Editing Red wattlebird

{{Short description|Passerine bird native to southern Australia}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = Red wattlebird
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International |date=2018 |title=''Anthochaera carunculata'' |volume=2018 |page=e.T22704466A130382437 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T22704466A130382437.en |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
| image =Red wattlebird.jpg
| genus = Anthochaera
| species = carunculata
| authority = ([[George Shaw (biologist)|Shaw]], 1790)
| range_map = Distribution red wattlebird.jpg
| range_map_caption= Distribution map of the red wattlebird
}}

The '''red wattlebird''' ('''''Anthochaera carunculata''''') is a [[passerine]] bird native to southern Australia. At {{convert|33-37|cm|in|abbr=on|frac=4}} in length, it is the second largest species of Australian [[honeyeater]]. It has mainly  grey-brown plumage, with red eyes, distinctive pinkish-red [[Wattle (anatomy)|wattles]] on either side of the neck, white streaks on the chest and a large bright yellow patch on the lower belly. The sexes are similar in plumage. Juveniles have less prominent wattles and browner eyes. [[John White (surgeon)|John White]] described the red wattlebird in 1790. Three [[subspecies]] are recognized.

The species is found in southeast [[Queensland]], [[New South Wales]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], [[South Australia]] and southwest [[Western Australia]] in open forest and woodlands, and is a common visitor to urban gardens and parks. Loud and conspicuous, the red wattlebird is generally found in trees, where it gets most of its food; occasionally it forages on the ground. It is one of the largest [[Nectarivore|nectarivorous]] birds in the world, feeding from a wide variety of flowering plants. Insects also comprise part of its diet. It is territorial and at times aggressive towards birds of other species, often defending rich sources of nectar. Breeding throughout its range, the red wattlebird builds a cup-shaped nest in a tree and raises one or two broods a year. Although it has declined in places from [[land clearing|land-clearing]], it is classified as [[Least Concern]] on the [[IUCN Red List]].

==Taxonomy==
The red wattlebird was first described as the wattled bee-eater by the Irish surgeon and naturalist [[John White (surgeon)|John White]] in his ''Journal of a Voyage to New South Wales'', which was published in 1790.<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" /> He wrote that it was the "size of a [[Mistle thrush|missel thrush]], but much larger in proportion".{{sfn|White|1790|p=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/47182685 144]}} The taxonomic descriptions in White's book are believed to have been written by the English naturalist [[George Shaw (biologist)|George Shaw]],{{sfn|White|1790|p=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/47182825 240]}}<ref>{{ cite journal | last=Nelson | first=E. Charles | year=1998 | title=John White A.M., M.D., F.LS. (c. 1756–1832), Surgeon-General of New South Wales: a new biography of the messenger of the echidna and waratah | journal=Archives of Natural History | volume=25 | issue=2 | pages=149–211 | doi=10.3366/anh.1998.25.2.149 }}</ref> who is generally credited as the author by subsequent authorities.<ref name="AFD">{{cite web|url=https://biodiversity.org.au/afd/taxa/Anthochaera_%28Anthochaera%29_carunculata  |title=Subspecies ''Anthochaera (Anthochaera) carunculata carunculata'' (Shaw, 1790) |author=Australian Biological Resources Study|date=30 August 2011|work=Australian Faunal Directory|publisher=Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian Government|access-date=24 January 2017|location=Canberra, Australian Capital Territory}}</ref><ref name="ioclist">{{cite web |title=IOC World Bird List |version=7.1 |editor-last1=Gill |editor-first1=Frank |editor-last2=Donsker |editor-first2=David |publisher=International Ornithologists' Union |date=11 January 2017 |access-date=24 January 2017|url=http://www.worldbirdnames.org/}}</ref> The [[specific epithet (zoology)|specific epithet]], ''carunculata'', was introduced later in the same year by [[John Latham (ornithologist)|John Latham]].{{sfn|Salomonsen|1967|pp=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/14482563 446–447]}}{{sfn|Latham|1790|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QV5UAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA276 276]}} The word is derived from ''caruncula'', Latin for 'a small piece of flesh'.{{sfn|Jobling|2010|p=[https://archive.org/stream/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling#page/n92/mode/1up 92]}} Both Shaw and Latham assigned the red wattlebird to the genus ''[[Merops (genus)|Merops]]''. The species was moved to ''[[Anthochaera]]'' in 1827 by the naturalists [[Nicholas Aylward Vigors]] and [[Thomas Horsfield]].{{sfn|Vigors|Horsfield|1827|pp=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/778569 320–321]}}{{sfn|Salomonsen|1967|pp=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/14482561 444–445]}} The generic name derives from the Ancient Greek ''anthos'' 'flower, bloom' and ''khairō'' 'enjoy'.{{sfn|Jobling|2010|p=[https://archive.org/stream/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling#page/n49/mode/1up 49]}}

