approved after a contention from [[Intermec]] that the standard may infringe a number of their RFID-related patents. It was decided that the standard itself does not infringe their patents, making the standard royalty free.<ref>{{Cite news|first=Mark|last=Roberti|url=http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/view/1293|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081122130824/http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/view/1293|archive-date=November 22, 2008|title= EPCglobal Ratifies Gen 2 Standard|publisher=RFID Journal|date=2004-12-16|access-date = 2011-07-07}}</ref> The EPC Gen2 standard was adopted with minor modifications as ISO 18000-6C in 2006.<ref>{{Cite news|first=Mary|last=Catherine O'Connor|url=http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/view/2481/1/1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080128111939/http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/view/2481/1/1|archive-date=January 28, 2008|title= Gen 2 EPC Protocol Approved as ISO 18000-6C|publisher=RFID Journal|date=2004-07-12|access-date = 2011-07-07}}</ref>

In 2007, the lowest cost of Gen2 EPC inlay was offered by the now-defunct company SmartCode, at a price of $0.05 apiece in volumes of 100 million or more.<ref>{{Cite news|first=Mark|last=Roberti|url=http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/articleview/2295/1/128/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060819212628/http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/articleview/2295/1/128/|archive-date=August 19, 2006|title= A 5-Cent Breakthrough|publisher=RFID Journal|date=2006-05-06|access-date = 2007-01-26}}</ref>

==Problems and concerns==

===Data flooding===
Not every successful reading of a tag (an observation) is useful for business purposes. A large amount of data may be generated that is not useful for managing inventory or other applications. For example, a customer moving a product from one shelf to another, or a pallet load of articles that passes several readers while being moved in a warehouse, are events that do not produce data that are meaningful to an inventory control system.<ref>Bill Glover, Himanshu Bhatt, ''RFID Essentials'', O'Reilly Media, Inc., 2006 {{ISBN|0-596-00944-5}} page 43</ref>

Event filtering is required to reduce this data inflow to a meaningful depiction of moving goods passing a threshold. Various concepts{{Example needed|date=June 2010}} have been designed, mainly offered as ''[[middleware]]'' performing the filtering from noisy and redundant raw data to significant processed data.{{Citation needed|reason=See talk page|date=July 2021}}

===Global standardization===
The frequencies used for UHF RFID in the USA are as of 2007 incompatible with those of Europe or Japan. Furthermore, no emerging standard has yet become as universal as the [[barcode]].<ref>{{cite news|date = 7 June 2007|title = Radio Silence|url = http://economist.com/printedition/displaystory.cfm?story_id=9249278|newspaper = The Economist}}</ref> To address international trade concerns, it is necessary to use a tag that is operational within all of the international frequency domains.

===Security concerns===
A primary RFID security concern is the illicit tracking of RFID tags. Tags, which are world-readable, pose a risk to both personal location privacy and corporate/military security. Such concerns have been raised with respect to the [[United States Department of Defense]]'s recent{{When|date=January 2021}} adoption of RFID tags for [[supply chain management]].<ref>{{cite web|work = Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)|title = What's New|date = 4 April 2007|url = http://www.acq.osd.mil/log/rfid/index.htm|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060228101133/http://www.acq.osd.mil/log/rfid/index.htm|archive-date = 28 February 2006}}</ref> More generally, privacy organizations have expressed concerns in the context of ongoing efforts to embed electronic product code (EPC) RFID tags in general-use products. This is mostly as a result of the fact that RFID tags can be read, and legitimate transactions with readers can be eavesdropped on, from non-trivial distances. RFID used in access control,<ref>{{cite book |date=March 2014| pages=73–81|doi=10.1109/NRSC.2014.6835063|s2cid= 21520509| chapter=Comparative analysis of authentication techniques to Secure Low Level Reader Protocol (LLRP) connection| title=2014 31st National Radio Science Conference (NRSC)| last1=Elshrief| first1=Shreen Abd Elfatah| last2=Sadek| first2=Rowayda. A.| last3=Ghalwash| first3=Atef.| isbn=978-1-4799-3821-6}}</ref> payment and eID (e-passport) systems operate at a shorter range than EPC RFID systems but are also vulnerable to [[RFID skimming|skimming]] and eavesdropping, albeit at shorter distances.<ref name=Hancke>{{cite journal|last=Hancke|first=Gerhard P|title=Practical eavesdropping and skimming attacks on high-frequency RFID tokens|journal=Journal of Computer Security|year=2011|volume=19|issue=2|pages=259–288|doi=10.3233/JCS-2010-0407|url=http://iospress.metapress.com/content/xx855446h2kh84r2/|access-date=10 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160527141257/http://iospress.metapress.com/content/xx855446h2kh84r2/|archive-date=27 May 2016|citeseerx=10.1.1.169.9341}}</ref>

