Editing Red Summer

{{For|the EP|The Red Summer (EP){{!}}''The Red Summer'' (EP)}}
{{short description|1919 period of white supremacist terrorism and racial riots in many U.S. cities}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2016}}
{{Primary sources|date=March 2024}}
{{Infobox civilian attack
| partof = the [[First Red Scare]]<br />and [[nadir of American race relations]]
| image = Red Summer Picture Collage.png
| image_size = 300
| alt = Series of Black-and-white photos showcasing the events
| caption = (clockwise from the top) {{flatlist|
* A white gang hunting African Americans during the [[Chicago race riot of 1919|Chicago race riot]]
* An inflammatory newspaper headline during the [[Elaine massacre]]
* Body of Will Brown after being burned by a white mob during the [[Omaha race riot of 1919|Omaha race riot]]
* Motorcycle involved in the [[Washington race riot of 1919|Washington, D.C. race riot]]
* Article about the [[Putnam County, Georgia, arson attack|Putnam County arson attack]]
* Soldiers with a black resident during the [[Washington race riot of 1919|Washington, D.C. race riot]]
}}
| target = [[African Americans]]
| type = [[White supremacist]] [[terrorism|terrorist attacks]], race riots, and murders and lynching against black Americans across the United States
| fatalities = Hundreds
| injuries = Thousands
| assailants = Mostly white mobs attacking African Americans
| inquiries = * Haynes report 
* [[Lusk Committee]]
| title = Red Summer
| location = [[United States]]
| date = {{date and age|1919}}
}}
{{Red Summer}}
{{Campaignbox First Red Scare}}
{{Nadir of American race relations|Massacres}}

The '''Red Summer''' was a period in mid-1919 during which [[Terrorism in the United States#White nationalism and white supremacy|white supremacist terrorism]] and [[Mass racial violence in the United States|racial riots]] occurred in more than three dozen cities across the [[United States]], and in one rural county in [[Arkansas]]. The term "Red Summer" was coined by [[Civil rights movement|civil rights activist]] and author [[James Weldon Johnson]], who had been employed as a [[field secretary]] by the [[National Association for the Advancement of Colored People]] (NAACP) since 1916. In 1919, he organized [[Nonviolent resistance|peaceful protests]] against the [[racial violence]].<ref name="erickson">Erickson, Alana J. 1960. "Red Summer." Pp. 2293–94 in ''Encyclopedia of African-American Culture and History''. New York: [[Macmillan Publishers|Macmillan]].</ref><ref name="cunningham">Cunningham, George P. 1960. "James Weldon Johnson." Pp. 1459–61 in ''Encyclopedia of African-American Culture and History''. New York: [[Macmillan Publishers|Macmillan]].</ref>

In most instances, attacks consisted of [[White Americans|white]]-on-[[African Americans|black]] violence. Numerous African Americans fought back, notably in the [[Chicago race riot of 1919|Chicago]] and [[Washington race riot of 1919|Washington, D.C., race riots]], which resulted in 38 and 15 deaths respectively, along with even more injuries, and extensive property damage in [[Chicago]].{{sfn|The New York Times|1919|p=}} Still, the highest number of fatalities occurred in the rural area around [[Elaine, Arkansas]], where an estimated 100–240 black people and five white people were killed—an event now known as the [[Elaine massacre]].

The [[Anti-black racism in the United States|anti-black]] riots developed from a variety of post-[[World War I]] social tensions, generally related to the [[demobilization]] of both black and white members of the [[United States Armed Forces]] [[United States in World War I#After the war|following World War I]]; an [[post-World War I recession|economic slump]]; and increased competition in the job and housing markets between ethnic [[European Americans]] and African Americans.{{sfn|Public Broadcasting Service (PBS)|2018|p=Part 3}} The time would also be marked by [[labor unrest]], for which certain industrialists used black people as [[strikebreaker]]s, further inflaming the resentment of white workers.

The riots and killings were extensively documented by the [[News media in the United States|press]], which, along with the [[Federal government of the United States|federal government]], feared [[History of the socialist movement in the United States|socialist]] and [[American Left|communist]] influence on the black [[Civil rights movement (1896–1954)|civil rights movement of the time]] following the 1917 [[Bolshevik Revolution]] in Russia. They also feared foreign [[Anarchism in the United States|anarchists]], who had [[1919 United States anarchist bombings|bombed the homes and businesses of prominent figures and government leaders]].

==Background==
===Great Migration===
{{Main|Great Migration (African American)}}
With the [[mobilization]] of troops for [[World War I]], and with immigration from Europe cut off, the [[Industrial city|industrial cities]] of the American [[Northeastern United States|Northeast]] and [[Midwestern United States|Midwest]] experienced severe [[labor shortage]]s. As a result, northern manufacturers recruited throughout the South, from which an exodus of workers ensued.{{sfn|Kennedy|2004|pp=279, 281–282}}

By 1919, an estimated 500,000 [[African Americans]] had emigrated from the [[Southern United States]] to the industrial cities of the Northeast and Midwest in the first wave of the [[Great Migration (African American)|Great Migration]] (which continued until 1940).{{sfn|The New York Times|1919|p=}} African-American workers filled new positions in expanding industries, such as the [[American railroad history|railroads]], as well as many existing jobs formerly held by whites. In some cities, they were hired as [[strikebreaker]]s, especially during the strikes of 1917.{{sfn|Kennedy|2004|pp=279, 281–282}} This increased resentment against blacks among many [[Working class in the United States|working-class]] whites, immigrants, and [[first-generation American]]s.

===Racism and Red Scare===
{{Further|First Red Scare}}
In the summer of 1917, violent racial riots against blacks due to labor tensions broke out in [[East St. Louis, Illinois]], and [[Houston, Texas]].{{sfn|Barnes|2008|p=4}} Following the war, rapid [[demobilization]] of the military without a plan for absorbing veterans into the job market, and the removal of [[price controls]], led to unemployment and inflation that increased competition for jobs. Jobs were very difficult for African Americans to get in the South due to racism and segregation.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/great-migration | title=The Great Migration| date=December 15, 2023}}</ref>

During the [[First Red Scare]] of 1919–20, following the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|1917 Russian Revolution]], [[Anti-Leninism|anti-Bolshevik]] sentiment in the United States quickly followed on the [[anti-German sentiment]] arising in the war years. Many politicians and government officials, together with much of the press and the public, feared an imminent attempt to overthrow the U.S. government to create a new regime modeled on that of the [[Soviet Union|Soviets]]. Authorities viewed with alarm African-Americans' advocacy of [[racial equality]] and [[labor rights]], and incidents involving the deaths of whites furthered fears.{{sfn|Public Broadcasting Service (PBS)|2018|p=Part 3}} In a private conversation in March 1919, President [[Woodrow Wilson]] said that "the American [[Negro]] returning from abroad would be our greatest medium in conveying [[Bolsheviks|Bolshevism]] to America."<ref name="McWhirter p. 56">{{harvnb|McWhirter|2011|p=56}}</ref> Other whites expressed a wide range of opinions, some anticipating unsettled times and others seeing no signs of tension.<ref name="McWhirter p. 19,22-24">{{harvnb|McWhirter|2011|pp=19, 22–24}}</ref>

