Editing Radio receiver

{{Short description|Device for receiving radio transmissions}}
[[File:Icom IC-R7000 radio receiver.jpg|thumb|A modern [[communications receiver]], used in [[two-way radio]] communication stations to talk with remote locations by [[shortwave radio]].]]
[[File:Radio-with-Alarm clock.jpg|thumb|A [[clock radio]], a bedside broadcast AM and FM radio receiver combined with an alarm clock. The clock can be set to turn on the radio in the morning, to wake the owner with audio from a broadcast radio station.]]  

In [[radio|radio communications]], a '''radio receiver''', also known as a '''receiver''', a '''wireless''', or simply a '''radio''', is an electronic device that receives [[radio wave]]s and converts the information carried by them to a usable form. It is used with an [[antenna (radio)|antenna]]. The antenna intercepts radio waves ([[electromagnetic wave]]s of [[radio frequency]]) and converts them to tiny [[alternating current]]s which are applied to the receiver, and the receiver extracts the desired information. The receiver uses [[electronic filter]]s to separate the desired [[radio frequency]] signal from all the other signals picked up by the antenna, an [[electronic amplifier]] to increase the power of the signal for further processing, and finally recovers the desired information through [[demodulation]].

Radio receivers are essential components of all systems based on [[radio]] technology. The information produced by the receiver may be in the form of sound, video ([[television]]), or [[digital signal|digital data]].<ref>[http://www.radio-electronics.com/info/rf-technology-design/index.php Radio-Electronics, ''Radio Receiver Technology'']</ref> A radio receiver may be a separate piece of electronic equipment, or an [[electronic circuit]] within another device. The most familiar type of radio receiver for most people is a ''[[broadcast radio receiver]]'', which reproduces sound transmitted by [[radio broadcasting]] stations, historically the first mass-market radio application. A broadcast receiver is commonly called a "radio". However radio receivers are very widely used in other areas of modern technology, in [[television]]s, [[cell phone]]s, [[wireless modem]]s, [[radio clock]]s and other components of communications, remote control, and wireless networking systems.

==Applications==
{{see also|Radio#Applications}}

===Broadcasting===

====Broadcast audio reception====
{{excerpt|Broadcast radio receiver}}

====Broadcast television reception====
{{main|Television}}
Televisions receive a [[video signal]] representing a moving image, composed of a sequence of still images, and a synchronized [[audio signal]] representing the associated sound. The [[television channel]] received by a TV occupies a wider [[bandwidth (signal processing)|bandwidth]] than an audio signal, from 600&nbsp;kHz to 6&nbsp;MHz.
**''[[Television receiver|Terrestrial television receiver]]'', ''broadcast television'' or just ''television'' (TV) - Televisions contains an integral receiver ([[TV tuner]]) which receives free [[broadcast television]] from local [[television station]]s on [[TV channel]]s in the [[very high frequency|VHF]] and [[ultrahigh frequency|UHF]] bands.
**''[[Satellite TV]]'' receiver - a [[set-top box]] which receives subscription [[direct-broadcast satellite television]], and displays it on an ordinary [[television]]. A rooftop [[satellite dish]] receives many channels all modulated on a [[Ku band|K<sub>u</sub> band]] [[microwave]] [[downlink]] signal from a [[geostationary]] [[direct broadcast satellite]] {{convert|22,000|mi}} above the Earth, and the signal is converted to a lower [[intermediate frequency]] and transported to the box through a coaxial cable. The subscriber pays a monthly fee.