A second method of prevention is by using cryptography. [[Rolling code]]s and [[challenge–response authentication]] (CRA) are commonly used to foil monitor-repetition of the messages between the tag and reader, as any messages that have been recorded would prove to be unsuccessful on repeat transmission.{{Clarify|reason=|date=January 2021}} Rolling codes rely upon the tag's ID being changed after each interrogation, while CRA uses software to ask for a [[cryptographic]]ally coded response from the tag. The protocols used during CRA can be [[symmetric key cryptography|symmetric]], or may use [[public key cryptography]].<ref name=RFIDHbook1>{{cite book|editor-last2=Ilyas |editor-first=Syed |editor-last=Ahson |editor-first2=Mohammad|title=RFID handbook: applications, technology, security, and privacy|year=2008|publisher=CRC Press|location=Boca Raton|isbn=978-1-4200-5499-6|section-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q4aCyZnq0cwC&q=Rather,+the+reader+issues+a+challenge+to+the+tag,+which+responds+with+a+result+computed+using+a+cryptographic+circuit+keyed+with+some+secret+value&pg=PA478 |access-date=7 August 2012|page=478|section=26.5 Other security concerns}}</ref>

While a variety of secure protocols have been suggested for RFID tags,
in order to support long read range at low cost, many RFID tags have barely enough power available
to support very low-power and therefore simple security protocols such as [[cover-coding]].<ref>
[https://polygait.calpoly.edu/what-rfid/social-implications "RFID: Social Implications"].</ref>

Unauthorized reading of RFID tags presents a risk to privacy and to business secrecy.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vde-verlag.de/proceedings-en/453168007.html|title=Business risks from naive use of RFID in tracking, tracing and logistics - Conference papers - VDE Publishing House|website=www.vde-verlag.de|access-date=2019-12-09}}</ref> Unauthorized readers can potentially use RFID information to identify or track packages, persons, carriers, or the contents of a package.<ref name=RFIDHbook1/> Several prototype systems are being developed to combat unauthorized reading, including RFID signal interruption,<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.rsasecurity.com/rsalabs/node.asp?id=2115|title = RFID Privacy and Security|publisher = RSA Laboratories|access-date = 2013-09-22|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061218210709/http://www.rsasecurity.com/rsalabs/node.asp?id=2115|archive-date = 2006-12-18}}</ref> as well as the possibility of legislation, and 700 scientific papers have been published on this matter since 2002.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://avoine.net/rfid/|title = RFID Security and Privacy Lounge|publisher=Avoine.net|access-date=2013-09-22}}</ref> There are also concerns that the database structure of [[Object Naming Service]] may be susceptible to infiltration, similar to [[denial-of-service attack]]s, after the EPCglobal Network ONS root servers were shown to be vulnerable.<ref>{{cite web|first=Adi|last=Tedjasaputra|url=http://www.rfid-asia.info/2007/02/putting-rfid-network-security-in.htm|title=Putting RFID Network Security in Perspective|publisher=RFID Asia|date=2006-12-11|access-date=2007-08-03}}</ref>