Common names include gillbird,<ref name=gilbert23/> gilly warbler, barkingbird, muttonbird, butcherbird, what's o clock, and chock.{{sfn|Higgins|2001|p=463}} Unlike many species in southwestern Australia, the red wattlebird was given names by the local indigenous people that were [[onomatopoeic]] (sounding like the calls they make). Names recorded include ''wodjalok'', ''durdal'', ''doongorok'', and ''djoongong'' (this last name is also applied to the [[western wattlebird]]).<ref>{{cite journal|last=Abbott | first=Ian | title=Aboriginal names of bird species in south-west Western Australia, with suggestions for their adoption into common usage |year= 2009 |journal= Conservation Science Western Australia Journal |volume= 7 |issue=2 |pages=213–78 [262] |url=http://www.dpaw.wa.gov.au/images/documents/about/science/cswa/articles/14.pdf}}</ref> In the [[Eyre Peninsula]] in South Australia, the local [[Barngarla people]] knew it as ''ngarkarko'' or ''ngarkabukko''.<ref>{{cite book | page=45 | url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=pst.000008917164&view=1up&seq=92 | title=A vocabulary of the Parnkalla language spoken by the natives inhabiting the western shores of Spencer's Gulf : to which is prefixed a collection of grammatical rules hitherto ascertained | last=Schürmann | first=Clamor Wilhelm | year=1844 | location=Adelaide, South Australia | publisher=George Dehane }}</ref> The local people of [[Denial Bay]] in South Australia called it ''noggal'',<ref>{{cite journal | last=Sullivan | first=Charles | year=1929 | url=http://www.birdssa.asn.au/images/saopdfs/Volume9/1928V09P164.pdf | title=Bird Notes from the West Coast | journal=South Australian Ornithologist | volume=9 | pages=164–69}}</ref> and the [[Ngarrindjeri]] people of the Lower Murray region in South Australia knew it as ''rungkan''.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Clarke|first=P.A.|date=2003|title=Twentieth Century Aboriginal Harvesting Practices in the Rural Landscape of the Lower Murray, South Australia|journal=Records of the South Australian Museum|volume=36|issue=1|pages=83–107|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/276207140}}</ref>

There are three recognised [[subspecies]],<ref name=ioc>{{cite web| editor1-last=Gill | editor1-first=Frank | editor2-last=Donsker | editor2-first=David | title=Honeyeaters | work= World Bird List Version 5.4 | url= http://www.worldbirdnames.org/bow/honeyeaters/ | publisher=International Ornithologists' Union| access-date= 26 December 2015 }}</ref> though there is a zone of intermediate birds across western [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] and eastern [[South Australia]], bordered by western [[Port Phillip Bay]] to the east, [[Mount Lofty Ranges]] to the west, and [[Little Desert National Park|Little]] and [[Big Desert Wilderness Park|Big Desert]] national parks to the north.{{sfn|Higgins|2001|p=478}} The differences in plumage are not generally prominent enough to be noticeable in the field.{{sfn|Higgins|2001|p=463}}

* ''A. c. carunculata'' (Shaw, 1790) – found in southeast Australia, namely Victoria, eastern [[New South Wales]], and southeastern [[Queensland]].{{sfn|Higgins|2001|p=478}} 
* ''A. c. clelandi'' ([[Gregory Mathews|Mathews]], 1923) – [[Kangaroo Island]] (South Australia). Of a similar size to the [[nominate subspecies]], it tends to have darker plumage, a longer bill, and shorter tarsus.{{sfn|Higgins|2001|p=479}} 
* ''A. c. woodwardi'' Mathews, 1912 – southwest and south-central Australia, west of the Mount Lofty Ranges. This subspecies is a little smaller than the nominate subspecies and has shorter wings. Its plumage is similar, though the yellow patch on the belly is more prominent.{{sfn|Higgins|2001|p=478}}