===Voice communications===

====Two-way voice communications====
{{main|Two-way radio}}
A [[two-way radio]] is an audio [[transceiver]], a receiver and [[transmitter]] in the same device, used for bidirectional person-to-person voice communication. The radio link may be [[half-duplex]], using a single radio channel in which only one radio can transmit at a time. so different users take turns talking, pressing a [[push to talk]] button on their radio which switches on the transmitter. Or the radio link may be [[full duplex]], a bidirectional link using two radio channels so both people can talk at the same time, as in a cell phone.
**''[[Cellphone]]'' - a portable [[telephone]] that is connected to the [[telephone network]] by radio signals exchanged with a local antenna called a [[cell tower]]. Cellphones have highly automated digital receivers working in the UHF and microwave band that receive the incoming side of the [[duplex (telecommunications)|duplex]] voice channel, as well as a control channel that handles dialing calls and switching the phone between cell towers. They usually also have several other receivers that connect them with other networks: a [[wireless modem|WiFi modem]], a [[bluetooth]] modem, and a [[GPS receiver]]. The cell tower has sophisticated multichannel receivers that receive the signals from many cell phones simultaneously.
**''[[Cordless phone]]'' - a [[landline telephone]] in which the [[handset]] is portable and communicates with the rest of the phone by a short range [[duplex (telecommunications)|duplex]] radio link, instead of being attached by a cord. Both the handset and the [[base station]] have radio receivers operating in the [[ultrahigh frequency|UHF]] band that receive the short range bidirectional [[duplex (telecommunications)|duplex]] radio link.
**''[[Citizens band radio]]'' - a two-way half-duplex radio operating in the 27&nbsp;MHz band that can be used without a license. They are often installed in vehicles and used by truckers and delivery services.
**''[[Walkie-talkie]]'' - a handheld short range half-duplex two-way radio. 
**[[Image:ABOedit2015-19.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Handheld scanner]]''[[Scanner (radio)|Scanner]]'' - a receiver that continuously monitors multiple frequencies or [[radio channel]]s by stepping through the channels repeatedly, listening briefly to each channel for a transmission. When a transmitter is found the receiver stops at that channel. Scanners are used to monitor emergency police, fire, and ambulance frequencies, as well as other two way radio frequencies such as [[citizens band]]. Scanning capabilities have also become a standard feature in communications receivers, walkie-talkies, and other two-way radios. 
**[[Image:ICOM RC-9500.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Modern communications receiver, ICOM RC-9500]]''[[Communications receiver]]'' or ''[[shortwave receiver]]'' - a general purpose audio receiver covering the [[low frequency|LF]], [[medium frequency|MF]], [[shortwave]] ([[high frequency|HF]]), and [[very high frequency|VHF]] bands. Used mostly with a separate shortwave transmitter for two-way voice communication in communication stations, [[amateur radio]] stations, and for [[shortwave listening]].

====One-way voice communications====
**''[[Wireless microphone]]'' receiver - these receive the short range signal from [[wireless microphone]]s used onstage by musical artists, public speakers, and television personalities.
**[[Image:Babymonitor.JPG|thumb|upright=0.5|Baby monitor. The receiver is on the left]]''[[Baby monitor]]'' - this is a cribside appliance for parents of infants that transmits the baby's sounds to a receiver carried by the parents, so they can monitor the baby while they are in other parts of the house. Many baby monitors now have video cameras to show a picture of the baby.

===Data communication===
**''[[Wireless modem|Wireless (WiFi) modem]]'' - an automated short range digital data transmitter and receiver on a portable wireless device that communicates by microwaves with a nearby [[wireless access point|access point]], a [[router (computing)|router]] or gateway, connecting the portable device with a local computer network ([[wireless local area network|WLAN]]) to exchange data with other devices. 
**''[[Bluetooth]]'' modem - a very short range (up to 10 m) 2.4-2.83&nbsp;GHz data transceiver on a portable wireless device used as a substitute for a wire or cable connection, mainly to exchange files between portable devices and connect cellphones and music players with wireless earphones.
**''[[Microwave relay]]'' - a long-distance high bandwidth point-to-point data transmission link consisting of a dish antenna and transmitter that transmits a beam of microwaves to another dish antenna and receiver. Since the antennas must be in [[line-of-sight propagation|line-of-sight]], distances are limited by the visual horizon to 30–40 miles. Microwave links are used for private business data, [[Wide area network|wide area computer networks]] (WANs), and by [[telephone company|telephone companies]] to transmit distance phone calls and television signals between cities.
*'''[[Satellite communication]]s''' - [[Communication satellite]]s are used for data transmission between widely separated points on Earth. Other satellites are used for search and rescue, [[remote sensing]], weather reporting and scientific research. Radio communication with [[satellite]]s and [[spacecraft]] can involve very long path lengths, from 35,786&nbsp;km (22,236&nbsp;mi) for [[geosynchronous]] satellites to billions of kilometers for [[interplanetary spaceflight|interplanetary]] spacecraft. This and the limited power available to a spacecraft transmitter mean very sensitive receivers must be used.
**''[[transponder (satellite communications)|Satellite transponder]]'' - A receiver and transmitter in a [[communications satellite]] that receives multiple data channels carrying long-distance telephone calls, television signals. or internet traffic on a microwave [[uplink]] signal from a [[satellite ground station]] and retransmits the data to another ground station on a different [[downlink]] frequency. In a [[direct broadcast satellite]] the transponder broadcasts a stronger signal directly to [[satellite radio]] or [[satellite television]] receivers in consumer's homes. 
**''[[Satellite ground station]] receiver'' - [[communication satellite]] ground stations receive data from communications satellites orbiting the Earth. Deep space ground stations such as those of the [[NASA Deep Space Network]] receive the weak signals from distant scientific spacecraft on [[interplanetary spaceflight|interplanetary]] exploration missions. These have large [[parabolic antenna|dish antennas]] around 85&nbsp;ft (25 m) in diameter, and extremely sensitive radio receivers similar to [[radio telescope]]s. The [[RF front end]] of the receiver is often [[cryogenic]]ally cooled to −195.79&nbsp;°C (−320&nbsp;°F) by [[liquid nitrogen]] to reduce [[radio noise]] in the circuit.
*'''[[Remote control]]''' - [[Remote control]] receivers receive digital commands that control a device, which may be as complex as a space vehicle or [[unmanned aerial vehicle]], or as simple as a [[garage door opener]]. Remote control systems often also incorporate a [[telemetry]] channel to transmit data on the state of the controlled device back to the controller. [[Radio controlled model]] and other models include multichannel receivers in model cars, boats, airplanes, and helicopters. A short-range radio system is used in [[keyless entry]] systems.