===Health===
Microchip–induced tumours have been noted during animal trials.<ref>{{Cite book|pages=337–349|last=Albrecht|first=Katherine|title=2010 IEEE International Symposium on Technology and Society|chapter=Microchip-induced tumors in laboratory rodents and dogs: A review of the literature 1990&ndash;2006|year=2010|publisher=IEEE|doi= 10.1109/ISTAS.2010.5514622|isbn=978-1-4244-7777-7|s2cid=2813360}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/09/08/AR2007090800997_pf.html|title=Chip Implants Linked to Animal Tumors|last=Lewan|first=Todd|newspaper=Washington Post|date=8 September 2007}}</ref>

===Shielding===
{{Further|Aluminium foil#Electromagnetic shielding}}
In an effort to prevent the passive "skimming" of RFID-enabled cards or passports, the U.S. [[General Services Administration]] (GSA) issued a set of test procedures for evaluating electromagnetically opaque sleeves.<ref>{{cite web|title = Electromagnetically Opaque Sleeve Test Procedure version 3.0.0|publisher = GSA|url = https://s3.amazonaws.com/sitesusa/wp-content/uploads/sites/1171/2017/01/GSA_EP_Electromagnetic_v13.1.pdf}}</ref> For shielding products to be in compliance with FIPS-201 guidelines, they must meet or exceed this published standard; compliant products are listed on the website of the U.S. CIO's FIPS-201 Evaluation Program.<ref>{{cite web|title = FIPS 201 Evaluation Program Approved Products List (APL)|publisher = U.S. CIO and the Federal CIO Councils|url = http://www.idmanagement.gov/approved-products-list}}</ref> The United States government requires that when new ID cards are issued, they must be delivered with an approved shielding sleeve or holder.<ref>{{cite web|title = FIPS-201, Personal Identity Verification (PIV) of Federal Employees and Contractors|publisher = [[NIST]]|url = http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/fips/fips201-1/FIPS-201-1-chng1.pdf|access-date = 2019-01-10|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101226075308/http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/fips/fips201-1/FIPS-201-1-chng1.pdf|archive-date = 2010-12-26}}</ref> Although many wallets and passport holders are advertised to protect personal information, there is little evidence that RFID skimming is a serious threat; data encryption and use of [[EMV]] chips rather than RFID makes this sort of theft rare.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://slate.com/human-interest/2015/08/credit-cards-passports-and-rfid-fraud-are-special-blocking-wallets-necessary.html|title=Do You Really Need an RFID-Blocking Wallet?|last=Oremus|first=Will|date=2015-08-25|website=Slate Magazine|language=en|access-date=2019-11-10}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/alltechconsidered/2017/07/04/535518514/there-are-plenty-of-rfid-blocking-products-but-do-you-need-them|title=There Are Plenty Of RFID-Blocking Products, But Do You Need Them?|website=NPR.org|language=en|access-date=2019-11-10}}</ref>

There are contradictory opinions as to whether aluminum can prevent reading of RFID chips. Some people claim that aluminum shielding, essentially creating a [[Faraday cage]], does work.<ref>{{cite web|title = Can Aluminum Shield RFID Chips?|publisher = RFID Shield|url = http://www.rfid-shield.com/info_doesitwork.php|access-date = 2007-03-27|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140330050519/http://www.rfid-shield.com/info_doesitwork.php|archive-date = 2014-03-30}}</ref> Others claim that simply wrapping an RFID card in aluminum foil only makes transmission more difficult and is not completely effective at preventing it.<ref>{{cite web|title = Aluminum Foil Does Not Stop RFID|publisher = Omniscience is Bliss|url = http://www.omniscienceisbliss.org/rfid.html}}</ref>

Shielding effectiveness depends on the frequency being used. [[Low frequency|Low-frequency]] LowFID tags, like those used in implantable devices for humans and pets, are relatively resistant to shielding, although thick metal foil will prevent most reads. [[High frequency]] HighFID tags (13.56&nbsp;MHz—[[smart card]]s and access badges) are sensitive to shielding and are difficult to read when within a few centimetres of a metal surface. [[Ultra high frequency|UHF]] Ultra-HighFID tags (pallets and cartons) are difficult to read when placed within a few millimetres of a metal surface, although their read range is actually increased when they are spaced 2–4&nbsp;cm from a metal surface due to positive reinforcement of the reflected wave and the incident wave at the tag.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.falkensecurenetworks.com/PDFs/A_Primer_on_RFID.pdf|title=A Primer on RFID}}</ref>