Analysis of [[DNA]] showed that the closest relative of the red wattlebird is the [[yellow wattlebird]] of [[Tasmania]], the pair splitting from the ancestor of the [[regent honeyeater]]—their next closest relative.<ref>{{cite journal| last1=Driskell | first1=Amy C.| last2=Christidis | first2=Les |author2-link=Leslie Christidis|year=2004|title=Phylogeny and evolution of the Australo-Papuan honeyeaters (Passeriformes, Meliphagidae)|journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|pmid=15120392|volume=31|issue=3|pages=943–60|doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2003.10.017| bibcode=2004MolPE..31..943D}}</ref> Honeyeaters are related to the [[Pardalotidae]] (pardalotes), [[Acanthizidae]] (Australian warblers, scrubwrens, thornbills, etc.), and [[Maluridae]] (Australian fairy-wrens) in the large superfamily [[Meliphagoidea]].<ref>{{cite journal| last1=Barker | first1=F. Keith | last2=Cibois | first2=Alice | last3=Schikler | first3=Peter | last4=Feinstein | first4=Julie | last5=Cracraft | first5=Joel |year=2004|title=Phylogeny and diversification of the largest avian radiation|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=101|issue=30 |pages=11040–45|doi=10.1073/pnas.0401892101|pmid=15263073|pmc=503738| bibcode=2004PNAS..10111040B | doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Description==
[[File:Anthochaera carunculata -Canberra, Australia-8.jpg|thumb|right|At a bird bath in Canberra, with wattles easily visible|alt=A brownish bird stooped over a bird bath]]
The sexes of the red wattlebird are similar in size and [[plumage]], the length of the adult male ranging from {{convert|33|to|37|cm|in}} and the adult female from {{convert|34|to|37|cm|in}}.{{sfn|Higgins|2001|p=463}} With an average weight of {{convert|100-120|g|oz}},{{sfn|Higgins|2001|p=478}} the red wattlebird is one of the largest nectar-feeding birds in the world,<ref name=paton77>{{ cite journal | last1=Paton | first1=David C. | last2=Ford | first2=Hugh A. | year=1977 | title=Pollination by birds of native plants in South Australia | journal=Emu | volume=77 | issue=2 | pages=73–85 | doi=10.1071/MU9770073 | bibcode=1977EmuAO..77...73P }}</ref> and the second largest species of honeyeater native to Australia, eclipsed only by the yellow wattlebird.<ref name=BiB/> The [[Crown (anatomy)|crown]], forehead and upper [[Lore (anatomy)|lores]] (area between the eyes and nostrils) are dark brown, streaked with pale brown at the front of the crown and white at the rear of the crown. The [[nape]] (back of the neck) is slightly paler brown, with white streaks. A whitish triangular marking covers the lower lores and anterior ear [[covert feather]]s, bordered below by a dark brown stripe from the lower mandible down to the wattle and around to behind the eye. The throat is dark brown streaked with white.{{sfn|Higgins|2001|p=476}} The [[Iris (anatomy)|iris]] of the eye is orange-red to crimson.{{sfn|Higgins|2001|p=477}} The distinctive pinkish-red [[Wattle (anatomy)|wattles]] dangle from the lower rear corner of the ear coverts on either side of the neck, and there is a sliver of pink bare skin at the lower border of the white patch on the face.{{sfn|Higgins|2001|p=463}} The chest and belly are streaked white, and there is a bright yellow patch towards the tail.<ref name=hbwalive/> The strong legs and feet are pink or pinkish-brown, and the downward-curving bill is black.{{sfn|Higgins|2001|pp=463, 469}} The average dimensions of the bill are {{convert|23.5|mm|in}} long, {{convert|6.7|mm|in}} wide, and {{convert|6.8|mm|in|}} high at its base.<ref name=paton77/> The [[Beak#Gape|gape]] is grey-black, while the inside of the mouth is orange.{{sfn|Higgins|2001|p=463}} In common with other honeyeaters, the red wattlebird has a long, specialized tongue to extract nectar from flowers.{{sfn|Ford|2001|p=457}} The tongue can extend well beyond the tip of the bill, and is divided at the end to form a brush-like structure with over a hundred bristles that soak up nectar by capillary action.{{sfn|Higgins|2001|p=469}}

The red wattlebird begins [[moulting]] after the breeding season, starting with the [[Flight feather#Primaries|primary flight feathers]] in November or December, and finishing between the following March and May. The feathers of the breast, back, median and lesser covert feathers are moulted before those of the crown, [[Flight feather#Remiges|remiges]], and [[Flight feather#Rectrices|rectrices]].{{sfn|Higgins|2001|p=477}}

