Editing Rayon

{{Short description|Cellulose-based semi-synthetic fiber}}
{{Other uses}}
[[File:Rayon synthesis.webm|thumb|When a solution of cellulose in [[Schweizer's reagent|cuprammonium hydroxide]] comes into contact with sulfuric acid, the cellulose begins to precipitate from the solution. The acid reacts with a complex compound of copper and dissolves it, and thin blue fibers of rayon are formed. After some time, the acid reacts with the complex compound and washes out the copper salts from the fibers, which become colorless.]]

'''Rayon''', also called '''viscose'''<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.swicofil.com/commerce/products/viscose/278/introduction.html |title=Viscose CV Introduction |website=Swicofil.com }}</ref> and commercialised in some countries as '''sabra silk''' or '''cactus silk''',<ref>{{Cite web |title=Weaving a Story |url=https://www.franklintill.com/journal/weaving-a-story |publisher=Franklin Till |archive-date=2023-09-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230928145111/https://www.franklintill.com/journal/weaving-a-story }}</ref> is a [[semi-synthetic fiber]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Differences Between Synthetic, Semi-synthetic, & Natural Fibers |url=https://www.naturalclothing.com/synthetic-semi-synthetic-natural/ |access-date=2025-05-13 }}</ref> made from natural sources of regenerated [[cellulose fiber|cellulose]], such as wood and related agricultural products.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kauffman |first=George B. |date=1993 |title=Rayon: The First Semi-Synthetic Fiber Product |journal=Journal of Chemical Education |volume=70 |issue=11 |doi=10.1021/ed070p887 |bibcode=1993JChEd..70..887K |page=887 }}</ref> It has the same molecular structure as cellulose. Many types and grades of viscose fibers and films exist. Some imitate the feel and texture of [[natural fiber]]s such as [[silk]], [[wool]], [[cotton]], and [[linen]]. The types that resemble silk are often called [[artificial silk]]. It can be woven or knit to make textiles for clothing and other purposes.<ref name="UllCell">{{Ullmann |first1=Hans |last1=Krässig |first2=Josef |last2=Schurz |first3=Robert G. |last3=Steadman |first4=Karl |last4=Schliefer |first5=Wilhelm |last5=Albrecht |first6=Marc |last6=Mohring |first7=Harald |last7=Schlosser |date=2002 |title=Cellulose |doi=10.1002/14356007.a05_375.pub2 }}</ref>

Rayon production involves [[solubilizing]] cellulose to allow turning the fibers into required form. Three common solubilization methods are:

* The [[Cuprammonium rayon|cuprammonium]] process (not in use today), using [[ammonia]]cal solutions of copper salts<ref name="Burchard 1994">{{cite journal |last1=Burchard |first1=Walther |last2=Habermann |first2=Norbert |last3=Klüfers |first3=Peter |last4=Seger |first4=Bernd |last5=Wilhelm |first5=Ulf |date=1994 |title=Cellulose in Schweizer's Reagent: A Stable, Polymeric Metal Complex with High Chain Stiffness |journal=Angewandte Chemie International Edition in English |volume=33 |issue=8 |doi=10.1002/anie.199408841 |pages=884–887 }}</ref>
* The viscose process, the most common today,<ref name="SciAm 2009">{{cite magazine |last=Nijhuis |first=Michelle |date=June 2009 |title=Bamboo Boom: Is This Material for You? |magazine=[[Scientific American]] |volume=19 |issue=2 |doi=10.1038/scientificamericanearth0609-60 |doi-broken-date=3 May 2025 |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/bamboo-boom/ |bibcode=2009SciAm..19f..60N |pages=60–65 |access-date=2025-05-19 }}</ref><ref name="Radio National 2017">{{cite AV media |last1=Swan |first1=Norman |last2=Blanc |first2=Paul |date=20 February 2017 |title=The Health Burden of Viscose Rayon |work=[[Radio National]] |url=http://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/healthreport/the-health-burden-of-viscose-rayon/8286870 |access-date=2025-05-22 }}</ref> using [[alkali]] and [[carbon disulfide]]
* The [[Lyocell]] process, using [[amine oxide]], avoids producing neurotoxic carbon disulfide but is more expensive<ref name="brief">{{cite journal |date=2018 |title=Regenerated Cellulose by the Lyocell Process, a Brief Review of the Process and Properties |url=https://bioresources.cnr.ncsu.edu/resources/regenerated-cellulose-by-the-lyocell-process-a-brief-review-of-the-process-and-properties/ |journal=BioResources }}</ref><ref name="Tierney 2005">{{cite thesis |last=Tierney |first=John |date=December 2005 |title=Kinetics of Cellulose Dissolution in N-Methyl Morpholine-N-Oxide and Evaporative Processes of Similar Solutions |url=https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_gradthes/2553/ }}</ref>{{Page needed|date=May 2025}}

== History ==
French scientist and industrialist [[Hilaire de Chardonnet]] (1838–1924) invented the first artificial textile fiber, ''artificial silk''.<ref name="Woodings 2005">{{Cite web |last=Woodings |first=Calvin R. |date=2005 |title=A Brief History of Regenerated Cellulosic Fibres |url=http://www.nonwoven.co.uk/reports/History%20of%20Cellulosics.html |publisher=CWC |archive-date=22 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120422133253/http://www.nonwoven.co.uk/reports/History%20of%20Cellulosics.html }}</ref>

Swiss [[chemist]] [[Matthias Eduard Schweizer]] (1818–1860) discovered that cellulose dissolved in [[Schweizer's reagent|tetraamminecopper dihydroxide]]. [[Max Fremery]] and [[Johann Urban]] developed a method to produce [[Carbon (fiber)|carbon fibers]] for use in [[light bulb]]s in 1897.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.industriepark-oberbruch.de/publish/en/location/history/historie.html |title=Over 100 Years Old and Still Going Strong from Glanzstoff (Artificial Silk) Factory to Industry Park |website=IndustriePark-Oberbruch.de |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090322020858/http://www.industriepark-oberbruch.de/publish/en/location/history/historie.html |archive-date=2009-03-22 }}</ref> Improvement of [[cuprammonium rayon]] for [[textiles]] by [[J. P. Bemberg]] in 1904 made the artificial silk a product comparable to real silk.<ref name="UllCell" />