[[Image:Stoprfid-logo.svg|thumb|Logo of the anti-RFID campaign by German privacy group [[digitalcourage]] (formerly FoeBuD)]]

===Privacy===
The use of RFID has engendered considerable controversy and some [[consumer privacy]] advocates have initiated product [[boycott]]s. Consumer privacy experts [[Katherine Albrecht]] and [[Liz McIntyre (writer)|Liz McIntyre]] are two prominent critics of the "spychip" technology. The two main privacy concerns regarding RFID are as follows:{{Citation needed|reason=See talk page|date=July 2021}}
* As the owner of an item may not necessarily be aware of the presence of an RFID tag and the tag can be read at a distance without the knowledge of the individual, sensitive data may be acquired without consent.
* If a tagged item is paid for by credit card or in conjunction with use of a [[loyalty card]], then it would be possible to indirectly deduce the identity of the purchaser by reading the globally unique ID of that item contained in the RFID tag. This is a possibility if the person watching also had access to the loyalty card and credit card data, and the person with the equipment knows where the purchaser is going to be.

Most concerns revolve around the fact that RFID tags affixed to products remain functional even after the products have been purchased and taken home; thus, they may be used for [[surveillance]] and other purposes unrelated to their supply chain inventory functions.<ref>Markus Hansen, Sebastian Meissner: [https://tepin.aiki.de/blog/uploads/2007-hansen-meissner-tracking-epc-rfid-ifip.pdf Identification and Tracking of Individuals and Social Networks using the Electronic Product Code on RFID Tags], IFIP Summer School, Karlstad, 2007, [https://tepin.aiki.de/blog/uploads/20070807-ifip-hansen-meissner-tracking-rfid-epc.pdf Slides].</ref>

The RFID Network responded to these fears in the first episode of their syndicated cable TV series, saying that they are unfounded, and let RF engineers demonstrate how RFID works.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://0y3v.errandrunner.org/onbqfGf|title=How to read data from rfid reader|website=0y3v.errandrunner.org|access-date=2019-04-22}}</ref> They provided images of RF engineers driving an RFID-enabled van around a building and trying to take an inventory of items inside. They also discussed satellite tracking of a passive RFID tag.

The concerns raised may be addressed in part by use of the [[Clipped Tag]]. The Clipped Tag is an RFID tag designed to increase privacy for the purchaser of an item. The Clipped Tag has been suggested by [[IBM]] researchers [[Paul Moskowitz]] and Guenter Karjoth. After the point of sale, a person may tear off a portion of the tag. This allows the transformation of a long-range tag into a proximity tag that still may be read, but only at short range&nbsp;– less than a few inches or centimeters. The modification of the tag may be confirmed visually. The tag may still be used later for returns, recalls, or recycling.

However, read range is a function of both the reader and the tag itself. Improvements in technology may increase read ranges for tags. Tags may be read at longer ranges than they are designed for by increasing reader power. The limit on read distance then becomes the signal-to-noise ratio of the signal reflected from the tag back to the reader. Researchers at two security conferences have demonstrated that passive Ultra-HighFID tags normally read at ranges of up to 30 feet can be read at ranges of 50 to 69 feet using suitable equipment.<ref>[http://blogs.pcworld.com/staffblog/archives/000798.html] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928040106/http://blogs.pcworld.com/staffblog/archives/000798.html|date=September 28, 2011}}</ref><ref>[http://blog.makezine.com/archive/2005/07/_defcon_rfid_wo.html] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090207081350/http://blog.makezine.com/archive/2005/07/_defcon_rfid_wo.html|date=February 7, 2009}}</ref>