Early in 1919, Dr. [[George Edmund Haynes]], an educator employed as director of Negro Economics for the U.S. [[United States Department of Labor|Department of Labor]], wrote: "The return of the [[Military history of African Americans|Negro soldier]] to civil life is one of the most delicate and difficult questions confronting the Nation, north and south."<ref name="McWhirter p. 13">{{harvnb|McWhirter|2011|p=13}}</ref> One black veteran wrote a letter to the editor of the ''[[Chicago Daily News]]'' saying the returning black veterans "are now new men and world men…and their possibilities for direction, guidance, honest use, and power are limitless, only they must be instructed and led. They have awakened, but they have not yet the complete conception of what they have awakened to."<ref name="McWhirter p. 15">{{harvnb|McWhirter|2011|p=15}}</ref> [[W. E. B. Du Bois]], an official of the [[NAACP]] and editor of its monthly magazine, saw an opportunity:<ref name="McWhirter p. 14">{{harvnb|McWhirter|2011|p=14}}</ref><blockquote>By the God of Heaven, we are cowards and jackasses if now that the war is over, we do not marshal every ounce of our brain and brawn to fight a sterner, longer, more unbending battle against the forces of hell in our own land.</blockquote>

==Events==
In the autumn of 1919, following the violence-filled summer, [[George Edmund Haynes]] reported on the events as a prelude to an investigation by the [[United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary|U.S. Senate Committee on the Judiciary]]. He identified 38 separate racial riots against blacks in widely scattered cities, in which whites attacked black people.{{sfn|The New York Times|1919|p=}} Unlike earlier racial riots against blacks in U.S. history, the 1919 events were among the first in which black people in number resisted white attacks and fought back.{{sfn|Maxouris|2019|p=}} [[A. Philip Randolph]], a civil rights [[activist]] and leader of the [[Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters]], publicly defended the right of black people to [[self-defense]].<ref name=erickson />

In addition, Haynes reported that between January 1 and September 14, 1919, white mobs [[lynched]] at least 43 African Americans, with 16 [[Hanging|hanged]] and others shot; and another 8 men were [[burned at the stake]]. The states were unwilling to interfere or prosecute such mob murders.{{sfn|The New York Times|1919|p=}} In May, following the first serious racial incidents, [[W. E. B. Du Bois]] published his essay "Returning Soldiers":<ref name="McWhirter pp. 31–32, emphasis in original">{{harvnb|McWhirter|2011|pp=31–32, emphasis in original}}</ref>

{{blockquote|We return from the slavery of uniform which the world's madness demanded us to don to the freedom of civil garb. We stand again to look America squarely in the face and call a spade a spade. We sing: This country of ours, despite all its better souls have done and dreamed, is yet a shameful land.…

We ''return''.

We ''return from fighting''.

We return ''fighting''.|author=|title=|source=}}

=== Early riots: April 13–July 14 ===
{{Quote box
| quote  = The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People respectfully enquires how long the Federal Government under your administration intends to tolerate anarchy in the United States?
 | source = — ''NAACP telegram to President Woodrow Wilson''<br />August 29, 1919
 | width  = 300px
 | align  = right
 | bgcolor = #EDEDED
}}

*'''April 13''': In rural [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], the [[Jenkins County, Georgia, riot of 1919|riot of Jenkins County]] led to 6 deaths, and the destruction of various property by [[arson]], including the [[Carswell Grove Baptist Church and Cemetery|Carswell Grove Baptist Church]], and 3 black Masonic lodges in [[Millen, Georgia]].
*'''May 10''': The [[Charleston riot of 1919|Charleston riot]] resulted in the injury of 5 white and 18 black men, along with the death of 3 others: Isaac Doctor, William Brown, and James Talbot, all black. Following the riot, the city of [[Charleston, South Carolina|Charleston]], [[South Carolina]], imposed [[martial law]].{{sfn|The New York Times|1919|p=}} A [[United States Navy|Naval]] investigation found that four U.S. [[sailor]]s and one civilian—all white men—initiated the riot.{{sfn|Rucker|Upton|2007|pp=92-93}}
*'''Early July''': A white [[Longview race riot|race riot in Longview, Texas]], led to the deaths of at least 4 men and destroyed the African-American housing district in the town.{{sfn|The New York Times|1919|p=}}
*'''July 3''': Local police in [[Bisbee, Arizona]], [[Bisbee Riot|attacked]] the [[10th Cavalry Regiment (United States)|10th U.S. Cavalry]], an African-American unit known as the "[[Buffalo Soldier]]s" formed in 1866.{{sfn|Rucker|Upton|2007|p=554}}
[[File:News coverage of the Garfield Park riot of 1919.jpg|right|thumb|alt=B&W news paper clipping| News coverage of the Garfield Park riot of 1919]]

*'''July 14''': The [[Garfield Park riot of 1919|Garfield Park riot]] took place in [[Garfield Park (Indianapolis)|Garfield Park]], [[Indianapolis]], where multiple people, including a 7-year-old girl, were wounded when gunfire broke out.

=== Washington and Norfolk: July 19–23 ===
Beginning on July 19, [[Washington, D.C.]], had [[Washington race riot of 1919|four days of mob violence]] against black individuals and businesses perpetrated by white men—many of them in the [[United States Armed Forces|military]] and in uniforms of all three services—in response to the rumored arrest of a black man for rape of a white woman. The men rioted, randomly beat black people on the street, and pulled others off [[streetcars]] for attacks.

When police refused to intervene, the black population fought back. The city closed saloons and theaters to discourage assemblies. Meanwhile, the four white-owned local papers, including the ''[[Washington Post]]'', "ginned up...weeks of hysteria",<ref>{{cite news
|title=The deadly race riot 'aided and abetted' by The Washington Post a century ago
|first=Gillian
|last=Brockell
|date=July 15, 2019
|newspaper=[[Washington Post]]
|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/history/2019/07/15/deadly-race-riot-aided-abetted-by-washington-post-century-ago/}}</ref> fanning the violence with incendiary headlines, calling in at least one instance for a [[mobilization]] of a "clean-up" operation.<ref name="Perl p. A1">{{harvnb|Perl|1999|p=A1}}</ref> After four days of police inaction, President [[Woodrow Wilson]] mobilized the [[National Guard of the United States|National Guard]] to restore order.{{sfn|Mills|2016|p=}} When the violence ended, a total of 15 people had died: 10 white people, including two police officers; and 5 black people. Fifty people were seriously wounded, and another 100 less severely wounded. It is one of the few times in 20th-century white-on-black riots that white fatalities outnumbered those of black people.{{sfn|Ackerman|2008|pp=60–62}}

The [[NAACP]] sent a telegram of protest to President [[Woodrow Wilson]]:{{sfn|The New York Times|1919h|p=}}
{{blockquote|[T]he shame put upon the country by the mobs, including United States soldiers, sailors, and marines, which have assaulted innocent and unoffending negroes in the national capital. Men in uniform have attacked negroes on the streets and pulled them from streetcars to beat them. Crowds are reported ...to have directed attacks against any passing negro.… The effect of such riots in the national capital upon race antagonism will be to increase bitterness and danger of outbreaks elsewhere. National Association for the Advancement of Colored People calls upon you as President and Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces of the nation to make statement condemning mob violence and to enforce such military law as situation demands.…|author=|title=|source=}}

On July 21, in [[Norfolk, Virginia]], a white mob [[1919 Norfolk race riot|attacked a homecoming celebration]] for African-American veterans of World War I. At least 6 people were shot, and the local police called in [[United States Marines|Marines]] and Navy personnel to restore order.{{sfn|The New York Times|1919|p=}}

=== Chicago riots: July 27–August 12 ===
[[File:ChicagoRaceRiot 1919 wagon.png|thumb|alt=B&W photo of people loading things on a street|Family leaving damaged home after the [[Chicago race riot of 1919]]]]
Beginning on July 27, the [[Chicago race riot of 1919|Chicago race riot]] marked the greatest massacre of Red Summer. [[List of beaches in Chicago|Chicago's beaches]] along [[Lake Michigan]] were [[Racial segregation|segregated]] by custom. When Eugene Williams, a black youth, swam into an area on the [[South Side, Chicago|South Side]] customarily used by whites, he was [[Stoning|stoned]] and [[Drowning|drowned]]. [[Chicago police]] refused to take action against the attackers, and young black men responded with violence, which lasted for 13 days, with the white mobs led by the [[Irish Americans|ethnic Irish]].