English chemist [[Charles Frederick Cross]] and his collaborators, [[Edward John Bevan]] and Clayton Beadle, patented their artificial silk in 1894. They named it "viscose" because its production involved the intermediacy of a highly viscous solution. Cross and Bevan took out British Patent No. 8,700, "Improvements in Dissolving Cellulose and Allied Compounds" in May, 1892.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Day |first1=Lance |last2=McNeil |first2=Ian |date=2002 |doi=10.4324/9780203028292 |title=Biographical Dictionary of the History of Technology |isbn=978-0-203-02829-2 |page=113 }}</ref> In 1893, they formed the Viscose Syndicate to grant licences and, in 1896, formed the British Viscoid Co. Ltd.<ref name="Woodings 2005" /><ref name="Wheeler 1928">{{cite book |last=Wheeler |first=Edward |date=1928 |title=The Manufacture of Artificial Silk with Special Reference to the Viscose Process |publisher=Chapman & Hall |oclc=597235567 |hdl=2027/mdp.39015064400156 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>{{Page needed|date=May 2025}}

The first commercial viscose rayon was produced by the UK company [[Courtaulds|Courtaulds Fibres]] in November 1905.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 October 2010 |title=A Brief History of Regenerated Cellulosic Fibres |url=http://www.nonwoven.co.uk/2012/09/a-brief-history-of-regenerated.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150722145210/http://www.nonwoven.co.uk/2012/09/a-brief-history-of-regenerated.html |archive-date=2015-07-22 |url-status=live |access-date=2025-05-13 }}</ref> Courtaulds formed an American division, [[American Viscose Corporation|American Viscose]] (later known as Avtex Fibers), to produce their formulation in the US in 1910.<ref>{{cite book |last=Owen |first=Geoffrey |date=2010 |title=The Rise and Fall of Great Companies: Courtaulds and the Reshaping of the Man-Made Fibres Industry |publisher=OUP/Pasold Research Fund |isbn=978-0-19-959289-0 }}</ref>{{Page needed|date=May 2025}}

Manufacturers' search for a less environmentally-harmful process for making Rayon led to the development of the Lyocell method for producing Rayon.<ref name="Chen 2015 pp79–95">{{cite book |last=Chen |first=J. |date=2015 |title=Textiles and Fashion |doi=10.1016/B978-1-84569-931-4.00004-0 |chapter=Synthetic Textile Fibers |isbn=978-1-84569-931-4 |pages=79–95 }}</ref> The Lyocell process was developed in 1972 by a team at the now defunct [[American Enka Company|American Enka]] fibers facility at [[Enka, North Carolina]].{{citation needed|date=August 2021}} In 2003, the [[American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists]] (AATCC) awarded Neal E. Franks their Henry E. Millson Award for Invention for Lyocell.<ref>{{cite web |title=Millson Award for Invention |url=https://aatcc.org/millson/#tab-1 |website=AATCC |access-date=2025-05-13 }}</ref> In 1966–1968, D. L. Johnson of Eastman Kodak Inc. studied NMMO solutions. In the decade 1969 to 1979, [[American Enka Company|American Enka]] tried unsuccessfully to commercialize the process.<ref name="Chen 2015 pp79–95" /> The operating name for the fibre inside the Enka organization was "Newcell", and the development was carried through pilot plant scale before the work was stopped. The basic process of dissolving cellulose in [[N-Methylmorpholine N-oxide|NMMO]] was first described in a 1981 patent by Clarence McCorsley III for Akzona Incorporated (the holding company of Akzo).<ref name="Chen 2015 pp79–95" /><ref>{{cite patent |country=US |number=4246221 |title=Process for Shaped Cellulose Article Prepared from Solution Containing Cellulose Dissolved in a Tertiary Amine N-oxide Solvent |pridate=1979-03-02 |fdate=1979-03-02 |pubdate=1981-01-20 |invent1=McCorsley, Clarence C. |assign1=Akzona Inc. }}</ref> In the 1980s the patent was licensed by [[Akzo]] to Courtaulds and Lenzing.<ref name="merge">{{Cite news |date=4 May 2004 |url=http://www.fibersource.com/F-Info/More_News/lenzing-050504.htm |title=Lenzing Acquires Tencel: Lenzing AG Acquires Tencel Group of Companies |work=FiberSource.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100323063249/http://www.fibersource.com/f-info/More_News/lenzing-050504.htm |archive-date=23 March 2010 }}</ref> The fibre was developed by [[Courtaulds|Courtaulds Fibers]] under the brand name "Tencel" in the 1980s. In 1982, a 100&nbsp;kg/week pilot plant was built in Coventry, UK, and production was increased tenfold (to a ton/week) in 1984. In 1988, a 25 ton/week semi-commercial production line opened at the [[Courtaulds, Grimsby|Grimsby, UK, pilot plant]].<ref name="Chen 2015 pp79–95" /><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.tencel-lyocell.com/p/introducing-tencel.html |title=Introducing Tencel Lyocell |archive-date=2013-01-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130113165956/http://www.tencel-lyocell.com/p/introducing-tencel.html }}</ref> The process was commercialized at Courtaulds' rayon factories at [[Mobile, Alabama]].<ref name="nyt">{{cite news |last=Ipsen |first=Erik |date=25 February 1993 |title=International Manager: Freed of Textile Business, Courtaulds Is Doing Fine |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/02/25/business/worldbusiness/IHT-international-manager-freed-of-textile-business.html |work=The New York Times |agency=International Herald Tribune }}</ref> In January 1993, the Mobile Tencel plant reached full production levels of 20,000 tons per year, by which time Courtaulds had spent £100 million and 10 years on Tencel development. Tencel revenues for 1993 were estimated as likely to be £50 million. A second plant in Mobile was planned.<ref name="nyt" /> By 2004, production had quadrupled to 80,000 tons.<ref name="merge" />