In January 2004, privacy advocates from CASPIAN and the German privacy group [[digitalcourage|FoeBuD]] were invited to the METRO Future Store in Germany, where an RFID pilot project was implemented. It was uncovered by accident that METRO "Payback" customer [[loyalty card]]s contained RFID tags with customer IDs, a fact that was disclosed neither to customers receiving the cards, nor to this group of privacy advocates. This happened despite assurances by METRO that no customer identification data was tracked and all RFID usage was clearly disclosed.<ref>{{cite web|title = The METRO "Future Store" Special Report|publisher = Spychips|author1 = Katherine Albrecht|author2 = Liz McIntyre|url = http://www.spychips.com/metro/overview.html|access-date = 2005-05-05|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20050508083244/http://www.spychips.com/metro/overview.html|archive-date = 2005-05-08}}</ref>

During the UN [[World Summit on the Information Society]] (WSIS) in November 2005, [[Richard Stallman]], the founder of the [[free software movement]], protested the use of RFID security cards by covering his card with aluminum foil.<ref>{{cite web|title = The WSIS in Tunis|author = Richard M Stallman|url = http://www.fsf.org/blogs/rms/entry-20060125.html|publisher=Fsf.org|access-date=2013-09-22}}</ref>

In 2004–2005, the [[Federal Trade Commission]] staff conducted a workshop and review of RFID privacy concerns and issued a report recommending best practices.<ref>{{cite web|title=Radio Frequency Identification: Applications and Implications for Consumers|date=March 2005|url= http://www.ftc.gov/os/2005/03/050308rfidrpt.pdf|publisher=Ftc.gov|access-date=2013-09-22}}</ref>

RFID was one of the main topics of the 2006 [[Chaos Communication Congress]] (organized by the [[Chaos Computer Club]] in [[Berlin]]) and triggered a large press debate. Topics included electronic passports, Mifare cryptography and the tickets for the FIFA World Cup 2006. Talks showed how the first real-world mass application of RFID at the 2006 FIFA Football World Cup worked. The group [[monochrom]] staged a "Hack RFID" song.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.monochrom.at/rfid/|title = R F I D|author = monochrom|access-date = 2007-01-04|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100220122421/http://www.monochrom.at/rfid/|archive-date = 2010-02-20}}</ref>

===Government control===
Some individuals have grown to fear the loss of rights due to RFID human implantation.

By early 2007, Chris Paget of San Francisco, California, showed that RFID information could be pulled from a [[United States Passport Card|US passport card]] by using only $250 worth of equipment. This suggests that with the information captured, it would be possible to clone such cards.<ref>{{cite web|author=Iain Thomson in San Francisco|url=http://www.v3.co.uk/vnunet/news/2235666/hackers-clones-passports-drive|title=Hacker clones passports in drive-by RFID heist – V3.co.uk – formerly vnunet.com|publisher=V3.co.uk|access-date=2010-04-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100324060524/http://www.v3.co.uk/vnunet/news/2235666/hackers-clones-passports-drive|archive-date=2010-03-24}}</ref>

According to ZDNet, critics believe that RFID will lead to tracking individuals' every movement and will be an invasion of privacy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.zdnet.com/2100-9584_22-138001.html|title=Human chips more than skin-deep|publisher=[[ZDNet]]|access-date=2010-04-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100324122642/http://news.zdnet.com/2100-9584_22-138001.html|archive-date=2010-03-24}}</ref> In the book ''SpyChips: How Major Corporations and Government Plan to Track Your Every Move'' by Katherine Albrecht and Liz McIntyre, one is encouraged to "imagine a world of no privacy. Where your every purchase is monitored and recorded in a database and your every belonging is numbered. Where someone many states away or perhaps in another country has a record of everything you have ever bought. What's more, they can be tracked and monitored remotely".<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YDxDuMYVJdcC&q=RFID+Government&pg=PR9|title=Spychips: how major corporations and government plan to track your every move with RFID|author1=Katherine Albrecht|author2=Liz McIntyre|publisher=Thomas Nelson Inc|year=2005|isbn=978-1-59555-020-0}}</ref>