===Other applications===
*'''[[Radiolocation]]''' - This is the use of radio waves to determine the location or direction of an object.
**''[[Radar]]'' - a device that transmits a narrow beam of microwaves which reflect from a target back to a receiver, used to locate objects such as aircraft, spacecraft, missiles, ships or land vehicles. The reflected waves from the target are received by a receiver usually connected to the same antenna, indicating the direction to the target. Widely used in aviation, shipping, navigation, weather forecasting, space flight, vehicle [[collision avoidance system]]s, and the military. 
**''[[Global navigation satellite system]]'' (GNSS) receiver, such as a [[GPS receiver]] used with the US [[Global Positioning System]] - the most widely used electronic navigation device. An automated digital receiver that receives simultaneous data signals from several satellites in low Earth orbit. Using extremely precise time signals it calculates the distance to the satellites, and from this the receiver's location on Earth. GNSS receivers are sold as portable devices, and are also incorporated in cell phones, vehicles and weapons, even [[artillery shell]]s. 
**''[[VHF omnidirectional range|VOR]]'' receiver - navigational instrument on an aircraft that uses the VHF signal from [[VHF omnidirectional range|VOR]] navigational beacons between 108 and 117.95&nbsp;MHz to determine the direction to the beacon very accurately, for air navigation.
**''[[Animal migration tracking#Radio tracking|Wild animal tracking]]'' receiver - a receiver with a directional antenna used to track wild animals which have been tagged with a small VHF transmitter, for [[wildlife management]] purposes.
*'''Other'''
**''[[Telemetry]]'' receiver - this receives data signals to monitor conditions of a process. Telemetry is used to monitor missile and spacecraft in flight, [[well logging]] during [[oil and gas drilling]], and unmanned scientific instruments in remote locations.
**''[[Measuring receiver]]'' - a calibrated, laboratory grade radio receiver used to measure the characteristics of radio signals. Often incorporates a [[spectrum analyzer]].
**''[[Radio telescope]]'' - specialized antenna and radio receiver used as a scientific instrument to study weak radio waves from [[astronomical radio source]]s in space like stars, nebulas and galaxies in [[radio astronomy]]. They are the most sensitive radio receivers that exist, having large [[parabolic antenna|parabolic (dish) antennas]] up to 500 meters in diameter, and extremely sensitive radio circuits. The [[RF front end]] of the receiver is often [[cryogenic]]ally cooled by [[liquid nitrogen]] to reduce [[radio noise]].

==Principles==
[[File:Antenna schematic symbol.svg|thumb|upright=0.25|Symbol for an antenna]]
A radio receiver is connected to an [[antenna (radio)|antenna]] which converts some of the energy from the incoming radio wave into a tiny [[radio frequency]] AC [[voltage]] which is applied to the receiver's input. An antenna typically consists of an arrangement of metal conductors. The oscillating [[electric field|electric]] and [[magnetic field]]s of the radio wave push the [[electron]]s in the antenna back and forth, creating an oscillating voltage.

The [[Antenna (radio)|antenna]] may be enclosed inside the receiver's case, as with the [[loopstick antenna|ferrite loop antennas]] of [[AM radio]]s and the flat [[inverted F antenna]] of cell phones; attached to the outside of the receiver, as with [[whip antenna]]s used on [[FM radio]]s, or mounted separately and connected to the receiver by a cable, as with rooftop [[television antenna]]s and [[satellite dish]]es.

Practical radio receivers perform three basic functions on the signal from the antenna: [[bandpass filter|filtering]], [[amplifier|amplification]], and [[demodulation]]:<ref name="Ganguly">{{cite book
 | last1  = Ganguly
 | first1 = Partha Kumar
 | title  = Principles of Electronics
 | publisher = PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.
 | date   = 2015
 | pages  = 286–289
 | url    = https://books.google.com/books?id=8fmUCgAAQBAJ&q=%22radio+receiver%22+filter+amplification+demodulation&pg=PA287
 | isbn   = 978-8120351240
 }}</ref>