Immature red wattlebirds are generally less flamboyant.<ref name=hbwalive>{{cite book| last1=Higgins | first1=P. | last2=Christidis | first2=Les | last3=Ford | first3=Hugh A. | year=2020 | chapter=Red Wattlebird (''Anthochaera carunculata'') | editor1-last=del Hoyo | editor1-first=J. | editor2-last=Elliott | editor2-first=A. | editor3-last=Sargatal | editor3-first=J. | editor4-last=Christie | editor4-first=D.A. | editor5-last=de Juana | editor5-first=E. | title=Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive | publisher=Lynx Edicions | doi=10.2173/bow.redwat1.01 | s2cid=216251179 | chapter-url=http://www.hbw.com/node/60325  }}</ref> Juveniles have much less prominent wattles, brown irises, a pale crown, and much less yellow on the belly. They moult into first immature plumage within a few months of leaving the nest. First immature birds are more similar to adults overall, having red irises with brown rings, wattles larger but still smaller than adults, and a greyish pink gape.{{sfn|Higgins|2001|p=478}}

The red wattlebird is hard to confuse with any other species, though in poor visibility it might be mistaken for the [[spiny-cheeked honeyeater]], or [[little wattlebird|little]] or western wattlebirds.{{sfn|Higgins|2001|p=463}}

[[File:Red wattlebird - 3.jpg|thumb|Red wattlebird]]
===Call===
Red wattlebirds are noisy animals, producing a range of raucous calls. Pairs of birds appear to duet, particularly at food sources, with the male producing a loud cackle and the female a whistling call.<ref name=hbwalive/> The male's cackle is loudest between 1&nbsp;and 3&nbsp;kHz frequency. A guttural-sounding call, it has been variously described as having a squawking, coughing or hiccuping sound. Males cackle when foraging by themselves, when with other birds, or when declaring their territory to other birds. The whistling call consists of up to five rapid whistles that may or may not ascend in tone, and are repeated 3–4 times.{{sfn|Higgins|2001|p=473-74}} Both sexes commonly utter a single ''chock'' note that may be harsh and guttural or have 4–5 [[harmonic]]s. This is thought to be a [[contact call]].{{sfn|Higgins|2001|p=474}} These calls all carry over long distances.<ref name=jurisevic94b>{{cite journal | title=The vocal repertoires of six honeyeater (Meliphagidae) species from Adelaide, South Australia | last1=Jurisevic | first1=Mark A. | last2=Sanderson | first2=Ken J. | year=1994 |journal=Emu |volume=94|issue=3| pages=141–48 | doi=10.1071/MU9940141| bibcode=1994EmuAO..94..141J }}</ref>

Red wattlebirds utter two types of alarm calls, alternating between them while [[Mobbing (animal behavior)|mobbing]] other animals. One is a harsh call over a wide frequency (1.3 to 5.9&nbsp;kHz) that is louder at lower frequencies. The other is a lower-pitched [[staccato]] call with a frequency of 1.1–2.2&nbsp;kHz.<ref name=jurisevic94b/> They give a harsh call when trying to distract intruders from the vicinity of the nest or when picked up, often trying to flap or peck the handler.{{sfn|Higgins|2001|p=474}}

==Distribution and habitat==
[[File:Red wattlebird feeding off Grey Box flowers.jpg|thumb|right|Adult feeding on grey box (''[[Eucalyptus microcarpa]]'') flowers|alt=A brownish bird feeding on flowers in a tree]]
The red wattlebird is found in southeast Queensland, where it occurs south of [[Shire of Noosa|Noosa]] and [[Cooloola, Queensland|Cooloola]], becoming more common south of Brisbane and [[Toowoomba]]. Further south into New South Wales it is found most places east of (and including) the [[Great Dividing Range]] and stretching west to the southern North-West Plain, Central Western Slopes and eastern [[Riverina]], and is an occasional visitor to points along the Murray River valley. It is found across Victoria, though is uncommon in the northwest of the state. In South Australia, Devonborough Downs Station, Manunda, [[Wilpena Pound]] and Nullarbor Station mark the northern limits of its range. There are scattered records from the [[Nullarbor Plain]], but the species is common in [[Western Australia]] west of  125&nbsp;°E and south of 29&nbsp;°S.{{sfn|Higgins|2001|p=464}} The yellow wattlebird replaces it in Tasmania.<ref name=BiB>{{cite web| url=http://www.birdsinbackyards.net/species/Anthochaera-carunculata | title=Red Wattlebird | work=Birds in Backyards |access-date=25 December 2016 | publisher=Birdlife Australia}}</ref> The red wattlebird has become more common in some localities, such as the [[Sunraysia]] district in the 1960s, and [[Nambucca Heads, New South Wales|Nambucca Heads]] and [[Lefevre Peninsula]] in the 1980s.{{sfn|Higgins|2001|p=464}} Breeding numbers have increased in Sydney and Adelaide.{{sfn|Higgins|2001|p=465}} The red wattlebird is a rare [[Vagrancy (biology)|vagrant]] to New Zealand, with confirmed records at [[Matakana]] in 1865 and Rohutu, [[Taranaki]], in 1885, and a third unconfirmed report from [[Motupiko River|Motupiko]] in 1938.{{sfn|Higgins|2001|p=464}}