===Deliberate destruction in clothing and other items===
According to an RSA laboratories FAQ, RFID tags can be destroyed by a standard microwave oven;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.emc.com/emc-plus/rsa-labs/research-areas/faq-on-rfid-and-rfid-privacy.htm#13|title=FAQ on RFID and RFID privacy|publisher=rsa.com|access-date=2015-03-23}}</ref> however, some types of RFID tags, particularly those constructed to radiate using large metallic antennas (in particular RF tags and [[Electronic Product Code|EPC]] tags), may catch fire if subjected to this process for too long (as would any metallic item inside a microwave oven). This simple method cannot safely be used to deactivate RFID features in electronic devices, or those implanted in living tissue, because of the risk of damage to the "host". However the time required is extremely short (a second or two of radiation) and the method works in many other non-electronic and inanimate items, long before heat or fire become of concern.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://declara.com/content/kaZAL635|title=Declara - Your Personal Knowledge Engine|website=declara.com|access-date=2019-04-22}}</ref>

Some RFID tags implement a "kill command" mechanism to permanently and irreversibly disable them. This mechanism can be applied if the chip itself is trusted or the mechanism is known by the person that wants to "kill" the tag.

UHF RFID tags that comply with the EPC2 Gen 2 Class 1 standard usually support this mechanism, while protecting the chip from being killed with a password.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gs1.org/sites/default/files/docs/epc/uhfc1g2_2_0_0_standard_20131101.pdf|title=EPC™ Radio-Frequency Identity Protocols Generation-2 UHF RFID, Version 2.0.0|publisher=GS1.org|date=November 2013|access-date=23 March 2015}}</ref> Guessing or cracking this needed 32-bit password for killing a tag would not be difficult for a determined attacker.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.smartcardalliance.org/publications-epc-gen2-faq/|title=EPC Gen 2 FAQ|publisher=Smart Card Alliance|date=July 2006|access-date=2015-03-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150320225151/http://www.smartcardalliance.org/publications-epc-gen2-faq/|archive-date=2015-03-20}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[AS5678]]
* [[Balise]]
* [[Bin bug]]
* [[Campus card]]
* [[Chipless RFID]]
* [[FASTag]]
* [[Internet of Things]]
* [[Mass surveillance]]
* [[Microchip implant (human)]]
* [[Mobile RFID]]
* [[Near Field Communication]] (NFC)
* [[PositiveID]]
* [[Privacy by design]]
* [[Proximity card]]
* [[Resonant inductive coupling]]
* [[RFdump]]
* [[RFID in schools]]
* [[RFID Journal]]
* [[RFID on metal]]
* [[RSA blocker tag]]
* [[Smart label]]
* [[Speedpass]]
* [[TecTile]]
* [[Tracking system]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|RFID}}
{{Scholia}}
* [https://www.codeproject.com/Articles/1096861/DIY-electronic-RFID-Door-Lock-with-Battery-Backup An open source RFID library used as door opener]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100530071726/http://rfid.net/basics What is RFID? Educational video by The RFID Network]
* {{HowStuffWorks|rfid|How RFID Works}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120322194318/http://www.explania.com/en/channels/technology/detail/what-is-rfid What is RFID? – animated explanation]
* {{cite journal|first1=Bill C.|last1=Hardgrave|first2=John|last2=Aloysius|first3=Sandeep|last3=Goyal|year=2009|title=Does RFID improve inventory accuracy? A preliminary analysis|journal=International Journal of RF Technologies: Research and Applications|volume=1|issue=1|pages=45–56|doi=10.1080/17545730802338333}}
* [https://www.ieee-rfid.org/ IEEE Council on RFID]

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Radio-frequency identification| ]]
[[Category:Automatic identification and data capture]]
[[Category:Privacy]]
[[Category:Ubiquitous computing]]
[[Category:Wireless]]
[[Category:Radio frequency interfaces]]