White mobs destroyed hundreds of mostly black homes and businesses on the South Side of Chicago. The [[Illinois|State of Illinois]] called in a [[Militia (United States)|militia]] force of 7 regiments: several thousand men, to restore order.{{sfn|The New York Times|1919|p=}} The riots resulted in [[Casualty (person)|casualties]] that included: 38 fatalities (23 blacks and 15 whites); 527 injured; and 1,000 black families left homeless.{{sfn|Encyclopædia Britannica|2019}} Other accounts reported 50 people were killed, with unofficial numbers and rumors reporting even more. Labor activist [[William Z. Foster]], among other observers, referred to the killings as "an anti-Negro [[pogrom]]" and pointed out the connections between this pogrom and [[Pogroms during the Russian Civil War|the pogroms which were taking place in the former Russian empire]] against Jewish communities by [[Anti-communism|anti-communist]] forces.<ref>{{Cite book |last=William Z. Foster |url=http://archive.org/details/history-of-the-communist-party-of-the-united-states |title=History of the Communist Party of the United States |date=1952 |pages=231}}</ref>

=== Mid to late August ===
On August 12, at its annual convention, the [[Northeastern Federation of Colored Women's Clubs]] (NFCWC) denounced the rioting and burning of Negroes' homes, asking President Wilson "to use every means within your power to stop the rioting in Chicago and the propaganda used to incite such."{{sfn|The New York Times|1919j|p=}}

At the end of August, the [[NAACP]] protested again to the White House, noting the attack on the organization's secretary in [[Austin, Texas]], the previous week. Their [[Telegraphy|telegram]] read: "The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People respectfully enquires how long the Federal Government under your administration intends to tolerate anarchy in the United States?"{{sfn|The New York Times|1919i|p=}}

The [[Knoxville riot of 1919|Knoxville Riot]] in [[Tennessee]] started on August 30–31 after the arrest of a black suspect on suspicion of murdering a white woman. Searching for the prisoner, a [[Lynching|lynch mob]] stormed the county jail, where they liberated 16 white prisoners, including suspected murderers.{{sfn|The New York Times|1919|p=}} The mob attacked the [[African-American businesses|African-American business]] district, where they fought against the district's black business owners, leaving at least 7 dead and more than 20 wounded.{{sfn|Wheeler|2017|p=}}{{sfn|Whitaker|2009|p=53}}{{sfn|Lakin|2000|pp=1–29}}

=== Omaha: September 28–29 ===
[[File:Omaha courthouse lynching.jpg|thumb|Will Brown, victim of Omaha, Nebraska lynching{{sfn|Lewis|2009|p=383}}]]From September 28–29, the [[Omaha Race Riot of 1919|race riot of Omaha, Nebraska]], erupted after a mob of over 10,000 [[White ethnic|ethnic whites]] from [[South Omaha, Nebraska|South Omaha]] attacked and burned the county [[courthouse]] to force the release of a black prisoner accused of raping a white woman. The mob lynched the suspect, Will Brown, hanging him and burning his body. The group then spread out, attacking [[African-American neighborhood|black neighborhoods]] and stores on the north side, destroying property valued at more than a million dollars.

Once the mayor and governor appealed for help, the [[Federal government of the United States|federal government]] sent [[United States Army|U.S. Army]] troops from nearby forts, who were commanded by [[Major general (United States)|Major General]] [[Leonard Wood]], a friend of [[Theodore Roosevelt]], and a leading candidate for the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] nomination for president in 1920.{{sfn|Pietrusza|2009|pp=167–172}}

=== Elaine massacre and Wilmington: September 30–November ===
On September 30, a [[Elaine massacre|massacre]] occurred against blacks in [[Elaine, Arkansas|Elaine]], [[Phillips County, Arkansas|Phillips County]], [[Arkansas]],{{sfn|Public Broadcasting Service (PBS)|2018|p=Part 3}} being distinct for having occurred in the [[Rural areas in the United States|rural]] [[Southern United States|South]] rather than a city.

The event erupted from the resistance of the [[Minoritarianism|white minority]] against the organization of labor by black [[Sharecropping|sharecroppers]], along with the fear of [[socialism]]. Planters opposed such efforts to organize and thus tried to disrupt their meetings in the local chapter of the [[Progressive Farmers and Household Union of America]]. In a confrontation, a white man was fatally shot and another wounded. The planters formed a [[Militia (United States)|militia]] to arrest the [[African-American farmers]], and hundreds of whites came from the region. They acted as a mob, attacking black people over two days at random. During the riot, the mob killed an estimated 100 to 237 black people, while 5 whites also died in the violence.

[[List of governors of Arkansas|Arkansas Governor]] [[Charles Hillman Brough]] appointed a Committee of Seven, composed of prominent local white businessmen, to investigate. The committee would conclude that the [[Sharecroppers' Union]] was a Socialist enterprise and "established for the purpose of banding negroes together for the killing of white people."{{sfn|Freedman|2001|p=68}} The report generated such headlines as the following in the ''[[The Dallas Morning News|Dallas Morning News]]'': "Negroes Seized in Arkansas Riots Confess to Widespread Plot; Planned Massacre of Whites Today." Several agents of the Justice Department's [[Bureau of Investigation]] spent a week interviewing participants, though speaking to no sharecroppers. The Bureau also reviewed documents, filing a total of nine reports stating there was no evidence of a conspiracy of the sharecroppers to murder anyone.

The local government [[Trial|tried]] 79 black people, who were all convicted by [[all-white jury|all-white juries]], and 12 were sentenced to death for murder. As Arkansas and other southern states had [[Disfranchisement after Reconstruction era|disenfranchised]] most black people at the turn of the 20th century, they could not [[Black suffrage|vote]], run for political office, or [[Jury duty|serve on juries]]. The remainder of the [[defendant]]s were sentenced to prison terms of up to 21 years. [[Appeal]]s of the convictions of 6 of the defendants went to the [[U.S. Supreme Court]], which reversed the verdicts due to failure of the court to provide [[due process]]. This was a precedent for heightened Federal oversight of [[defendants' rights]] in the conduct of state criminal cases.{{sfn|Whitaker|2009|pp=131–142}}

On November 13, the [[Wilmington, Delaware race riot of 1919|Wilmington race riot]] was violence between white and black residents of [[Wilmington, Delaware]].

=== Other events ===
{{refsection|date=May 2023}}
A white woman named Ruth Meeks accused a black man named [[John Hartfield]] of attacking and raping her on June 9, 1919, in Ellisville, Mississippi. Mobs hunted down Hartfield as he ran for his life, but the mobs eventually shot and captured Hartfield on June 24 as he tried to board a train. He was held in jail, but mobs eventually came back and took him away, as the sheriff allowed them to. The mob had a doctor treat Hartfield for his gunshot wound, so the mob could organize his death in a way they saw fit. On June 26, 1919, the mob took Hartfield to a field in Ellisville, Mississippi, cut off his fingers, hung him from a tree branch, shot him over 2,000 times, and when the rope was severed and Hartfield fell from the tree, the mob burned his body. 10,000 whites came to the field to see Hartfield’s murder. Vendors sold trinkets and photographs. Newspapers reported that a resentful Hartfield’s last words were a warning for all men to think before they do wrong. This statement from the papers seems highly unlikely due to the state of Hartfield’s injuries and his attempt to run away for over a week before the mob got him.