The red wattlebird appears to be a permanent resident in much of its range, though its movements are poorly known. It appears to be partly migratory in Western Australia and the north coast of New South Wales. In southeastern New South Wales and the [[Australian Capital Territory]], it appears to move to lower altitudes for winter.{{sfn|Higgins|2001|p=466}} For instance, birds vacate the [[Brindabella Range]] over the cooler months.<ref name="Keast 1968a"/> Overall, little pattern is discernible in the species' movements, though red wattlebirds appear to move to feed on populations of flowering [[banksias]] and [[eucalypts]], such as winter-flowering banksias in Perth over the cooler months.{{sfn|Higgins|2001|p=466}} Large numbers arrive in  time to feed on flowering native apples (''[[Angophora]]'') in Mudgee and Cobbora districts in central-western New South Wales, and on white box (''[[Eucalyptus albens]]'') at [[Barrington, New South Wales|Barrington]] in central-northern New South Wales.<ref name="Keast 1968a"/> A mainly resident population on the [[Swan Coastal Plain]] near Perth is supplemented during winter by more arriving from inland areas. South of Perth, red wattlebirds are more locally nomadic, moving to new patches of blooming wildflowers. East of Perth in areas around [[Kellerberrin, Western Australia|Kellerberin]], [[Kwolyin, Western Australia|Kwolyin]], and [[Nangeenan, Western Australia|Nangeenan]], the red wattlebird is present from late autumn to spring, breeding in August and September. Around [[Lake Grace]], the red wattlebird is present year-round.<ref name="Keast 1968a">{{cite journal|last=Keast|first=Allen|date=1968|title=Seasonal movements in the Australian honeyeaters (Meliphagidae) and their ecological significance|journal=Emu|volume=67|issue=3|pages=159–209|doi=10.1071/MU967159|bibcode=1968EmuAO..67..159K }}</ref><!-- cites prev 4 sentences -->

Open [[sclerophyll]] forest and woodland, generally dominated by eucalypts, is the most common habitat of the species. It is more common in forests with ample shrubby or grassy [[understory]]. It is less commonly encountered in [[shrubland]], [[heath]], or margins of wet sclerophyll forest. It is rarely found in mature pine [[plantation]]s. Within urban areas, it is abundant in parks and reserves, gardens and golf courses, as well as orchards and vineyards. It occasionally ventures into [[Subtropics|subtropical]], [[Semi-arid climate|semi-arid]] or [[Montane ecosystems#Subalpine zone|subalpine]] regions, and has been found up to {{convert|1900|m|ft|abbr=on|sigfig=1}} above sea level.{{sfn|Higgins|2001|p=464}}<!-- cites para --> The red wattlebird is rarer in forests that have been affected by dieback (infection by the pathogen ''[[Phytophthora cinnamomi]]'').<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ford|first1= Hugh A.|last2= Bell|first2= Harry|date=1981|title=Density of birds in Eucalypt woodland affected to varying degrees by dieback|journal=Emu|volume=81|issue=4|pages=202–08|doi=10.1071/MU9810202|bibcode= 1981EmuAO..81..202F}}</ref>

==Behaviour==
A loud and active bird, the red wattlebird is found in pairs, in a small family group, or alone during the breeding season, and gathers in larger groups of up to several hundred birds over winter. It flies straight or with a slightly undulating pattern, alternating between gliding and flapping its wings with quick shallow beats, at or slightly above the level of the tree canopy.{{sfn|Higgins|2001|p=463-64}} The red wattlebird moves on the ground by hopping, cocking its tail upwards slightly.{{sfn|Higgins|2001|p=463}}