Lenzing began a pilot plant in 1990,<ref name="Chen 2015 pp79–95" /> and commercial production in 1997, with 12 metric tonnes per year made in a plant in [[Heiligenkreuz im Lafnitztal]], Austria.<ref name="Chen 2015 pp79–95" /><ref name="merge" /><!--the Burgenland Heiligenkreuz:https://www.lenzing.com/lenzing-group/history/--> When an explosion hit the plant in 2003 it was producing 20,000 tonnes/year, and planning to double capacity by the end of the year.<ref>{{cite news |last=Beacham |first=Will |date=2003-09-23 |title=Explosion and Fire Halts 'Lyocell' Output at Lenzing's Heiligenkreuz, Austria Plant |url=https://www.icis.com/explore/resources/news/2003/09/23/521175/explosion-and-fire-halts-lyocell-output-at-lenzing-s-heiligenkreuz-austria-plant/ |agency=CNI |work=ICIS Explore |location=London |publisher=[[LexisNexis Risk Solutions]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102202301/https://www.icis.com/explore/resources/news/2003/09/23/521175/explosion-and-fire-halts-lyocell-output-at-lenzing-s-heiligenkreuz-austria-plant/ |archive-date=2021-11-02 }}</ref> In 2004 Lenzing was producing 40,000 [[ton]]s [sic, probably metric tonnes].<ref name="merge" /> In 1998, Lenzing and Courtaulds reached a patent dispute settlement.<ref name="merge" />

In 1998 Courtaulds was acquired by competitor [[Akzo Nobel]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://europa.eu/bulletin/en/9806/p103050.htm |title=Bulletin EU 6-1998 (en): 1.3.50 {{!}} Akzo Nobel/Courtaulds |website=Europa.eu |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080922035918/http://europa.eu/bulletin/en/9806/p103050.htm |archive-date=22 September 2008 }}</ref> which combined the Tencel division with other fibre divisions under the Accordis banner, then sold them to private equity firm [[CVC Partners]]. In 2000, CVC sold the Tencel division to [[Lenzing AG]], which combined it with their "Lenzing Lyocell" business, but maintained the brand name Tencel.<ref name="merge" /> It took over the plants in Mobile and Grimsby, and by 2015 were the largest lyocell producer at 130,000 tonnes/year.<ref name="Chen 2015 pp79–95" />

== Process ==
[[File:Cellulosic fibre production (total of 2.76 million tonnes) in 2002.png|thumb|Cellulosic fibre production (total of 2.76 million tonnes) in 2002]]

Rayon is produced by dissolving cellulose, then converting this solution back to insoluble fibrous cellulose. Various processes have been developed for this regeneration. The most common methods for creating rayon are the [[cuprammonium]] method, the viscose method, and the Lyocell process. The first two methods have been practiced for more than a century.

=== Bernigaut's method ===

Bernigaut's nitrocellulose rayon was nitrocellulose produced from cellulose where cellulose is obtained from cotton and reacted with a mixture of sulfuric and nitric acid. Nitration occurs as:<ref name="Myers 2007 pp20–23">{{Cite book |last=Myers |first=Richard L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0AnJU-hralEC |title=The 100 Most Important Chemical Compounds: A Reference Guide |date=2007 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-313-33758-1 |pages=20–23 |access-date=21 November 2015 |archive-date=17 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160617093705/https://books.google.com/books?id=0AnJU-hralEC |url-status=live }}</ref>

[C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>7</sub>O<sub>2</sub>(OH)<sub>3</sub>]<sub>n</sub> + HNO<sub>3</sub> ↔ [C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>7</sub>O<sub>2</sub>(NO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub>]<sub>n</sub> +H<sub>2</sub>O.

The sulfuric acid is used take up the water formed in the reaction leaving nitrocellulose.<ref name="Myers 2007 pp20–23" />

=== Cuprammonium methods ===
{{Main|Cuprammonium rayon}}
[[File:Cu(NH3)4(OH)2.png|thumb|left|Aqueous solution of [[Schweizer's reagent]] or cuoxam]]

Cuprammonium rayon has properties similar to viscose; however, during its production, the cellulose is combined with [[copper]] and [[ammonia]] ([[Schweizer's reagent]]). Due to the detrimental environmental effects of this production method, cuprammonium rayon is no longer being produced in the [[United States]].<ref name="Ohio" /> The process has been described as obsolete,<ref name="Burchard 1994" /> but cuprammonium rayon is still made by one company in Japan.<ref name="bemberg">{{Cite web |url=https://www.asahi-kasei.co.jp/fibers/en/bemberg/sustainability/process/index.html#loop |title=Production System |website=Asahi-Kasei.co.jp }}</ref>{{better source needed|date=August 2021}}

[[Tetraamminecopper(II) sulfate]] is also used as a solvent.

=== Viscose method ===
[[File:Viscose Rayon spinning machine.JPG|thumb|A device for spinning viscose rayon dating from 1901]]
[[File:Xanthation.png|thumb|Simplified view of the xanthation of cellulose<ref name="UllCell" />]]

The viscose process builds on the reaction of [[cellulose]] with a strong base, followed by treatment of that solution with [[carbon disulfide]] to give a [[xanthate]] derivative. The xanthate is then converted back to a cellulose fiber in a subsequent step.

The viscose method can use [[wood]] as a source of cellulose, whereas other routes to rayon require [[lignin]]-free cellulose as a starting material. The use of woody sources of cellulose makes viscose cheaper, so it was traditionally used on a larger scale than the other methods. On the other hand, the original viscose process generates large amounts of contaminated wastewater. Newer technologies use less water and have improved the quality of the wastewater.