On September 8, 1919, a mob of white men lynched Bowman Cook and John Morine.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Urell |first1=Aaryn |title=Historical Marker Dedicated for Veterans Lynched in Jacksonville, Florida |url=https://eji.org/news/historical-marker-dedicated-for-veterans-lynched-in-jacksonville-florida/ |website=[[Equal Justice Initiative]] |access-date=1 May 2023 |date=17 October 2021}}</ref> During August of 1919 in Jacksonville, Florida, several black taxi drivers were killed by white passengers. Black taxi drivers began to refuse service to white riders. When one white rider was denied service, he fired into a crowd of black people, killing one man. Police wrongly blamed Cook and Morine for the man’s death. Three weeks later, a mob broke into the jail where the men were being held and captured them.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cassanello |first=Robert |date=2003 |title=Violence, Racial Etiquette, and African American Working-Class Infrapolitics in Jacksonville during World War I |url=https://ucf.digital.flvc.org/islandora/object/ucf%3A25550/datastream/OBJ/view/The_Florida_historical_quarterly.pdf |journal=The Florida Historical Quarterly |volume=82 |issue=2 |pages=164–165 |via=UCF Digital Collections}}</ref> The mob drove them to a desolate area of town and shot them, then they tied Cook’s body to a car and drove it for 50 blocks. The dragging drew attention to the spectacle and mutilated his corpse.

On October 4, there was a union strike at Gary’s U.S. Steel mill in Gary, Indiana. This strike was held by the white labor population of the mill as the union could not recruit the black workers’ support. To break this strike, U.S. Steel hired almost a thousand local and non-local black strikebreakers. These strikebreakers were shipped into Gary for their safety and they were provided cots, entertainment, and overtime pay. At the same time, U.S. Steel turned to theatrics and attempted to agitate the white strikers. They did this by first emasculating white strikers then later by paying unrelated black residents of Gary to march in a parade towards the steel mill. 
On October 4, 1919, hundreds of striking workers assaulted a stalled street car bearing 40 black strikebreakers. At first the mob resorted to heckling, then the throwing of rocks, and eventually, the mob dragged the strikebreakers from their streetcar and beat them, dragging them through the streets. The hysteria led to an eight block mob leaving many unconscious in its wake leading to the state militia and federal troops stepping in to intervene.<ref>{{cite web |title=Why the Great Steel Strike of 1919 Was One of Labor's Biggest Failures |url=https://www.history.com/news/steel-strike-of-1919-defeat |website=HISTORY |date=September 23, 2019 |access-date=1 May 2023 |language=en}}</ref> Martial law was enacted and many historians{{such as?|date=July 2023}} agree that it was the Riot of 1919 that broke the unions in Gary.{{cn|date=July 2023}}

==Chronology==
This list is primarily, but not exclusively, based on [[George Edmund Haynes]]'s report, as summarized in the ''[[The New York Times|New York Times]]'' (1919).{{sfn|The New York Times|1919|p=}}
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-right:1em"
! Date
! Place  
|-
| '''January 22'''{{efn|name=nyt1}}
| Bedford County, Tennessee
|-
| '''February 8'''
| Blakeley, Georgia{{efn|name=nyt1}}{{efn|New York Times show that 4 people were killed.{{sfn|The New York Times|1919|p=}}}}
|-
|'''March 12'''
|[[African American veterans lynched after WWI|Pace, Florida]] 
|-
|'''March 14'''
| Memphis, Tennessee{{efn|name=nyt1}}{{efn|New York Times show that 1 person was killed in Memphis, Tennessee{{sfn|The New York Times|1919|p=}}}}
|-
|'''April 10'''
|[[Morgan County, West Virginia riot of 1919|Morgan County, West Virginia]]
|-
|'''April 13'''
|[[Jenkins County, Georgia, riot of 1919|Jenkins County, Georgia]]
|-
|'''April 14'''
|[[Daniel Mack|Sylvester, Georgia]] 
|-
|'''April 15'''
|[[Jenkins County, Georgia, riot of 1919|Millen, Georgia]]{{efn|Misspelling of [[Millen, Georgia]]. Riot was part of the [[Jenkins County, Georgia, riot of 1919]]}}
|-
|'''May 5'''
|[[African American veterans lynched after WWI|Pickens, Mississippi]]
|-
| '''May 10 '''
|[[Charleston riot of 1919|Charleston, South Carolina]]
|-
| '''May 10'''
| Sylvester, Georgia{{efn|name=nyt1}}{{efn|New York Times show that 1 person was killed.{{sfn|The New York Times|1919|p=}}}}
|-
|'''May 21'''
|[[African American veterans lynched after WWI|El Dorado, Arkansas]] 
|-
| '''May 26'''
|[[Berry Washington|Milan, Georgia]]
|-
| '''May 29'''
|[[New London riots of 1919|New London, Connecticut]]
|-
| '''May 27–29'''
|[[Putnam County, Georgia, arson attack|Putnam County, Georgia]]
|-
| '''May 31'''
| Monticello, Mississippi{{efn|name=nyt1}}
|-
| '''June 6'''
| New Brunswick, New Jersey{{efn|name=nyt1}}
|-
| '''June 13'''
| Memphis, Tennessee{{efn|name=nyt1}}
|-
| '''June 13'''
|[[New London riots of 1919|New London, Connecticut]]{{efn|Records show that during [[New London, Connecticut]], riot several people were injured<ref name= "United States House Committee on the Judiciary p. 9"/><ref name= "United States House Committee on the Judiciary p. 19"/>}}
|-
| '''June 26'''
| Ellisville, Mississippi{{efn|name=nyt1}}
|-
| '''June 27'''
|[[Annapolis riot of 1919|Annapolis, Maryland]]{{efn|Atypical in that the violence was primarily between civilian African Americans and African American sailors but also included instances of white sailors attacking civilian African Americans.}}
|-
| '''June 27'''
|[[Macon, Mississippi, race riot|Macon, Mississippi]]
|-
| '''July 3'''
|[[Bisbee Riot|Bisbee, Arizona]]
|-
| '''July 5'''
| Scranton, Pennsylvania{{efn|"'Negroes Accused of Inciting Riot,' Philadelphia Inquirer, July 10, 1919. The NAACP later reported to Conggress and the New York Times that a race riot erupted on July 5 in Scranton, Pennsylvania. However, no evidence of such an incident exists."{{sfn|McWhirter|2011|p=291}}}}
|-
| '''July 6'''
|[[Dublin, Georgia riot|Dublin, Georgia]]
|-
| '''July 7'''
|[[Race riots in Philadelphia during the 1919 Red Summer|Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]]
|-
| '''July 8'''
|[[1919 Coatesville call to arms|Coatesville, Pennsylvania]]
|-
| '''July 9'''
| Tuscaloosa, Alabama{{efn|name=nyt1}}{{efn|Records show that during Tuscaloosa riot 1 person was injured<ref name= "United States House Committee on the Judiciary p. 9">{{harvnb|United States House Committee on the Judiciary|1920|p=9}}</ref><ref name= "United States House Committee on the Judiciary p. 19">{{harvnb|United States House Committee on the Judiciary|1920a|p=19}}</ref>}}
|-
| '''July 10–12'''
|[[Longview race riot|Longview, Texas]]{{sfn|Whitaker|2009|p=51}} 
|- 	
| '''July 11''' 
| [[Baltimore riots of 1919|Baltimore, Maryland]]
|-
|'''July 15'''
|[[African American veterans lynched after WWI|Louise, Mississippi]]
|-
| '''July 15'''
|[[Port Arthur riot 1919|Port Arthur, Texas]]
|-
| '''July 19–24'''
|[[Washington race riot of 1919|Washington, D.C.]]
|-
| '''July 20'''
| [[New York race riots of 1919|New York City, New York]]
|-
| '''July 21'''
|[[1919 Norfolk race riot|Norfolk, Virginia]]
|-
| '''July 23'''
| New Orleans, Louisiana{{efn|name=nyt1}}
|-
| '''July 23'''
|[[Darby 1919 lynching attempt|Darby, Pennsylvania]]
|-
| '''July 26'''
|[[Newman O'Neal|Hobson City, Alabama]]{{efn|Records show that during Hobson City riot one person was injured<ref name= "United States House Committee on the Judiciary p. 9"/><ref name= "United States House Committee on the Judiciary p. 19"/>}}
|-
| '''July 27 – August 3'''
|[[Chicago race riot of 1919|Chicago, Illinois]]
|-
| '''July 28'''
|[[Newberry 1919 lynching attempt|Newberry, South Carolina]]{{efn|The [[Newberry 1919 lynching attempt]] happened on July 24}}
|-
| '''July 31'''
| Bloomington, Illinois{{efn|name=nyt1}}
|-
| '''July 31'''
|[[Syracuse riot of 1919|Syracuse, New York]]
|-
| '''July 31'''
|[[Race riots in Philadelphia during the 1919 Red Summer|Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]]
|-
| '''August 1'''
| [[Whatley, Alabama race riot of 1919|Whatley, Alabama]] 
|-
|'''August 3'''
|[[African American veterans lynched after WWI|Lincoln, Arkansas]]
|-
| '''August 4'''
| Hattiesburg, Mississippi{{efn|name=nyt1}}
|-
| '''August 6'''
| Texarkana, Texas{{sfn|Marcelle|2016|p=}}
|-
| '''August 21'''
| [[New York race riots of 1919|New York City, New York]] 
|-
|'''August 22'''
|[[Attack on John Shillady|Austin, Texas]] 
|-
| '''August 27–29'''
|[[Laurens County, Georgia race riot of 1919|Ocmulgee, Georgia]]  
|-
| '''August 30'''
|[[Knoxville riot of 1919|Knoxville, Tennessee]] 
|-
|'''August 31'''
|[[African American veterans lynched after WWI|Bogalusa, Louisiana]]
|-
| '''September 8'''
| Jacksonville, Florida{{efn|name=nyt1}}
|-
|'''September 10'''
|[[African American veterans lynched after WWI|Clarksdale, Mississippi]]
|-
| '''September 28–29'''
|[[Omaha race riot of 1919|Omaha, Nebraska]]
|-
| '''September 29'''
|[[1919 Lynching in Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery, Alabama]]
|-
| '''October 1–2'''
|[[Elaine race riot|Elaine, Arkansas]]
|-
|'''October 1–2'''
|[[Baltimore riots of 1919|Baltimore, Maryland]]
|-
| '''October 4'''
| Gary, Indiana{{efn|name=nyt1}}
|-
|'''October 31'''
|[[Corbin, Kentucky race riot of 1919|Corbin, Kentucky]]
|-
|'''November 2'''
|[[Lynching of Paul Jones|Macon, Georgia]]
|-
|'''November 11'''
|[[Lynching of Jordan Jameson|Magnolia, Arkansas]]  
|-
|'''November 13'''
|[[Wilmington, Delaware race riot of 1919|Wilmington, Delaware]]
|-
|'''December 27'''
|[[African American veterans lynched after WWI|West Virginia]]
|}