===Reception===
The [[signal strength]] of radio waves decreases the farther they travel from the transmitter, so a radio station can only be received within a limited range of its transmitter. The range depends on the power of the transmitter, the sensitivity of the receiver, atmospheric and internal [[noise (electronics)|noise]], as well as any geographical obstructions such as hills between transmitter and receiver. AM broadcast band radio waves travel as [[ground wave]]s which follow the contour of the Earth, so AM radio stations can be reliably received at hundreds of miles distance. Due to their higher frequency, FM band radio signals cannot travel far beyond the visual horizon; limiting reception distance to about 40 miles (64&nbsp;km), and can be blocked by hills between the transmitter and receiver. However FM radio is less susceptible to interference from [[radio noise]] ([[Radio frequency interference|RFI]], [[sferics]], static) and has higher [[fidelity]]; better [[frequency response]] and less [[audio distortion]], than AM. So in countries that still broadcast AM radio, serious music is typically only broadcast by FM stations, and AM stations specialize in [[radio news]], [[talk radio]], and [[sports radio]]. Like FM, DAB signals travel by [[line-of-sight propagation|line of sight]] so reception distances are limited by the visual horizon to about 30–40&nbsp;miles (48–64&nbsp;km).

=== Bandpass filtering ===
{{main|Bandpass filter}}
[[Image:Bandpass filter symbol.svg|thumb|upright=0.5|Symbol for a bandpass filter used in [[block diagram]]s of radio receivers]]

Radio waves from many transmitters pass through the air simultaneously without interfering with each other and are received by the antenna. These can be separated in the receiver because they have different [[frequency|frequencies]]; that is, the radio wave from each transmitter oscillates at a different rate. To separate out the desired radio signal, the [[bandpass filter]] allows the frequency of the desired radio transmission to pass through, and blocks signals at all other frequencies.

The bandpass filter consists of one or more [[resonant circuit]]s (tuned circuits). The resonant circuit is connected between the antenna input and ground. When the incoming radio signal is at the resonant frequency, the resonant circuit has high impedance and the radio signal from the desired station is passed on to the following stages of the receiver. At all other frequencies the resonant circuit has low impedance, so signals at these frequencies are conducted to ground.
*'''''Bandwidth and selectivity''''': See graphs. The information ([[modulation]]) in a radio transmission is contained in two narrow bands of frequencies called [[sideband]]s ''(SB)'' on either side of the [[carrier wave|carrier]] frequency ''(C)'', so the filter has to pass a band of frequencies, not just a single frequency. The band of frequencies received by the receiver is called its ''[[passband]]'' ''(PB)'', and the width of the passband in [[kilohertz]] is called the [[bandwidth (signal processing)|bandwidth]] ''(BW)''. The bandwidth of the filter must be wide enough to allow the sidebands through without distortion, but narrow enough to block any interfering transmissions on adjacent frequencies (such as ''S2'' in the diagram). The ability of the receiver to reject unwanted radio stations near in frequency to the desired station is an important parameter called ''[[Selectivity (radio)|selectivity]]'' determined by the filter. In modern receivers [[crystal filter|quartz crystal]], [[ceramic resonator]], or [[surface acoustic wave]] (SAW) filters are often used which have sharper selectivity compared to networks of capacitor-inductor tuned circuits. 
*'''''Tuning''''': To select a particular station the radio is "''tuned''" to the frequency of the desired transmitter. The radio has a dial or digital display showing the frequency it is tuned to. ''Tuning'' is adjusting the frequency of the receiver's passband to the frequency of the desired radio transmitter. Turning the tuning knob changes the [[resonant frequency]] of the [[tuned circuit]]. When the resonant frequency is equal to the radio transmitter's frequency the tuned circuit oscillates in sympathy, passing the signal on to the rest of the receiver.
{{multiple image
| align = center
| direction = horizontal
| header   =
| image1   = Modulated radio signal frequency spectrum.svg
| caption1 = The [[frequency spectrum]] of a typical radio signal from an AM or FM radio transmitter. It consists of a component (C) at the [[carrier wave]] frequency ''f''<sub>C</sub>, with the modulation contained in narrow frequency bands called [[sideband]]s (SB) just above and below the carrier.
| width1   = 350
| image2   = Bandpass filtering in a radio receiver.svg
| caption2 = How the bandpass filter selects a single radio signal ''S1'' from all the radio signals ''S2, S3 ...'' received by the antenna. From top, the graphs show the voltage from the antenna applied to the filter ''V''<sub>in</sub>, the [[transfer function]] of the filter ''T'', and the voltage at the output of the filter ''V''<sub>out</sub> as a function of frequency ''f''. The transfer function ''T'' is the amount of signal that gets through the filter at each frequency:<br /><math>V_\text{out}(f) = \text{T}(f) V_\text{in}(f)</math>
| width2   = 250
| footer   = 
}}
{{breakafterimages}}

=== Amplification ===
{{main|Amplifier}}
[[Image:Amplifier symbol.svg|thumb|upright=0.5|Symbol for an [[amplifier]]]]
The power of the radio waves picked up by a receiving antenna decreases with the square of its distance from the transmitting antenna. Even with the powerful transmitters used in radio broadcasting stations, if the receiver is more than a few miles from the transmitter the power intercepted by the receiver's antenna is very small, perhaps as low as [[picowatt]]s or [[femtowatt]]s. To increase the power of the recovered signal, an [[amplifier]] circuit uses electric power from batteries or the wall plug to increase the [[amplitude]] (voltage or current) of the signal. In most modern receivers, the electronic components which do the actual amplifying are [[transistor]]s.