[[File:Viscose Dope 1.jpg|thumb|alt=A beaker being filled with a viscous reddish orange liquid|A viscous solution of cellulose xanthate (with some excess carbon disulfide), referred to as "viscose dope", prior to regeneration of the cellulose fibers<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-04-02 |title=Cellulose Xanthate Image |url=https://www.epichem.com/pages/gallery |publisher=Epichem |access-date=2025-05-02 }}</ref>]]

The raw material for viscose is primarily [[wood pulp]] (sometimes [[Bamboo textile|bamboo pulp]]), which is chemically converted into a soluble compound. It is then dissolved and forced through a [[spinneret (polymers)|spinneret]] to produce filaments, which are chemically solidified, resulting in fibers of nearly pure cellulose.<ref name="fibersource">{{cite web |url=http://www.afma.org/f-tutor/rayon.htm |title=Rayon Fiber (Viscose) |website=AFMA.org |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080406101953/http://www.afma.org/f-tutor/rayon.htm |archive-date=April 6, 2008 }}</ref> Unless the chemicals are handled carefully, workers can be seriously harmed by the [[carbon disulfide]] used to manufacture most rayon.<ref name="Blanc 2016">{{cite book |last=Blanc |first=Paul D. |date=2016 |title=Fake Silk: The Lethal History of Viscose Rayon |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-20466-7 |oclc=961828769 }}</ref>{{Page needed|date=May 2025}}<ref name="Monosson 2016">{{cite journal |last=Monosson |first=Emily |date=25 November 2016 |title=Toxic Textiles |url=https://www.science.org/doi/pdf/10.1126/science.aak9834 |journal=Science |volume=354 |issue=6315 |page=977 |bibcode=2016Sci...354..977M |doi=10.1126/science.aak9834 |pmid=27884997 }}</ref>

To prepare viscose, pulp is treated with aqueous sodium hydroxide (typically 16–19% [[Mass fraction (chemistry)|by mass]]) to form [[Mercerisation|alkali cellulose]], which has the approximate formula [C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>9</sub>O<sub>4</sub>−ONa]<sub>{{mvar|n}}</sub>. This material is allowed to [[Polymer|depolymerize]] to an extent. The rate of depolymerization (ripening or maturing) depends on temperature and is affected by the presence of various inorganic additives, such as metal oxides and hydroxides. Air also affects the ripening process, since oxygen causes depolymerization. The alkali cellulose is then treated with carbon disulfide to form sodium cellulose [[xanthate]]:<ref name="UllCell" />

{{block indent|[C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>(OH)<sub>4</sub>−ONa]<sub>{{mvar|n}}</sub> + {{mvar|n}}CS<sub>2</sub> &nbsp;→&nbsp; [C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>(OH)<sub>4</sub>−OCS<sub>2</sub>Na]<sub>{{mvar|n}}</sub>}}

Rayon fiber is produced from the ripened solutions by treatment with a mineral acid, such as [[sulfuric acid]]. In this step, the xanthate groups are hydrolyzed to regenerate cellulose and carbon disulfide:

{{block indent|[C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>(OH)<sub>4</sub>−OCS<sub>2</sub>Na]<sub>2{{mvar|n}}</sub> + {{mvar|n}}H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> &nbsp;→&nbsp; [C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>(OH)<sub>4</sub>−OH]<sub>2{{mvar|n}}</sub> + 2{{mvar|n}}CS<sub>2</sub> + {{mvar|n}}Na<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>}}

Aside from regenerated cellulose, acidification gives [[hydrogen sulfide]] (H<sub>2</sub>S), sulfur, and carbon disulfide. The thread made from the regenerated cellulose is washed to remove residual acid. The sulfur is then removed by the addition of [[sodium sulfide]] solution, and impurities are oxidized by bleaching with [[sodium hypochlorite]] solution or [[hydrogen peroxide]] solution.<ref name="Wheeler 1928" />{{Page needed|date=May 2025}}

Production begins with processed cellulose obtained from wood pulp and plant fibers. The cellulose content in the pulp should be around 87–97%.

The steps:<ref name="fibersource" />

# Immersion: The cellulose is treated with [[caustic soda]].
# Pressing. The treated cellulose is then pressed between rollers to remove excess liquid. 
# The pressed sheets are crumbled or shredded to produce what is known as "white crumb".
# The "white crumb" is aged through exposure to [[oxygen]]. This is a depolymerization step and is avoided in the case of polynosics.
# The aged "white crumb" is mixed in vats with carbon disulfide to form the xanthate. This step produces "orange-yellow crumb".
# The "yellow crumb" is dissolved in a caustic solution to form viscose. The viscose is set to stand for a period of time, allowing it to "ripen". During this stage the molecular weight of the polymer changes.
# After ripening, the viscose is filtered, degassed, and then extruded through a spinneret into a bath of [[sulfuric acid]], resulting in the formation of rayon filaments. The acid is used as a regenerating agent. It converts cellulose xanthate back to cellulose. The regeneration step is rapid, which does not allow proper orientation of cellulose molecules. So to delay the process of regeneration, [[zinc sulfate]] is used in the bath, which converts cellulose xanthate to zinc cellulose xanthate, thus providing time for proper orientation to take place before regeneration.
# ''Spinning.'' The spinning of viscose rayon fiber is done using a wet-spinning process. The filaments are allowed to pass through a coagulation bath after extrusion from the spinneret holes. The two-way mass transfer takes place.
# ''Drawing.'' The rayon filaments are stretched, in a procedure known as drawing, to straighten out the fibers.
# ''Washing.'' The fibers are then washed to remove any residual chemicals from them.
# ''Cutting.'' If filament fibers are desired, then the process ends here. The filaments are cut down when producing [[Staple (textiles)|staple fibers]].

===Lyocell method===
{{Main|Lyocell}}
[[File:Patagonia, OutDoor 2018, Friedrichshafen (1X7A0346).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Lyocell]] shirt]]

The Lyocell process relies on dissolution of cellulose products in a solvent, [[N-Methylmorpholine N-oxide|N-methyl morpholine N-oxide]] (NMMO).