==Responses==
{{Quote box
| quote = We appeal to you to have your country undertake for its racial minority that which you forced Poland and Austria to undertake for their racial minorities.
| source = — ''National Equal Rights League to President Woodrow Wilson'', November 25, 1919
| width = 300px
| align = right
| bgcolor = #EDEDED
}}

In September 1919, in response to the Red Summer, the [[African Blood Brotherhood]] formed in northern cities to serve as an "[[armed resistance]]" movement. Protests and appeals to the federal government continued for weeks. A letter from the [[National Equal Rights League]], dated November 25, appealed to Wilson's international advocacy for human rights: "We appeal to you to have your country undertake for its racial minority that which you forced Poland and Austria to undertake for their racial minorities."{{sfn|The New York Times|1919e|p=}}

===Haynes's report===
The October 1919 report by Dr. [[George Edmund Haynes]] is a [[Direct action|call to national action]], and was published in ''[[The New York Times]]'' and other major newspapers.{{sfn|The New York Times|1919|p=}} Haynes noted that [[lynchings]] were a national problem. As [[Woodrow Wilson|President Wilson]] had noted in a 1918 speech: from 1889 to 1918, more than 3,000 people had been lynched; 2,472 were black men, and 50 were black women. Haynes said that states had shown themselves "unable or unwilling" to put a stop to [[lynching]]s, and seldom prosecuted the murderers. The fact that white men had also been lynched in the North, he argued, demonstrated the national nature of the overall problem: "It is idle to suppose that murder can be confined to one section of the country or to one race."{{sfn|The New York Times|1919|p=}} He connected the lynchings to the widespread racial riots against blacks in 1919:{{sfn|The New York Times|1919|p=}}

{{blockquote|Persistence of unpunished lynchings of negroes fosters lawlessness among white men imbued with the mob spirit and creates a spirit of bitterness among negroes. In such a state of public mind, a trivial incident can precipitate a riot.

Disregard of law and legal process will inevitably lead to more and more frequent clashes and bloody encounters between white men and negroes and a condition of potential race war in many cities of the United States.

Unchecked mob violence creates hatred and intolerance, making impossible free and dispassionate discussion not only of race problems, but questions on which races and sections differ.|author=|title=|source=}}
[[File:Chicago Race Riot 1919 stoning.png|thumb|alt=man throwing a rock|African American being stoned by whites during 1919 Chicago race riot]]

===Lusk Committee===
The [[Lusk Committee|Joint Legislative Committee to Investigate Seditious Activities]], popularly known as the Lusk Committee, was formed in 1919 by the [[New York State Legislature]] to investigate individuals and organizations in [[New York (state)|New York State]] suspected of [[sedition]]. The committee was chaired by freshman State Senator [[Clayton R. Lusk]] of [[Cortland County, New York|Cortland County]], who had a background in business and conservative political values, referring to radicals as "[[Alien Enemies Act|alien enemies]]."{{sfn|Jaffe|1972|pp=121–122}} Only 10% of the four-volume work constituted a report, while the rest reprinted materials seized in raids or supplied by witnesses, much of it detailing European activities, or surveyed efforts to counteract [[Radicalism (historical)|radicalism]] in every state, including [[Citizenship of the United States|citizenship programs]] and other patriotic educational activities. Other raids targeted the [[Left-wing politics|left-wing]] of the [[Socialist Party of America|Socialist Party]] and the [[Industrial Workers of the World]] (IWW). When they analyzed the materials it hauled away, it made much of attempts to organize "American Negroes" and calls for revolutions in foreign-language magazines.{{sfn|New-York Tribune|1919|p=1}}{{sfn|Brown|Smith|Johnson|1922|p=313}}

===Press coverage===
In mid-summer, in the middle of the [[Chicago race riot of 1919|Chicago racial violence]] against blacks, a federal official told ''[[The New York Times]]'' that the violence resulted from "an agitation, which involves the I.W.W., [[Bolsheviks|Bolshevism]] and the worst features of other extreme radical movements."{{sfn|The New York Times|1919c|p=}} He supported that claim with copies of Negro publications that called for alliances with leftist groups, praised the [[Politics of the Soviet Union|Soviet regime]], and contrasted the courage of jailed [[Socialism|socialist]] [[Eugene V. Debs]] with the "school boy rhetoric" of traditional black leaders. The ''Times'' characterized the publications as "vicious and apparently well financed," mentioned "certain factions of the radical Socialist elements," and reported it all under the headline: "Reds Try to Stir Negroes to Revolt".{{sfn|The New York Times|1919c|p=}} In late 1919, [[Oklahoma]]'s [[The Ardmoreite|''Daily Ardmoreite'']] published a piece with a headline describing "Evidence Found Of Negro Society That Brought On Rioting"''.''{{sfn|The Daily Ardmoreite|1919|p=1}}

In response, some black leaders such as Bishop [[Charles Henry Phillips]] of the [[Christian Methodist Episcopal Church|Colored Methodist Episcopal Church]] asked black people to shun violence in favor of "patience" and "moral suasion." Phillips opposed propaganda favoring violence, and he noted the grounds of injustice to the black people:{{sfn|The New York Times|1919d|p=}} Phillips was based in Nashville, Tennessee.