Receivers usually have several stages of amplification: the radio signal from the bandpass filter is amplified to make it powerful enough to drive the demodulator, then the audio signal from the demodulator is amplified to make it powerful enough to operate the speaker. The degree of amplification of a radio receiver is measured by a parameter called its ''[[sensitivity (radio receiver)|sensitivity]]'', which is the minimum signal strength of a station at the antenna, measured in [[microvolt]]s, necessary to receive the signal clearly, with a certain [[signal-to-noise ratio]]. Since it is easy to amplify a signal to any desired degree, the limit to the sensitivity of many modern receivers is not the degree of amplification but random [[electronic noise]] present in the circuit, which can drown out a weak radio signal.

=== Demodulation ===
{{main|Demodulation}}
[[Image:Demodulator symbol.svg|thumb|upright=0.5|Symbol for a demodulator]] 
After the radio signal is filtered and amplified, the receiver must extract the information-bearing [[modulation]] signal from the modulated radio frequency [[carrier wave]]. This is done by a circuit called a [[demodulator]] ([[detector (radio)|detector]]). Each type of modulation requires a different type of demodulator
*an AM receiver that receives an ([[amplitude modulation|amplitude modulated]]) radio signal uses an AM demodulator
*an FM receiver that receives a [[frequency modulation|frequency modulated]] signal uses an FM demodulator
*an FSK receiver which receives [[frequency-shift keying]] (used to transmit digital data in wireless devices) uses an FSK demodulator 
Many other types of modulation are also used for specialized purposes.

The modulation signal output by the demodulator is usually amplified to increase its strength, then the information is converted back to a human-usable form by some type of [[transducer]]. An [[audio signal]], representing sound, as in a broadcast radio, is converted to [[sound wave]]s by an [[earphone]] or [[loudspeaker]]. A [[video signal]], representing moving images, as in a [[television receiver]], is converted to light by a [[display device|display]]. [[Digital data]], as in a [[wireless modem]], is applied as input to a [[computer]] or [[microprocessor]], which interacts with human users.

:'''AM demodulation'''
{{main|Envelope detector}}
[[Image:Envelope detector circuit.svg|thumb|Envelope detector circuit]]
[[Image:Amplitude modulation detection.png|thumb|How an envelope detector works]]
:The easiest type of demodulation to understand is AM demodulation, used in [[AM radio]]s to recover the [[audio signal|audio]] modulation signal, which represents sound and is converted to [[sound wave]]s by the radio's [[loudspeaker|speaker]]. It is accomplished by a circuit called an [[envelope detector]] ''(see circuit)'', consisting of a [[diode]] ''(D)'' with a bypass [[capacitor]] ''(C)'' across its output.

:See graphs. The [[Amplitude modulation|amplitude modulated]] radio signal from the tuned circuit is shown at ''<span style="color:red;">(A)</span>''. The rapid oscillations are the [[radio frequency]] [[carrier wave]]. The [[audio signal]] (the sound) is contained in the slow variations ([[modulation]]) of the [[amplitude]] (size) of the waves. If it was applied directly to the speaker, this signal cannot be converted to sound, because the audio excursions are the same on both sides of the axis, averaging out to zero, which would result in no net motion of the speaker's diaphragm. ''<span style="color:red;">(B)</span>'' When this signal is applied as input ''V''<sub>I</sub> to the detector, the diode ''(D)'' conducts current in one direction but not in the opposite direction, thus allowing through pulses of current on only one side of the signal. In other words, it [[rectifier|rectifies]] the AC current to a pulsing DC current. The resulting voltage ''V''<sub>O</sub> applied to the load ''R''<sub>L</sub> no longer averages zero; its peak value is proportional to the audio signal. ''<span style="color:red;">(C)</span>'' The bypass capacitor ''(C)'' is charged up by the current pulses from the diode, and its voltage follows the peaks of the pulses, the envelope of the audio wave. It performs a smoothing ([[low pass filter]]ing) function, removing the radio frequency carrier pulses, leaving the low frequency audio signal to pass through the load ''R''<sub>L</sub>. The audio signal is amplified and applied to earphones or a speaker.
{{breakafterimages}}