The process starts with cellulose and involves [[Spinning (polymers)#Wet spinning|dry-jet wet spinning]]. It was developed at the now defunct [[American Enka Company]] and [[Courtaulds]] Fibres. Lenzing's Tencel is an example of a Lyocell fiber.<ref name="UllCell" /> Unlike the viscose process, the lycocell process does not use highly toxic carbon disulfide.<ref name="brief" /><ref name="Tierney 2005" />{{Page needed|date=May 2025}} "Lyocell" has become a genericized trademark, used to refer to the Lyocell process for making cellulose fibers.<ref name="Tierney 2005" />{{Page needed|date=May 2025}}

{{As of|2018|post=,}} the Lyocell process is not widely used, because it is still more expensive than the viscose process.<ref name="brief" /><ref name="Tierney 2005" />{{Page needed|date=May 2025}}

== Properties ==
[[File:Rayon closeup 1.jpg|thumb|A close-up of rayon from a skirt]]
[[File:Rayon closeup 2.jpg|thumb|Another skirt with a different texture]]
[[File:Rayon closeup 3.jpg|thumb|A blouse with a texture similar to the second]]

Rayon is a versatile fiber and is widely claimed to have the same comfort properties as natural fibers, although the [[Drapery|drape]] and slipperiness of rayon textiles are often more like [[nylon]]. It can imitate the feel and texture of [[silk]], [[wool]], [[cotton]], and [[linen]]. The fibers are easily [[Dyeing|dyed]] in a wide range of colors. Rayon fabrics are soft, smooth, cool, comfortable, and highly absorbent, but they do not always insulate body heat, making them ideal for use in hot and humid climates, although also making their "hand" (feel) cool and sometimes almost slimy to the touch.<ref>{{cite book |last1=LaBat |first1=Karen L. |last2=Salusso |first2=Carol J. |name-list-style=amp |date=2003 |title=Classifications & Analysis of Textiles: A Handbook |publisher=University of Minnesota }}</ref>

The durability and appearance retention of regular viscose rayons are low, especially when wet; also, rayon has the lowest elastic recovery of any fiber. However, HWM rayon (high-wet-modulus rayon) is much stronger and exhibits higher durability and appearance retention. Recommended care for regular viscose rayon is dry-cleaning only. HWM rayon can be machine-washed.<ref name="Kadolph 2001">{{cite book |last1=Kadolph |first1=Sara J. |last2=Langford |first2=Anna L. |name-list-style=amp |date=2001 |title=Textiles |edition=9 |publisher=Prentice Hall |isbn=978-0-13-025443-6 }}</ref>{{Page needed|date=May 2025}}

Regular rayon has lengthwise lines called [[:wikt:striation|striations]] and its cross-section is an indented circular shape. The cross-sections of HWM and cupra rayon are rounder. [[wiktionary:filament|Filament]] rayon [[yarn]]s vary from 80 to 980 filaments per yarn and vary in size from 40 to 5000 [[Denier (unit)|denier]]. Staple fibers range from 1.5 to 15 denier and are mechanically or chemically crimped. Rayon fibers are naturally very bright, but the addition of delustering [[pigments]] cuts down on this natural brightness.<ref name="Kadolph 2001" />

== Structural modification ==
The physical properties of rayon remained unchanged until the development of high-tenacity rayon in the 1940s. Further research and development led to high-wet-modulus rayon (HWM rayon) in the 1950s.<ref name="Kadolph 2001" /> Research in the UK was centred on the government-funded [[British Rayon Research Association]].

''High-tenacity rayon'' is another modified version of viscose that has almost twice the strength of HWM. This type of rayon is typically used for industrial purposes such as tire cord.<ref name="Ohio" />

Industrial applications of rayon emerged around 1935. Substituting cotton fiber in tires and belts, industrial types of rayon developed a totally different set of properties, amongst which tensile strength and elastic modulus<!--Tensile strength and elasticity are different properties; the author is confused.--> were paramount.

'''''{{Visible anchor|Modal}}''''' is a [[genericized trademark]] of [[Lenzing AG]], used for (viscose) rayon which is stretched as it is made, aligning the molecules along the fibers. Two forms are available: "polynosics" and "high wet modulus" (HWM).<ref name="Undershirts">{{Cite news |url=https://www.undershirts.co.uk/blogs/research/viscose-vs-modal-vs-lyocell |title=Viscose vs. Modal vs. Lyocell – Difference? |publisher=Robert Owen Undershirts Co |access-date=2018-06-11 }}</ref><ref name="The Spruce">{{Cite web |url=https://www.thespruce.com/how-to-wash-modal-clothes-2145794 |title=How to Wash Modal Clothes |website=The Spruce |access-date=2018-06-11 }}</ref>{{better source needed|date=August 2021}} ''High-wet-modulus rayon'' is a modified version of viscose that is stronger when wet. It can be [[mercerized]] like cotton. HWM rayons are also known as "polynosic".{{contradictory inline|date=August 2021}} Polynosic fibers are dimensionally stable and do not shrink or get pulled out of shape when wet like many rayons. They are also wear-resistant and strong while maintaining a soft, silky feel. They are sometimes identified by the trade name Modal.<ref name="Ohio">{{Cite web |last=Smith |first=Joyce A. |url=http://ohioline.osu.edu/hyg-fact/5000/5538.html |title=Rayon – The Multi-Faceted Fiber. Ohio State University Rayon Fact Sheet |archive-date=2010-03-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100331124255/http://ohioline.osu.edu/hyg-fact/5000/5538.html }}</ref> Modal is used alone or with other fibers (often cotton or [[spandex]]) in clothing and household items like pajamas, underwear, bathrobes, towels, and bedsheets. Modal can be [[Clothes dryer|tumble-dried]] without damage.<ref name="Undershirts" /> The fabric has been known to [[Pill (textile)|pill]] less than cotton due to fiber properties and lower surface friction.<ref name="The Spruce" /> The trademarked Modal is made by spinning beech-tree cellulose and is considered a more eco-friendly alternative to cotton, as the production process uses on average 10–20 times less water.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.lavenderhillclothing.com/pages/what-is-modal |title=What is Modal fabric? Discover the eco-friendly fabric modal }}</ref>

== Producers and brand names ==
In 2018, viscose fiber production in the world was approximately 5.8 million tons, and [[China]] was the largest producer with about 65% of total global production.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/brandfeatures/venture-capital/article?id=107974 |title=Global Viscose Fiber Market Share, Size, Key Players Analysis, Revenue, Growth Rate and Future Outlook to 2025 |newspaper=Reuters |access-date=16 July 2019 }}{{dead link|date=July 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> [[Trade name]]s are used within the rayon industry to label the type of rayon in the product. Viscose rayon was first produced in Coventry, England in 1905 by Courtaulds.