{{blockquote|I cannot believe that the negro was influenced by Bolshevist agents in the part he took in the rioting. It is not like him to be a traitor or a revolutionist who would destroy the Government. But then the reign of mob law to which he has so long lived in terror and the injustices to which he has had to submit have made him sensitive and impatient.|author=|title=|source=}}

The connection between black people and Bolshevism was widely repeated. In August 1919, ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'' wrote: "Race riots seem to have for their genesis a Bolshevist, a Negro, and a gun." The [[National Security League]] repeated that reading of events.<ref name= "McWhirter p. 160">{{harvnb|McWhirter|2011|p=160}}</ref> In presenting the Haynes report in early October, ''The New York Times'' provided a context which his report did not mention. Haynes documented violence and inaction on the state level.

[[File:Map of the rioting during the Washington DC race riot of 1919.jpg|thumb|alt=Map|Map of the rioting during the Washington D.C. race riot of 1919]]
The ''Times'' saw "bloodshed on a scale amounting to local insurrection" as evidence of "a new negro problem" because of "influences that are now working to drive a wedge of bitterness and hatred between the two races."{{sfn|The New York Times|1919|p=}} Until recently, the ''Times'' said, black leaders showed "a sense of appreciation" for what whites had suffered on their behalf in fighting a civil war that "bestowed on the black man opportunities far in advance of those he had in any other part of the white man's world".{{sfn|The New York Times|1919|p=}} Now militants were supplanting [[Booker T. Washington]], who had "steadily argued conciliatory methods." The ''Times'' continued:{{sfn|The New York Times|1919|p=}}

{{Blockquote|Every week the militant leaders gain more headway. They may be divided into general classes. One consists of radicals and revolutionaries. They are spreading Bolshevist propaganda. It is reported that they are winning many recruits among the colored race. When the ignorance that exists among negroes in many sections of the country is taken into consideration the danger of inflaming them by revolutionary doctrine may [be] apprehended.... The other class of militant leaders confine their agitation to a fight against all forms of color discrimination. They are for a program on uncompromising protest, "to fight and continue to fight for citizenship rights and full democratic privileges."}}

As evidence of militancy and Bolshevism, the ''Times'' named [[W.&nbsp;E.&nbsp;B. Du Bois]] and quoted his editorial in ''[[The Crisis]]'', which he edited:{{sfn|The New York Times|1919|p=}}

<blockquote>Today we raise the terrible weapon of self-defense&nbsp;... When the armed lynchers gather, we too must gather armed." When the ''Times'' endorsed Haynes' call for a bi-racial conference to establish "some plan to guarantee greater protection, justice, and opportunity to Negroes that will gain the support of law-abiding citizens of both races", it endorsed discussion with "those negro leaders who are opposed to militant methods.</blockquote>

In mid-October government sources provided the ''Times'' with evidence of Bolshevist propaganda appealing to America's black communities. This account set Red propaganda in the black community into a broader context, since it was "paralleling the agitation that is being carried on in industrial centres of the North and West, where there are many alien laborers".{{sfn|The New York Times|1919a|p=}}  The Times described newspapers, magazines, and "so-called 'negro betterment' organizations" as the way [[propaganda]] about the "[[doctrine]]s of [[Leninism|Lenin]] and [[Trotskyism|Trotzky]]" was distributed to black people.{{sfn|The New York Times|1919a|p=}} It cited quotes from such publications, which contrasted the recent violence in Chicago and Washington, D.C., with:{{sfn|The New York Times|1919a|p=}}

[[File:Chicago race riot, five policemen and one soldier.jpg|thumb|alt=people standing on the street, one is armed with a rifle|Five policemen and one soldier during the Chicago race riot]]
{{Blockquote|...Soviet Russia, a country in which dozens of racial and lingual types have settled their many differences and found a common meeting ground, a country which no longer oppresses colonies, a country from which the lynch rope is banished and in which racial tolerance and peace now exist.}}

The ''Times'' noted a call for [[unionization]]: "Negroes must form cotton workers' unions. Southern white capitalists know that the negroes can bring the white bourbon South to its knees. So go to it."{{sfn|The New York Times|1919a|p=}} Coverage of the root causes of the riot against black people in Elaine, Arkansas evolved as the violence stretched over several days. A dispatch from [[Helena, Arkansas]], to the ''New York Times'' datelined October 1 said: "Returning members of the [white] posse brought numerous stories and rumors, through all of which ran the belief that the rioting was due to propaganda distributed among the negroes by white men."{{sfn|The New York Times|1919b|p=}} The next day's report added detail: "Additional evidence has been obtained of the activities of propagandists among the negroes, and it is thought that a plot existed for a general uprising against the whites." A white man had been arrested and was "alleged to have been preaching social equality among the negroes". Part of the headline was: "Trouble Traced to Socialist Agitators".{{sfn|The New York Times|1919f|p=}} A few days later a Western Newspaper Union dispatch captioned a photo using the words "Captive Negro [[Insurrection]]ists."{{sfn|The New York Times|1919g|p=}}

===Government activity===
[[File:Mob Law Cartoon Washington DC 1919.jpg|thumb|alt=Editorial Cartoon|Mob law in Washington, D.C., ''[[New-York Tribune]]'', July 27, 1919, editorial cartoon]]

During the Chicago racial violence against people of color the press was incorrectly told by [[United States Department of Justice|Department of Justice]] officials that the [[Industrial Workers of the World|IWW]], socialists, and [[Bolsheviks]] were "spreading propaganda to breed race hatred".<ref name= "McWhirter p. 159">{{harvnb|McWhirter|2011|p=159}}</ref> FBI agents filed reports that leftist views were winning converts in the black community. One cited the work of the [[NAACP]] "urging the colored people to insist upon equality with white people and to resort to force, if necessary.<ref name="McWhirter p. 160"/> [[J. Edgar Hoover]], at the start of his career in government, analyzed the riots for the Attorney General. He blamed the July Washington, D.C., riots on "numerous assaults committed by Negroes upon white women".{{sfn|Ackerman|2008|pp=60–62}}  For the October events in Arkansas, he blamed "certain local agitation in a Negro lodge".{{sfn|Ackerman|2008|pp=60–62}}  A more general cause he cited was "propaganda of a radical nature".{{sfn|Ackerman|2008|pp=60–62}}  He charged that socialists were feeding propaganda to black-owned magazines such as ''[[The Messenger Magazine|The Messenger]]'', which in turn aroused their black readers. He did not note the white perpetrators of violence, whose activities local authorities documented. As chief of the Radical Division within the U.S. Department of Justice, Hoover began an investigation of "negro activities" and targeted [[Marcus Garvey]] because he thought his newspaper ''[[Negro World]]'' preached Bolshevism.{{sfn|Ackerman|2008|pp=60–62}} He authorized the hiring of black undercover agents to spy on black organizations and publications in Harlem.<ref name= "McWhirter p. 159"/>