===Automatic gain control (AGC)===
{{main|Automatic gain control}}
The [[signal strength]] ([[amplitude]]) of the radio signal from a receiver's antenna varies drastically, by orders of magnitude, depending on how far away the radio transmitter is, how powerful it is, and [[radio propagation|propagation]] conditions along the path of the radio waves.<ref name="Drentea">{{cite book
 | last1  = Drentea
 | first1 = Cornell 
 | title  = Modern Communications Receiver Design and Technology
 | publisher = Artech House 
 | date   = 2010
 | pages  = 325–330
 | url    = https://books.google.com/books?id=9juUwbKP-58C&q=%22automatic+gain+control%22&pg=PA339
 | isbn   = 978-1596933101
 }}</ref>  The strength of the signal received from a given transmitter varies with time due to changing propagation conditions of the path through which the radio wave passes, such as [[multipath interference]]; this is called ''[[fading]]''.<ref name="Drentea" /><ref name="Rudersdorfer1" /> In an AM receiver, the amplitude of the audio signal from the detector, and the sound volume, is proportional to the amplitude of the radio signal, so fading causes variations in the volume. In addition as the receiver is tuned between strong and weak stations, the volume of the sound from the speaker would vary drastically. Without an automatic system to handle it, in an AM receiver, constant adjustment of the volume control would be required.

With other types of modulation like FM or FSK the amplitude of the modulation does not vary with the radio signal strength, but in all types the demodulator requires a certain range of signal amplitude to operate properly.<ref name="Rudersdorfer1" /><ref name="JonHagen">{{cite book
 | last1  = Hagen
 | first1 = Jon B. 
 | title  = Radio-Frequency Electronics: Circuits and Applications
 | publisher = Cambridge Univ. Press
 | date   = 1996
 | pages  = 60
 | url    = https://books.google.com/books?id=QtJ5tNdlyYAC&q=%22automatic+gain+control%22&pg=PA60
 | isbn   = 978-0521553568
 }}</ref>  Insufficient signal amplitude will cause an increase of noise in the demodulator, while excessive signal amplitude will cause amplifier stages to overload (saturate), causing distortion (clipping) of the signal.

Therefore, almost all modern receivers include a [[feedback]] [[control system]] which monitors the ''average'' level of the radio signal at the detector, and adjusts the [[amplifier gain|gain]] of the amplifiers to give the optimum signal level for demodulation.<ref name="Rudersdorfer1" /><ref name="JonHagen" /><ref name="Drentea" /> This is called [[automatic gain control]] (AGC). AGC can be compared to the [[dark adaptation]] mechanism in the [[human eye]]; on entering a dark room the gain of the eye is increased by the iris opening.<ref name="Drentea" /> In its simplest form, an AGC system consists of a [[rectifier]] which converts the RF signal to a varying DC level, a [[lowpass filter]] to smooth the variations and produce an average level.<ref name="JonHagen" /> This is applied as a control signal to an earlier amplifier stage, to control its gain. In a superheterodyne receiver, AGC is usually applied to the [[intermediate frequency|IF amplifier]], and there may be a second AGC loop to control the gain of the RF amplifier to prevent it from overloading, too.

In certain receiver designs such as modern digital receivers, a related problem is [[DC offset]] of the signal. This is corrected by a similar feedback system.

==Designs==
{{main|Radio receiver design}}

=== Tuned radio frequency (TRF) receiver ===
{{Main|Tuned radio frequency receiver}}

[[File:Tuned radio frequency (TRF) receiver block diagram 2.svg|thumb|upright=2.0|Block diagram of a tuned radio frequency receiver. To achieve enough [[Selectivity (radio)|selectivity]] to reject stations on adjacent frequencies, multiple cascaded bandpass filter stages had to be used. The dotted line indicates that the bandpass filters must be tuned together.]]

In the simplest type of radio receiver, called a [[tuned radio frequency receiver|tuned radio frequency (TRF) receiver]], the three functions above are performed consecutively:<ref name="Rudersdorfer1">{{cite book
 | last1  = Rudersdorfer
 | first1 = Ralf 
 | title  = Radio Receiver Technology: Principles, Architectures and Applications
 | publisher = John Wiley and Sons
 | date   = 2013
 | url    = https://books.google.com/books?id=6aRMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT14
 | isbn   = 978-1118647844
 }} Chapter 1</ref> (1) the mix of radio signals from the antenna is filtered to extract the signal of the desired transmitter; (2) this oscillating voltage is sent through a [[radio frequency]] (RF) [[amplifier]] to increase its strength to a level sufficient to drive the demodulator; (3) the demodulator recovers the [[modulation]] signal (which in broadcast receivers is an [[audio signal]], a voltage oscillating at an [[audio frequency]] rate representing the sound waves) from the modulated radio [[carrier wave]]; (4) the modulation signal is amplified further in an [[audio amplifier]], then is applied to a [[loudspeaker]] or [[earphone]] to convert it to sound waves.

Although the TRF receiver is used in a few applications, it has practical disadvantages which make it inferior to the superheterodyne receiver below, which is used in most applications.<ref name="Rudersdorfer1" /> The drawbacks stem from the fact that in the TRF the filtering, amplification, and demodulation are done at the high frequency of the incoming radio signal. The bandwidth of a filter increases with its center frequency, so as the TRF receiver is tuned to different frequencies its bandwidth varies. Most important, the increasing congestion of the [[radio spectrum]] requires that radio channels be spaced very close together in frequency. It is extremely difficult to build filters operating at radio frequencies that have a narrow enough bandwidth to separate closely spaced radio stations. TRF receivers typically must have many cascaded tuning stages to achieve adequate selectivity.