Aggressive and territorial, the red wattlebird defends its nest and sources of food against other birds. It either calls at, snaps at the tails of, or flies at other birds, sometimes scuffling with members of the same species or other large honeyeaters in the air.{{sfn|Higgins|2001|p=471-72}} ''Displacement'' is a dominant display in which a red wattlebird will land on a perch that has been immediately vacated by another bird. A smaller red wattlebird adopts a horizontal ''appeasement posture'' side-on to the aggressor in which it lowers its head, flutters its wings and edges closer to the other bird.{{sfn|Higgins|2001|p=472}}  
 
As well as smaller bird species, red wattlebirds can mob and chase larger species, such as the [[Australian magpie]] (''Gymnorhina tibicen''), [[butcherbird]]s, [[currawong]]s, the [[black-faced cuckooshrike]] (''Coracina novaehollandiae''), the [[olive-backed oriole]] (''Oriolus sagittatus''), crows, ravens, the [[laughing kookaburra]] (''Dacelo novaeguineae''), and even small raptors like the [[collared sparrowhawk]] (''Accipiter cirrocephalus'').{{sfn|Higgins|2001|p=472-73}}

===Breeding===
[[File:Red Wattlebird chick.jpg|thumb|right|Chick, Victoria|alt=A baby bird on a branch]]
The red wattlebird breeds throughout its range, with nesting taking place between July and December, though occasionally outside these months, if conditions are favourable. One or two broods are laid each year.{{sfn|Beruldsen|2003|pp=319–20}}

Red wattlebirds generally nest as solitary pairs.{{sfn|Higgins|2001|p=474}} The nest is a cup-shaped structure formed from sticks and leaves, lined with bark, grass, and hair,{{sfn|Beruldsen|2003|pp=319–20}} between {{convert|2|and|16|m|ft|sigfig=1}} above ground, usually in the forked branches of a tree—generally a eucalypt.{{sfn|Beruldsen|2003|pp=319–20}} The nest is usually located centrally rather than on the periphery of a tree.<ref name=ford99>{{cite journal | title=Nest site selection and breeding success in large Australian honeyeaters: Are there benefits from being different? | last=Ford | first=Hugh A. |journal=Emu |year= 1999 |volume=99|issue=2| pages=91–99 | doi=10.1071/MU99012 | bibcode=1999EmuAO..99...91F }}</ref> A study in Eastwood State Forest, near [[Armidale, New South Wales|Armidale]] in New South Wales, found that red wattlebirds preferred to nest in manna gum (''[[Eucalyptus viminalis]]'') and apple box (''[[Eucalyptus bridgesiana|E. bridgesiana]]'').<ref name=ford99/>

A clutch of two or three pale brown- and lavender-spotted pinkish eggs are normally laid. They measure {{convert|33|x|22|mm|in|abbr=on|frac=8}}, and are a tapered oval in shape.{{sfn|Beruldsen|2003|pp=319–20}} The eggs are normally incubated by both parents, but sometimes just by the female. They hatch after 16–21 days.<ref name=hbwalive/> The chicks are born almost naked, with a small amount of grey down on their head and body.{{sfn|Higgins|2001|pp=475–76}} They are mostly brooded by the female, but sometimes the male will also brood. The nestlings are fed by both parents, and occasionally immature birds will contribute. Their eyes open at around 7 days.{{sfn|Higgins|2001|p=475}} They fledge 15–20 days after hatching, and both parents continue to feed them for a further 2–3 weeks.<ref name=hbwalive/> Young are given manna (crystallised plant [[sap]]) and insects, such as beetles, bugs, and flies.{{sfn|Higgins|2001|p=470}}

===Feeding===
{| style="float:right;"
|-
|[[File:Bibralake gnangarra-102.JPG| thumb|right|Subspecies ''woodwardii'' feeding on eucalypt in Perth|alt=A bird feeding on flowers in a tree]]
|-
|[[File:Red Wattlebird Nov09.jpg|thumb|right|Subspecies ''carunculata'' feeding on exotic flowers in Melbourne|alt=A bird feeding on flowers on a branch]]
|}