''Bemberg'' is a trade name for [[cuprammonium rayon]] developed by J. P. Bemberg. Bemberg performs much like viscose but has a smaller diameter and comes closest to silk in feel. Bemberg is now only produced in Japan.<ref name="bemberg" /> The fibers are finer than viscose rayon.{{Citation needed|date=May 2025}}

''Modal'' and ''[[Tencel]]'' are widely used forms of rayon produced by [[Lenzing AG]]. Tencel, generic name ''Lyocell'', is made by a slightly different solvent recovery process, and is considered a different fiber by the US [[Federal Trade Commission]] (FTC). Tencel Lyocell was first produced commercially by [[Courtaulds, Grimsby|Courtaulds' Grimsby plant]] in England. The process, which dissolves cellulose without a chemical reaction, was developed by Courtaulds Research.

[[Grasim Industries|Birla Cellulose]] is also a volume manufacturer of rayon. They have plants located in [[India]], [[Indonesia]] and China.

[[AkzoNobel#Fibres|Accordis]] was a major manufacturer of cellulose-based fibers and yarns. Production facilities can be found throughout Europe, the U.S. and [[Brazil]].<ref name="Colbond History">{{Cite web |url=http://www.colbond.us/history.htm |title=Colbond History |work=Colbond.us |archive-date=2009-09-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090923204603/http://www.colbond.us/history.htm }}</ref>{{Efn|Acordis was a spinoff by [[AkzoNobel]] in 2000 after it had acquired [[Courtaulds]].<ref name="Colbond History" /> It was through [[AkzoNobel]]'s original parent company's, the ''Nederlandse Kunstzijdefabriek'' (ENKA), a joint venture with ''Rento Hofstede Crull''{{'}}s ''De Vijf'', named ''De Internationale Spinpot Exploitatie Maatschappij'' (''ISEM'') that the commercial production of rayon was made viable.  Hofstede Crull had supplied the solution for the problem of manufacturing rayon with his ''Driving Device for a Centrifugal Spinning Machine'' in 1925 (1931 {{US Patent|1798312}}).  The ''ISEM'' was fully integrated with the ''Algemene Kunstzijde Unie'', the Nederlandse Kunstzijdefabriek's successor, with the death of Hofstede Crull in 1938. (See [[AkzoNobel]], [[American Enka Company]], and also [[:nl:Rento Hofstede Crull|Rento Hofstede Crull]].)}}

''Visil rayon'' and HOPE FR are [[flame retardant]] forms of viscose that have [[Silicon dioxide|silica]] embedded in the fiber during manufacturing.

[[North American Rayon Corporation]] of [[Tennessee]] produced viscose rayon until its closure in the year 2000.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |url=http://tennesseeencyclopedia.net/entry.php?rec=1005 |entry=North American Rayon Corporation and American Bemberg Corporation |encyclopedia=Tennessee Encyclopedia |access-date=2025-05-13 }}</ref>{{Efn|North American Rayon Corporation of Tennessee was an American subsidiary of ''J. P. Bemburg A.G.'' which was part of the ''Vereinigte Glanstoff Fabriken'' that were absorbed into the Dutch ''AKU'', [[AkzoNobel]] today}}

[[Indonesia]] is one of the largest producers of rayon in the world, and [[Asia Pacific Rayon]] (APR) of the country has an annual production capacity of 0.24 million tons.<ref>{{cite news |date=June 24, 2019 |url=https://jakartaglobe.id/context/textile-indonesias-new-export-darling |title=Textile: Indonesia's New Export Darling |newspaper=The Jakarta Globe |access-date=16 July 2019 }}</ref>

== Environmental impact ==
{{See also|Microplastics}}
The [[Biodegradation|biodegradability]] of various fibers in soil burial and sewage sludge was evaluated by Korean researchers. Rayon was found to be more biodegradable than cotton, and cotton more than [[cellulose acetate|acetate]]. The more water-repellent the rayon-based fabric, the more slowly it will decompose.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Park |first1=Chung Hee |last2=Kang |first2=Yun Kyung |last3=Im |first3=Seung Soon |date=2004 |title=Biodegradability of Cellulose Fabrics |journal=Journal of Applied Polymer Science |volume=94 |page=248 |doi=10.1002/app.20879 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Subsequent experiments have shown that wood-based fibres, like Lyocell, readily biodegrade whereas synthetic fibers such as [[polyester]] do not biodegrade at all.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Royer |first1=Sarah-Jeanne |last2=Wiggin |first2=Kara |last3=Kogler |first3=Michaela |last4=Deheyn |first4=Dimitri D. |date=2021-10-15 |title=Degradation of synthetic and wood-based cellulose fabrics in the marine environment: Comparative assessment of field, aquarium, and bioreactor experiments |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=791 |page=148060 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.148060 |doi-access=free |pmid=34119782 |bibcode=2021ScTEn.79148060R }}</ref> [[Silverfish]]—like the [[firebrat]]—can eat rayon, but damage was found to be minor, potentially due to the heavy, slick texture of the tested rayon.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Austin |first1=Jean |last2=Richardson |first2=C.H. |date=1941 |title=Ability of the Firebrat to Damage Fabrics and Paper |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/205820#page/387/mode/1up |journal=Journal of the New York Entomological Society |volume=49 |issue=4 |pages=357–365 }}</ref> Another study states that "artificial silk [...] [was] readily eaten" by the [[Ctenolepisma longicaudata|grey silverfish]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lindsay |first=Eder |date=1940 |title=The Biology of the Silverfish, Ctenolepisma longicaudata Esch. with Particular Reference to Its Feeding Habits |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria |series=New Series |volume=40 |pages=35–83 }}</ref>