=== The superheterodyne design ===
{{Main|Superheterodyne receiver}}
[[File:Superheterodyne receiver block diagram 2.svg|thumb|upright=1.8|Block diagram of a superheterodyne receiver. The dotted line indicates that the RF filter and local oscillator must be tuned in tandem.]]

The [[superheterodyne]] receiver, invented in 1918 by [[Edwin Armstrong]]<ref name="Armstrong1">{{cite journal
  | last1  = Armstrong
  | first1 = Edwin H.
  | title = A new system of radio frequency amplification
  | journal = Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers
  | volume = 9
  | issue = 1
  | pages = 3–11
  | date = February 1921
  | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=rk1JAQAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA5
  | access-date = December 23, 2015}}</ref> is the design used in almost all modern receivers<ref name="Lee2">[https://books.google.com/books?id=WqdzSq56lSQC&pg=PA14 Lee, Thomas H. (2004) ''The Design of CMOS Radio Frequency Integrated Circuits, 2nd Ed.'', p. 14-15]</ref><ref name="Rudersdorfer1" /><ref name="Dixon">{{cite book
 | last1  = Dixon
 | first1 = Robert 
 | title  = Radio Receiver Design
 | publisher = CRC Press
 | date   = 1998
 | pages  = 57–61
 | url    = https://books.google.com/books?id=hqkKAV1KsrQC&pg=PA57
 | isbn   = 978-0824701611
 }}</ref><ref name="Williams1">[https://books.google.com/books?id=XiKgKdeBi6cC&dq=superheterodyne&pg=PA28 Williams, Lyle Russell (2006) ''The New Radio Receiver Building Handbook'', p. 28-30]</ref> except a few specialized applications.

In the superheterodyne, the radio frequency signal from the antenna is shifted down to a lower "[[intermediate frequency]]" (IF), before it is processed.<ref name="ArmyManual5">[https://books.google.com/books?id=f9QXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA195 Army Technical Manual TM 11-665: C-W and A-M Radio Transmitters and Receivers, 1952, p. 195-197]</ref><ref name="McNicol15">[https://archive.org/stream/radiosconquestof00mcnirich#page/272/mode/2up McNicol, Donald (1946) ''Radio's Conquest of Space'', p. 272-278]</ref><ref name="Terman8">[http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-Handbooks-Miscellaneous/Radio-Engineer%27s-Handbook-1.pdf Terman, Frederick E. (1943) ''Radio Engineers' Handbook'', p. 636-638]</ref><ref name="CarrHandbook1">{{cite book
 | last1  = Carr
 | first1 = Joseph J. 
 | title  = The Technician's Radio Receiver Handbook: Wireless and Telecommunication Technology
 | publisher = Newnes
 | date   = 2001
 | pages  = 8–11
 | url    = https://books.google.com/books?id=PNnJnWMQCNkC&pg=PA8
 | isbn   = 978-0750673198
 }}</ref> The incoming radio frequency signal from the antenna is mixed with an unmodulated signal generated by a ''[[local oscillator]]'' (LO) in the receiver. The mixing is done in a nonlinear circuit called the "''[[frequency mixer|mixer]]''". The result at the output of the mixer is a [[heterodyne]] or beat frequency at the difference between these two frequencies. The process is similar to the way two musical notes at different frequencies played together produce a [[beat (acoustics)|beat note]]. This lower frequency is called the ''[[intermediate frequency]]'' (IF). The IF signal also has the [[modulation]] [[sideband]]s that carry the information that was present in the original RF signal. The IF signal passes through filter and amplifier stages,<ref name="Dixon" /> then is [[demodulate]]d in a detector, recovering the original modulation.

The receiver is easy to tune; to receive a different frequency it is only necessary to change the local oscillator frequency. The stages of the receiver after the mixer operates at the fixed intermediate frequency (IF) so the IF bandpass filter does not have to be adjusted to different frequencies. The fixed frequency allows modern receivers to use sophisticated [[quartz crystal]], [[ceramic resonator]], or [[surface acoustic wave]] (SAW) IF filters that have very high [[Q factor]]s, to improve selectivity.