The red wattlebird is predominantly a nectar-feeder,{{sfn|Higgins|2001|p=467}} foraging mostly in trees; in particular, climbing along branches (rather than the trunk) and probing flower-heads with its bill.{{sfn|Higgins|2001|p=468}} One study in Bondi State Forest in southern New South Wales revealed that the species foraged at a height of {{convert|5.9 ± 5.8|m|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite journal| last1=Recher | first1=H.F. | last2=Holmes | first2= R.T. | last3=Schulz | first3=M. | last4=Shields | first4=J. | last5=Kavanagh | first5=R. | year=1985 | title=Foraging patterns of breeding birds in eucalypt forest and woodland of southeastern Australia|journal=Australian Journal of Ecology|volume=10|issue=4|pages=399–419 | issn=0307-692X | doi=10.1111/j.1442-9993.1985.tb00902.x}}</ref> They seldom look for food on the ground, though do so to feed on shrubs such as the cats paw (''[[Anigozanthos humilis]]'').<ref name=hopper78>{{ cite journal | last1=Hopper | first1=Stephen D. | last2=Burbidge | first2=Allan H. | year=1978 | title=Assortative pollination by Red Wattlebirds in a hybrid population of ''Anigozanthos'' Labill | journal=Australian Journal of Botany | volume=26 | issue=3 | pages=335–50 | doi=10.1071/BT9780335 }}</ref> The red wattlebird prioritises visiting flowers that produce a lot of nectar, such as those of eucalypts, banksias, grasstrees (''[[Xanthorrhoea]]''), and emu bushes (''[[Eremophila (plant)|Eremophila]]'').{{sfn|Higgins|2001|p=468}} It often prefers plants with easy access to nectar, rather than those with tubular flowers (and thus difficult-to-access nectar).<ref name=paton77/> The red wattlebird seeks out yellow flower-heads of holly-leaved banksia (''[[Banksia ilicifolia]]''), which have much higher nectar content than the more mature red flower-heads.<ref>{{cite journal| last1=Lamont| first1=Byron B.| last2=Collins | first2=Brian G. | year=1988|title=Flower colour change in ''Banksia ilicifolia'': a signal for pollinators|journal=Austral Ecology|volume=13|issue=2|pages=129–35|doi=10.1111/j.1442-9993.1988.tb00962.x}}</ref> The species forages much more often in native than [[Introduced species|exotic]] plants,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Green|first=Ronda J.|date=1984|title=Native and exotic birds in a suburban habitat|journal=Australian Wildlife Research|volume=11|issue=1|pages=181–90|doi=10.1071/WR9840181}}</ref> though the introduced coral tree (''[[Erythrina]]'') is popular.<ref name="Keast 1968a"/> In addition to nectar, it takes insects and other small creatures, usually by [[hawking (birds)|hawking]], and it also feeds on [[berry|berries]] and other fruit.<ref name=hbwalive/> A field study in the Mount Lofty Ranges found that it spent twice as much time feeding on nectar compared to insects.<ref name="Ford and Paton 77">{{cite journal|last1=Ford|first1=Hugh A.|last2=Paton|first2=David C.|title=The comparative ecology of ten species of honeyeaters in South Australia|journal=Australian Journal of Ecology|date=1977|volume=4|issue=2|pages=399–407|doi=10.1111/j.1442-9993.1977.tb01155.x|bibcode=1977AusEc...2..399F }}</ref>

One field study found that red wattlebirds foraged for longer periods when nectar concentrations in flowers were low, and consumed fewer insects at this time. However, this could have been because the temperature was lower and hence insects were less active.<ref name="McFarland 1986">{{cite journal|last=McFarland|first=David C.|date=1986|title=The organization of a honeyeater community in an unpredictable environment|journal=Australian Journal of Ecology|volume=11|issue=2|pages=107–20|doi=10.1111/j.1442-9993.1986.tb01382.x}}</ref> In [[Gingin, Western Australia]], 97% of red wattlebirds at a site of two mixed kangaroo paw species were observed feeding on a single species at its peak flowering: cats paw in August and red-and-green kangaroo paw (''[[Anigozanthos manglesii|A. manglesii]]'') in September, with very few visits to the other species or hybrids.<ref name=hopper78/>