A 2014 ocean survey found that rayon contributed to 56.9% of the total fibers found in [[deep sea|deep ocean]] areas, the rest being polyester, [[polyamides]], [[cellulose acetate|acetate]] and [[acrylic fiber|acrylic]].<ref>{{cite press release |title=Abundance of microplastics in the world's deep seas |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/12/141216212253.htm |work=ScienceDaily |publisher=University of Plymouth |date=16 December 2014 }}</ref> A 2016 study found a discrepancy in the ability to identify natural fibers in a marine environment via [[Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Comnea-Stancu |first1=Ionela Raluca |last2=Wieland |first2=Karin |last3=Ramer |first3=Georg |last4=Schwaighofer |first4=Andreas |last5=Lendl |first5=Bernhard |date=20 September 2016 |title=On the Identification of Rayon/Viscose as a Major Fraction of Microplastics in the Marine Environment: Discrimination between Natural and Manmade Cellulosic Fibers Using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy |journal=Applied Spectroscopy |doi=10.1177/0003702816660725 |volume=71 |issue=5 |pages=939–950 |pmid=27650982 |pmc=5418941 }}</ref> Later research of oceanic microfibers instead found cotton being the most frequent match (50% of all fibers), followed by other cellulosic fibers at 29.5% (e.g., rayon/viscose, linen, jute, kenaf, hemp, etc.).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Suaria |first1=Giuseppe |last2=Achtypi |first2=Aikaterini |last3=Perold |first3=Vonica |last4=Lee |first4=Jasmine R. |last5=Pierucci |first5=Andrea |last6=Bornman |first6=Thomas G. |last7=Aliani |first7=Stefano |last8=Ryan |first8=Peter G. |title=Microfibers in oceanic surface waters: A global characterization |journal=Science Advances |date=5 June 2020 |volume=6 |issue=23 |page=eaay8493 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.aay8493 |pmid=32548254 |pmc=7274779 |bibcode=2020SciA....6.8493S }}</ref> Further analysis of the specific contribution of rayon to ocean fibers was not performed due to the difficulty in distinguishing between natural and man-made cellulosic fibers using FTIR spectra.

For several years, there have been concerns about links between rayon manufacturers and deforestation. As a result of these concerns, [[Forest Stewardship Council|FSC]] and [[Programm for Endorsement of Forest Certification Schemes|PEFC]] came on the same platform with CanopyPlanet to focus on these issues. CanopyPlanet subsequently started publishing a yearly Hot Button report, which puts all the man-made cellulosics manufacturers globally on the same scoring platform. The scoring from the 2020 report scores all such manufacturers on a scale of 35, the highest scores having been achieved by [[Grasim Industries|Birla Cellulose]] (33) and [[Lenzing AG|Lenzing]] (30.5).

== Health issues ==
The most common rayon production method, the viscose process, uses carbon disulfide, which is [[Carbon disulfide#Health effects|highly toxic]].<ref name="WHO">{{cite book |chapter=Carbon disulfide |pages=71–74 |title=Air quality guidelines for Europe |date=2000 |publisher=World Health Organization. Regional Office for Europe |isbn=978-92-890-1358-1 |hdl=10665/107335 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> It is well documented to have seriously harmed the health of rayon workers in developed countries,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chou |first1=Tzu-Chieh |last2=Shih |first2=Tung-Sheng |last3=Sheu |first3=Hamm-Min |last4=Chang |first4=Shu-Ju |last5=Huang |first5=Chin-Chang |last6=Chang |first6=Ho-Yuan |title=The effect of personal factors on the relationship between carbon disulfide exposure and urinary 2-thiothiazolidine-4-carboxylic acid levels in rayon manufacturing workers |journal=Science of the Total Environment |date=April 2004 |volume=322 |issue=1–3 |pages=51–62 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2003.08.001 |pmid=15081737 |bibcode=2004ScTEn.322...51C }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chou |first1=Tzu-Chieh |last2=Shih |first2=Tung-Sheng |last3=Tsai |first3=Jui-Chen |last4=Wu |first4=Jyun-De |last5=Sheu |first5=Hamm-Min |last6=Chang |first6=Ho-Yuan |title=Effect of Occupational Exposure to Rayon Manufacturing Chemicals on Skin Barrier to Evaporative Water Loss |journal=Journal of Occupational Health |date=September 2004 |volume=46 |issue=5 |doi=10.1539/joh.46.410 |pmid=15492459 |pages=410–417 }}</ref> and emissions may also harm the health of people living near rayon plants<ref name="WHO" /> and their livestock.<ref name="court">Supreme Court of Alabama. [https://caselaw.findlaw.com/al-supreme-court/1023084.html ''Courtaulds Fibers, Inc. v. Horace L. Long, Jr., et al.''; ''Horace L. Long, Jr., et al. v. Courtaulds Fibers, Inc.''] 1971996 and 1972028. Decided: September 15, 2000.</ref> Rates of disability in modern factories (mainly in China, Indonesia, and India) are unknown.<ref name="SciAm 2009" /><ref name="Monosson 2016" /> This has raised ethical concerns over viscose rayon production.<ref name="SciAm 2009" /><ref name="Radio National 2017" /><ref name="brief" /><ref name="Blanc 2016" />{{Page needed|date=May 2025}} {{As of|2016|post=,}} production facilities located in developing countries generally do not provide environmental or worker safety data.<ref name="Blanc 2016" />{{Rp|325}}

Most global carbon disulfide emissions come from rayon production, as of 2008.<ref>{{cite web |date=April 2008 |url=https://www.dir.ca.gov/dosh/DoshReg/CarbonDisulfide5155-4-08.doc |title=Carbon Disulfide Health Effects Assessment for HEAC discussion |website=DIR.CA.gov |publisher=[[California Department of Industrial Relations]] |access-date=2025-05-13 }}</ref> {{As of|2004|post=,}} about 250&nbsp;g of carbon disulfide is emitted per kilogram of rayon produced.<ref name="Blake 2004">{{cite journal |last=Blake |first=Nicola J. |date=2004 |title=Carbonyl Sulfide and Carbon Disulfide: Large-Scale Distributions over the Western Pacific and eEmissions from Asia During TRACE-P |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |volume=109 |issue=D15 |doi=10.1029/2003JD004259 |bibcode=2004JGRD..10915S05B |doi-access=free |page=D15S05 }}</ref>

Control technologies have enabled improved collection of carbon disulfide and reuse of it, resulting in a lower emissions of carbon disulfide.<ref name="UllCell" /> These have not always been implemented in places where it was not legally required and profitable.<ref name="court" /><!--In some cases, 25–30% of the carbon disulfide is lost during the process.<ref name="brief" /> more context-->

Carbon disulfide is [[Volatility (chemistry)|volatile]] and is lost before the rayon gets to the consumer; the rayon itself is basically pure [[cellulose]].<ref name="Blanc 2016" />{{Page needed|date=May 2025}}