The RF filter on the front end of the receiver is needed to prevent interference from any radio signals at the [[image frequency]]. Without an input filter the receiver can receive incoming RF signals at two different frequencies,.<ref name="Rembovsky">{{cite book
 | last1  = Rembovsky
 | first1 = Anatoly
 | last2  = Ashikhmin
 | first2 = Alexander
 | last3  = Kozmin
 | first3 = Vladimir
 | title  = Radio Monitoring: Problems, Methods and Equipment
 | publisher = Springer Science and Business Media
 | date   = 2009
 | pages  = 26
 | url    = https://books.google.com/books?id=2ra1lg9MCLgC&q=selectivity+sensitivity+image&pg=PA26
 | isbn   = 978-0387981000
 |display-authors=etal}}</ref><ref name="Williams1" /><ref name="CarrHandbook1" /><ref name="Terman9">[http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-Handbooks-Miscellaneous/Radio-Engineer%27s-Handbook-1.pdf Terman, Frederick E. (1943) ''Radio Engineers' Handbook'', p. 645]</ref> The receiver can be designed to receive on either of these two frequencies; if the receiver is designed to receive on one, any other radio station or radio noise on the other frequency may pass through and interfere with the desired signal. A single tunable RF filter stage rejects the image frequency; since these are relatively far from the desired frequency, a simple filter provides adequate rejection. Rejection of interfering signals much closer in frequency to the desired signal is handled by the multiple sharply-tuned stages of the intermediate frequency amplifiers, which do not need to change their tuning.<ref name="Williams1" /> This filter does not need great selectivity, but as the receiver is tuned to different frequencies it must "track" in tandem with the local oscillator. The RF filter also serves to limit the bandwidth applied to the RF amplifier, preventing it from being overloaded by strong out-of-band signals.

[[File:Double-conversion superheterodyne receiver block diagram.svg|thumb|upright=2.1|Block diagram of a dual-conversion superheterodyne receiver]]

To achieve both good image rejection and selectivity, many modern superhet receivers use two intermediate frequencies; this is called a ''[[dual-conversion (superhet)|dual-conversion]]'' or ''double-conversion'' superheterodyne.<ref name="Rudersdorfer1" /> The incoming RF signal is first mixed with one local oscillator signal in the first mixer to convert it to a high IF frequency, to allow efficient filtering out of the image frequency, then this first IF is mixed with a second local oscillator signal in a second mixer to convert it to a low IF frequency for good bandpass filtering. Some receivers even use [[triple-conversion (superhet)|triple-conversion]].

At the cost of the extra stages, the superheterodyne receiver provides the advantage of greater selectivity than can be achieved with a TRF design. Where very high frequencies are in use, only the initial stage of the receiver needs to operate at the highest frequencies; the remaining stages can provide much of the receiver gain at lower frequencies which may be easier to manage. Tuning is simplified compared to a multi-stage TRF design, and only two stages need to track over the tuning range. The total amplification of the receiver is divided between three amplifiers at different frequencies; the RF, IF, and audio amplifier. This reduces problems with feedback and [[parasitic oscillation]]s that are encountered in receivers where most of the amplifier stages operate at the same frequency, as in the TRF receiver.<ref name="ArmyManual5" />

The most important advantage is that better [[Selectivity (radio)|selectivity]] can be achieved by doing the filtering at the lower intermediate frequency.<ref name="Rudersdorfer1" /><ref name="Dixon" /><ref name="ArmyManual5" /> One of the most important parameters of a receiver is its [[bandwidth (signal processing)|bandwidth]], the band of frequencies it accepts. In order to reject nearby interfering stations or noise, a narrow bandwidth is required. In all known filtering techniques, the bandwidth of the filter increases in proportion with the frequency, so by performing the filtering at the lower <math>f_\text{IF}</math>, rather than the frequency of the original radio signal <math>f_\text{RF}</math>, a narrower bandwidth can be achieved. Modern FM and television broadcasting, cellphones and other communications services, with their narrow channel widths, would be impossible without the superheterodyne.<ref name="Dixon" />

==History==
{{excerpt|History of radio receivers}}

* [[Television receive-only]]
==See also==
{{Portal|Radio}}
{{Commonscat|radio receivers}}
* [[Batteryless radio]]
* [[Dielectric wireless receiver]]
* [[Digital Audio Broadcast]] (DAB)
* [[Direct conversion receiver]]
* [[Distortion]]
* {{annotated link|List of radios}}
* [[Minimum detectable signal]]
* [[Radio transmitter design]]
* [[Radio receiver design]]
* [[Radiogram (furniture)]]
* [[Receiver (information theory)]]
* [[Telecommunication]]
* [[Tuner (radio)]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{Commons category|Radio receivers}}
*Communications Receivers, Third Edition, Ulrich L. Rohde, Jerry Whitaker, McGraw Hill, New York, 2001, {{ISBN|0-07-136121-9}}
* {{cite book
| last       = Buga 
| first      = N.
|author2=Falko A. |author3=Chistyakov N.I.
 | editor        = Chistyakov N.I.
| others        = Translated from the Russian by Boris V. Kuznetsov
| title         = Radio Receiver Theory
| year      = 1990
| publisher = [[Mir Publishers]]
| location  = [[Moscow]]
| isbn      = 978-5-03-001321-3
| postscript    = First published in Russian as «Радиоприёмные устройства»
}}
{{Electronic systems}}
{{Telecommunications}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Receiver (radio)| ]]