On November 17, Attorney General [[A. Mitchell Palmer]] reported to Congress on the threat that anarchists and Bolsheviks posed to the government. More than half the report documented radicalism in the black community and the "open defiance" black leaders advocated in response to racial violence and the summer's rioting. It faulted the leadership of the black community for an "ill-governed reaction toward race rioting.… In all discussions of the recent racial riots against blacks there is reflected the note of pride that the Negro has found himself. That he has 'fought back,' that never again will he tamely submit to violence and intimidation."<ref name= "McWhirter p. 239-241">{{harvnb|McWhirter|2011|pp=239–241}}</ref> It described "the dangerous spirit of defiance and vengeance at work among the Negro leaders."<ref name= "McWhirter p. 239-241"/>

===Arts===
[[Claude McKay]]'s [[sonnet]], "[[If We Must Die]]",<ref name=ifwemustdie>[http://www.poetryfoundation.org/poem/173960 "If We Must Die"] poetryfoundation.org, accessed May 5, 2015</ref> was prompted by the events of Red Summer.{{sfn|McKay|2007|p=}}

==See also==
*[[African-American veterans lynched after World War I]]
*[[African Blood Brotherhood]]
*[[Black genocide]] – the notion that [[African Americans]] have been subjected to [[genocide]]
*[[Buffalo supermarket shooting]]
*[[Charleston Church shooting]]
*[[Freedmen massacres]]
*[[King assassination riots]]
*{{slink|List of ethnic riots#United States}}
*[[List of expulsions of African Americans]]
*[[List of incidents of civil unrest in the United States]]
*[[List of massacres in the United States]]
*[[Lynching in the United States]]
*[[Mass racial violence in the United States]]
*[[Racial Equality Proposal#Reaction|Racial Equality Proposal]]
*[[Racism against African Americans]]
*[[Racism in the United States]]

==Notes==
{{notelist|refs=
{{efn|name=nyt1|One of the only records of this riot is a ''New York Times'' article. Newspapers across the country report that a "race riot" was "narrowly averted" in New Orleans on July 22. "Race Riots in New Orleans and Washington", Brewton Standard, July 24, 1919, 1; "Louisiana," Bossier Banner-Progress, July 24, 1919, 1' "Race Riot Narrowly Averted in New Orleans," Phenix-Gerard Journal, July 24, 1919, 1; "Race Clash Narrowly Averted at New Orleans," Emancipator, July 26, 1919, 1.{{sfn|The New York Times|1919|p=}}}}