Studies from the 1930s showed that 30% of American rayon workers experienced significant health impacts due to [[carbon disulfide]] exposure. [[Courtaulds]] worked hard to prevent this information being published in Britain.<ref name="Radio National 2017" />

During the [[Second World War]], political prisoners in [[Nazi Germany]] were made to work in appalling conditions at the Phrix rayon factory in [[Krefeld]].<ref>Agnès Humbert, ''Notre Guerre'' (1946), translated into English by Barbara Mellor as ''Résistance, Memoirs of Occupied France'' [http://www.nysun.com/arts/agnes-humberts-wartime-diary-resistance/86444/ Kitson's review of ''Résistance'' in New York Sun]</ref> Nazis used [[Zwangsarbeiter|forced labour]] to produce rayon across occupied Europe.<ref name="Radio National 2017" />

In the 1990s, viscose rayon producers faced lawsuits for negligent [[environmental pollution]]. [[Emissions abatement technologies]] had been consistently used. [[Carbon-bed recovery]], for instance, which reduces emissions by about 90%, was used in Europe, but not in the US, by Courtaulds.<ref name="court" /> [[Pollution control]] and worker safety started to become [[cost-limiting factors]] in production.

Japan has reduced carbon disulfide emissions per kilogram of viscose rayon produced (by about 16% per year), but in other rayon-producing countries, including China, emissions are uncontrolled. Rayon production is steady or decreasing except in China, where it is increasing, {{As of|2004|lc=y|post=.}}<ref name="Blake 2004" />

Rayon production has largely moved to the developing world, especially China, Indonesia and India.<ref name="SciAm 2009" /><ref name="Radio National 2017" /> Rates of disability in these factories are unknown, {{As of|2016|lc=y|post=,}}<ref name="SciAm 2009" /><ref name="Monosson 2016" /> and concerns for worker safety continue.<ref name="Blanc 2016" />{{Rp|325}} 

== Related materials ==
Related materials are not regenerated cellulose, but [[ester]]s of cellulose.<ref>{{Ullmann |last1=Balser |first1=Klaus |last2=Hoppe |first2=Lutz |last3=Eicher |first3=Theo |last4=Wandel |first4=Martin |last5=Astheimer |first5=Hans-Joachim |last6=Steinmeier |first6=Hans |last7=Allen |first7=John M. |date=2004 |doi=10.1002/14356007.a05_419.pub2 |title=Cellulose Esters |isbn=978-3-527-30385-4 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Urbanski |first=Tadeusz |date=1965 |title=Chemistry and Technology of Explosives |publisher=Pergamon Press |location=Oxford |volume=1 |pages=20–21 }}</ref>

[[Nitrocellulose]] is a derivative of cellulose that is soluble in organic solvents. It is mainly used as an explosive or as a [[lacquer]]. Many early plastics, including [[celluloid]], were made from nitrocellulose.

[[Cellulose acetate]] shares many traits with viscose rayon and was formerly considered the same textile. However, rayon resists heat, while acetate is prone to melting. Acetate must be laundered with care either by hand-washing or dry cleaning, and acetate garments disintegrate when heated in a [[tumble dryer]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Centeno |first=Antonio |date=21 September 2010 |url=https://www.realmenrealstyle.com/rayon-acetate-synthetics-menswear/ |title=Synthetic Fabrics and Menswear – Rayon and Acetate |website=Real Men Real Style |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121105094921/http://www.realmenrealstyle.com/rayon-acetate-synthetics-menswear/ |archive-date=November 5, 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.fabriclink.com/university/acetate.cfm|title=Fiber Characteristics: Acetate |website=Fabric Link |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130925164412/http://www.fabriclink.com/university/acetate.cfm |archive-date=September 25, 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> The two fabrics are now required to be listed distinctly on US garment labels.<ref>{{cite news |date=February 12, 1952 |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1893&dat=19520212&id=MsgiAAAAIBAJ&pg=4809,4203421 |title=Rayon and Acetate Fabrics to be Separately Labelled in Future |newspaper=[[The Southeast Missourian]] |access-date=December 25, 2013 }}</ref>

[[Cellophane]] is generally made by the viscose process, but dried into sheets instead of fibers.

== See also ==
{{Portal|Clothing}}

* {{Annotated link|Cellophane}}
* {{Annotated link|Hilaire de Chardonnet}}
* {{Annotated link|Nitrocellulose}}
* {{Annotated link|Neuroplastic effects of pollution}}
* {{Annotated link|Ray P. Dinsmore}}

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Gupta |editor-last2=Kothari |editor-first1=V. B. |editor-first2=V. K. |title=Manufactured Fibre Technology |date=1997 |isbn=978-94-010-6473-6 |doi=10.1007/978-94-011-5854-1 }}
* For a review of all rayon production methods and markets see [http://www.woodheadpublishing.com/en/book.aspx?bookID=76 "Regenerated Cellulose Fibres"] (book – Edited by C R Woodings) Hardback 2001, {{ISBN|1-85573-459-1}}, Woodhead Publishing Ltd. 
* For a description of the production method at a factory in Germany in [[World War II]], see [[Agnès Humbert]] (tr. Barbara Mellor) ''Résistance: Memoirs of Occupied France'', London, Bloomsbury Publishing PLC, 2008 {{ISBN|978-0-7475-9597-7}} (American title: ''Resistance: A Frenchwoman's Journal of the War'', Bloomsbury, US, 2008) pp.&nbsp;152–155
* For a complete set of photographs of the process see [https://web.archive.org/web/20140202182804/http://www.lyocell-development.com/2012/01/the-story-of-rayon-20th-c.html "The Story of Rayon" published by Courtaulds Ltd (1948)]
* Arnold Hard, the textile journalist, produced two books documenting the experiences of some of the pioneers in the early British rayon industry the Hard, Arnold. H. (1933). ''The Romance of Rayon''. Whittaker & Robinson, Manchester and Hard, Arnold (1944) ''The Story of Rayon'', United Trade Press Ltd, London

== External links ==
{{Sister project links|b=no|commonscat=no |d=yes |m=no |mw=no |n=no |q=no|s=no |species=no |species_author=no |v=no |voy=no |wikt=rayon}}

* {{Wiktionary-inline|viscose}}
* {{Wiktionary-inline|Bemberg}}

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