}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

===Bibliography===
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite book |last=Ackerman|first=Kenneth D. | title = Young J. Edgar: Hoover, the Red Scare, and the Assault on Civil Liberties|year=2008| publisher = [[Carroll & Graf Publishers]]| isbn= 9780306816277}} <small>- Total pages: 472</small>
*{{cite news |date= October 5, 1919|title= Evidence Found Of Negro Society That Brought On Rioting|last=The Daily Ardmoreite|author-link=The Ardmoreite|url=https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn85042303/1919-10-05/ed-1/seq-1/#|newspaper=The Daily Ardmoreite|publisher=John F. Easley|location=Ardmore, Carter, Oklahoma |issn=1065-7894|oclc=12101538|pages=1–20|access-date= October 6, 2019 }}
*{{cite book|last=Barnes|first=Harper|title=Never Been a Time: The 1917 Race Riot That Sparked the Civil Rights Movement|year=2008|location=New York|publisher=Walker & Co.|isbn=9780802715753|url=https://archive.org/details/neverbeentime19100barn}} <small>- Total pages: 304 </small>
*{{cite book |last3=Johnson|first3=Willis F. |display-authors=etal|last2=Smith|first2=Ray B. |last1=Brown|first1=Roscoe C. E. | title = History of the State of New York: Political and Government: Vol. 4: 1896–1920|url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924092204209|year=1922| publisher = Syracuse Press }}  
* [[Philip Dray|Dray, Philip]], ''At the Hands of Persons Unknown: The Lynching of Black America'' (NY: Random House, 2002)
*{{cite web |date=2019|url = https://www.britannica.com/event/Chicago-Race-Riot-of-1919 |title =Chicago Race Riot of 1919 |publisher = [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]| access-date = July 25, 2019 |ref={{sfnref|Encyclopædia Britannica|2019}} }} 
* {{cite book|last=Freedman|first=Eric M.|author-link=Eric M. Freedman|title=Habeas Corpus: Rethinking the Great Writ of Liberty|year=2001|publisher=[[New York University Press]]|isbn=9780814727171|url=https://archive.org/details/habeascorpusreth00free}} <small>- Total pages: 243</small>
*{{cite book |last=Jaffe|first=Julian F. | title = Crusade Against Radicalism: New York During the Red Scare, 1914-1924|year=1972| publisher = Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press| isbn= 9780804690263}} <small>- Total pages: 265 </small>
*{{cite book |last=Kennedy|first=David M. | author-link =David M. Kennedy (historian)| title = Over Here: The First World War and American Society|year=2004| publisher = [[Oxford University Press]]| isbn= 9780195174007}} <small>- Total pages: 428 </small>
*[[Gary Krist (writer)|Krist, Gary]]. ''City of Scoundrels: The Twelve Days of Disaster That Gave Birth to Modern Chicago''. New York, NY: Crown Publisher, 2012. {{ISBN|978-0-307-45429-4}}.
*{{cite journal |last=Lakin|first= Matthew |date= 2000 |title='A Dark Night': The Knoxville Race Riot of 1919|journal= Journal of East Tennessee History|volume=  72|oclc=23044540|publisher=[[East Tennessee Historical Society]]|issn=1058-2126}}
*{{cite book |last=Lewis|first=David Levering | author-link = David Levering Lewis | title = W. E. B. Du Bois: A Biography|year=2009| publisher = [[Henry Holt and Company]]| isbn=9781466843073}} <small>- Total pages: 912</small>
*{{cite book |last=Marcelle|first=Dale | title = Pitchforks and Negro Babies: America's Shocking History of Hate|year=2016| publisher = [[AuthorHouse]]| isbn= 9781524625764}} <small>- Total pages: 328 </small>
* {{cite book|last=McKay|first=Claude|author-link=Claude McKay|title=A Long Way from Home|year=2007|orig-year=New York Arno:1937|publisher=[[Rutgers University Press]]|isbn=9780813539683|url=https://archive.org/details/longwayfromhome00mcka_0}} <small>- Total pages: 270</small>
* {{cite book |last=McWhirter|first=Cameron  | title = Red Summer: The Summer of 1919 and the Awakening of Black America|year=2011| publisher = [[Henry Holt and Company]]| isbn= 9780805089066 }} <small>- Total pages: 368 </small>
*{{cite web |last=Mills|first=Darhian|date=April 2, 2016|url = https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/washington-d-c-race-riot-1919/ |title =Washington, DC Race Riot (1919) |publisher = BlackPast| access-date = July 25, 2019 }} 
*{{cite web |last=Maxouris|first=Christina |date=July 27, 2019|url = https://www.cnn.com/2019/07/27/us/red-summer-1919-racial-violence/index.html|title =100 years ago, white mobs across the country attacked black people. And they fought back|publisher = [[CNN]]| access-date = July 29, 2019 }} 
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*{{cite news |date=July 17, 1919|title=Reds Work in the South|last=New-York Tribune|author-link=New-York Tribune|url=https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83030214/1919-07-17/ed-1/seq-1/#|newspaper=[[New-York Tribune]] |location=[[New York City|New York]]|issn=1941-0646|oclc=9405688|pages=1–20|access-date= July 20, 2019 }}
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*{{cite news |title=Protest Sent to Wilson| last=The New York Times|author-link=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1919/07/22/archives/protest-sent-to-wilson-association-for-advancement-of-colored.html|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|location=New York, NY|issn=1553-8095|oclc=1645522|date=July 22, 1919h|access-date= July 23, 2019}} 
*{{cite news |title=Reds Try to Stir Negroes to Revolt| last=The New York Times|author-link=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1919/07/28/archives/reds-try-to-stir-negroes-to-revolt-widespread-propaganda-on-foot.html|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|location=New York, NY|issn=1553-8095|oclc=1645522|date=July 28, 1919c|access-date= July 23, 2019}} 
*{{cite news |title=Negroes Appeal to Wilson| last=The New York Times|author-link=The New York Times|url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1919/08/01/98290465.pdf|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|location=New York, NY|issn=1553-8095|oclc=1645522|date=August 1, 1919j|access-date= July 23, 2019}} 
*{{cite news |title=Denies Negroes are 'Reds'| last=The New York Times|author-link=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1919/07/28/archives/reds-try-to-stir-negroes-to-revolt-widespread-propaganda-on-foot.html|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|location=New York, NY|issn=1553-8095|oclc=1645522|date=August 3, 1919d|access-date= July 23, 2019}} 
*{{cite news |title=Negro Protest to Wilson| last=The New York Times|author-link=The New York Times|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9B04EEDF103DE533A25753C3A96E9C946896D6CF|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|location=New York, NY|issn=1553-8095|oclc=1645522|date=August 30, 1919i|access-date= July 23, 2019}} 
*{{cite news |title= For Action on Race Riot Peril| last=The New York Times|author-link=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1919/10/05/archives/for-action-on-race-riot-peril-radical-propaganda-among-negroes.html|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|location=New York, NY|issn=1553-8095|oclc=1645522|date=October 5, 1919|access-date= July 23, 2019}} 
*{{cite news |title=None Killed in Fight with Arkansas Posse| last=The New York Times|author-link=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1919/10/02/archives/nine-killed-in-fight-with-arkansas-posse.html|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|location=New York, NY|issn=1553-8095|oclc=1645522|date=October 2, 1919b|access-date= July 23, 2019}} 
*{{cite news |title=Six More are Killed in Arkansas Riots| last=The New York Times|author-link=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1919/10/03/archives/six-more-are-killed-in-arkansas-riots-governor-brough-and-boston.html|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|location=New York, NY|issn=1553-8095|oclc=1645522|date=October 3, 1919f|access-date= July 23, 2019}} 
*{{cite news |title=Article 34 -- No Title| last=The New York Times|author-link=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1919/10/12/archives/article-34-no-title.html|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|location=New York, NY|issn=1553-8095|oclc=1645522|date=October 12, 1919g|access-date= July 23, 2019}} 
*{{cite news |title=Reds are Working among Negroes| last=The New York Times|author-link=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1919/10/19/archives/reds-are-working-among-negroes-widespread-propaganda-by-radical.html|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|location=New York, NY|issn=1553-8095|oclc=1645522|date=October 19, 1919a|access-date= July 23, 2019}} 
*{{cite news |title=Ask Wilson to Aid Negroes| last=The New York Times|author-link=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1919/11/26/archives/ask-wilson-to-aid-negroes-equal-rights-league-wants-action-on-mob.html|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|location=New York, NY|issn=1553-8095|oclc=1645522|date=November 26, 1919e|access-date= July 23, 2019}} 
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*{{cite news
|title=Red Summer
|first=Rebecca
|last=Onion
|date=March 4, 2015
|magazine=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]]
|url=https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2015/03/civil-rights-movement-history-the-long-tradition-of-black-americans-taking-up-arms-to-defend-themselves-against-racial-violence.html}}
*{{cite web |last=Public Broadcasting Service (PBS)|author-link=PBS|date=July 3, 2018|url = https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/films/great-war/#transcript |title =The Great War: A Nation Comes of Age – Part 3, Transcript |publisher = [[PBS|Public Broadcasting Service (PBS)]]| access-date = July 25, 2019 }} 
*{{cite news |last=Perl|first=Peter |date=March 1, 1999|url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/local/2000/raceriot0301.htm|title =Race Riot of 1919 Gave Glimpse of Future Struggles|newspaper = [[The Washington Post]]| access-date = July 9, 2019 }} 
*{{cite book |last=Pietrusza|first=David | author-link = David Pietrusza | title = 1920: The Year of the Six Presidents|year=2009| publisher = [[Basic Books]]| isbn= 9780786732135}} <small>- Total pages: 240</small>
*{{cite book |last1=Rucker|first1=Walter C. |last2=Upton|first2=James N. | title = Encyclopedia of American Race Riots, Volume 2|year=2007| publisher = [[Greenwood Publishing Group]]| isbn=9780313333026}} <small>- Total pages: 930 </small>
* [[William M. Tuttle Jr.|Tuttle, William M., Jr.]], ''Race Riot: Chicago in the Red Summer of 1919'' (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1996), originally published 1970
*{{cite book |last=United States House Committee on the Judiciary| author-link = United States House Committee on the Judiciary| title = Segregation and Antilynching: Hearings Before the Committee on the Judiciary, House of Representatives, Sixty-six Congress, 2d Session on H.J. Res. 75; H.R. 259, 4123, and 11873. Serial No. 14|year=1920| publisher = [[Federal government of the United States]] }} <small>- Total pages: 65 </small>
*{{cite book |last=United States House Committee on the Judiciary| author-link = United States House Committee on the Judiciary| title = Hearings Before the Committee on the Judiciary, House of Representatives, Sixty-sixth Congress, First[-third] Session: Segregation. Anti-lynching|year=1920a| publisher = [[United States Government Publishing Office]] }} 
*{{cite web |last=Wheeler|first=W Bruce |date=October 8, 2017|url = https://tennesseeencyclopedia.net/entries/knoxville-riot-of-1919/ |title =Knoxville Riot of 1919 |publisher = [[Tennessee Historical Society]]| access-date = July 25, 2019 }} 
*{{cite book |last=Whitaker|first=Robert | author-link = Robert Whitaker (author) | title = On the Laps of Gods: The Red Summer of 1919 and the Struggle for Justice That Remade a Nation|year=2009| publisher = [[Three Rivers Press]]| isbn=9780307339836}} <small>- Total pages: 386</small>
{{refend}}

{{Racial Incidents during the 1919 Red Summer}}
{{Lynching in the United States}}
{{Woodrow Wilson}}
{{Portal bar|United States|Law}}
{{Commons category|Red Summer of 1919}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Red Summer Of 1919}}
[[Category:Red Summer| ]]
[[Category:1919 in the United States]]
[[Category:1919 riots in the United States]]
[[Category:African-American history between emancipation and the civil rights movement]]
[[Category:Anti-communism in the United States]]
[[Category:History of racism in the United States]]
[[Category:Lynching deaths in the United States]]
[[Category:Mass murder in 1919]]
[[Category:Presidency of Woodrow Wilson]]
[[Category:Race riots in the United States]]
[[Category:Racially motivated violence against African Americans]]
[[Category:Red Scare]]
[[Category:Riots and civil disorder in the United States]]
[[Category:Reactions to the Russian Revolution and Civil War]]
[[Category:White American riots in the United States]]
[[Category:White supremacy in the United States]]
[[Category:White nationalist terrorism in the United States]]