In central New South Wales, the red wattlebird forages more often on the foliage of the grey gum (''[[Eucalyptus punctata]]'') over other trees, though it does also show some preference for narrow-leaved ironbark (''[[Eucalyptus crebra|E. crebra]]''), if grey gum is not present. Red wattlebirds tend to oust [[noisy friarbird]]s (''Philemon corniculatus'') where both species are present.<ref>{{cite journal | title=Selective foliage foraging by Red Wattlebirds, ''Anthochaera carunculata'', and Noisy Friarbirds, ''Philemon corniculatus''  | last1=Saunders | first1=Anthony S. J. | last2=Burgin | first2=Shelley | journal=Emu |year= 2001 |volume=101|issue=2|pages=163–66 | doi=10.1071/MU00007| bibcode=2001EmuAO.101..163S | s2cid=82157738 }}</ref> The red wattlebird often forages alongside the [[New Holland honeyeater]] (''Phylidonyris novaehollandiae''), [[little friarbird]] (''P. citreogularis''), western and little wattlebirds, [[rainbow lorikeet]] (''Trichoglossus moluccanus''), [[purple-crowned lorikeet]] (''Glossopsitta porphyrocephala''), [[satin bowerbird]] (''Ptilonorhynchus violaceus''), [[pied currawong]] (''Strepera graculina''), and [[crimson rosella]] (''Platycercus elegans''), though they generally chase other nectar-feeding birds away from a horde of eucalypt flowers.{{sfn|Higgins|2001|p=467}}

A field study, conducted in winter 1978 on Kangaroo Island, found red wattlebirds to be territorial around a rich source of nectar, namely a large cup gum (''[[Eucalyptus cosmophylla]]''), driving off smaller honeyeaters. This indicated that the species would exclude other species, if food was scarce.<ref name="Ford and Paton 76">{{cite journal|last1=Ford|first1=Hugh A.|last2=Paton|first2=David C.|title=Resource partitioning and competition in honeyeaters of the genus ''Meliphaga''|journal=Australian Journal of Ecology|date=1976|volume=1|issue=4|pages=281–87|doi=10.1111/j.1442-9993.1976.tb01118.x|bibcode=1976AusEc...1..281F }}</ref> In New England National Park, red wattlebirds would be more aggressive when there were moderate amounts of nectar in groves of flowering banksias, but were less so at lean or abundant times.<ref name="McFarland 1986"/>

The red wattlebird has a brush-tipped tongue, with a  {{convert|17|mm|in|abbr=on|frac=8}} long segment bearing around 120 individual bristles. It feeds by placing the bill in a flower and inserting the tongue into its nectar chamber, drawing the nectar up by capillary action. The bristles increase the surface area of the tongue available for the uptake of nectar.<ref>{{ cite journal | last1=Paton | first1=D.C. | last2=Collins | first2=B.G. | year=1989 | title=Bills and tongues of nectar-feeding birds: A review of morphology, function and performance, with intercontinental comparisons | journal=Australian Journal of Ecology | volume=14 | issue=4 | pages=473–506 | doi=10.1111/j.1442-9993.1989.tb01457.x }}</ref>

==Predators and parasites==
The nests of red wattlebirds are often [[Brood parasite|parasitized]] by the [[pallid cuckoo]] (''Cacomantis pallidus''), and less commonly by the [[Pacific koel]] (''Eudynamys orientalis''). Nest predators include the [[brown goshawk]] (''Accipiter fasciatus''), [[black falcon]] (''Falco subniger''), [[pied currawong]] (''Strepera graculina''), [[Australian raven]] (''Corvus coronoides''), [[common brushtail possum]] (''Trichosurus vulpecula''), domestic cat, and snakes.{{sfn|Higgins|2001|p=476}}

''[[Isospora]] anthochaerae'' is an [[Apicomplexa]]n parasite that has been isolated from the red wattlebird in Western Australia, from [[oocyte]]s collected from faecal samples.<ref>{{cite journal | title=''Isospora anthochaerae'' n. sp. (Apicomplexa: Eimeriidae) from a Red wattlebird (''Anthochaera carunculata'') (Passeriformes: Meliphagidae) in Western Australia | journal = Experimental Parasitology | volume = 140 |year= 2014 |pages= 1–7 | url=http://researchrepository.murdoch.edu.au/21821/1/isospora_anthochaerae_n._sp.pdf | last1=Yang | first1=Rongchang | last2=Brice | first2=Belinda | last3=Ryan | first3=Una | doi=10.1016/j.exppara.2014.02.011 | pmid = 24602873 }}</ref> Species of [[bird louse]] that have been recorded on the red wattlebird include ''[[Menacanthus]]'' eurysternus, and members of the genera ''[[Brueelia]]'', ''Myrsidea'' and ''Philopterus''.<ref>{{cite journal | title=Lice (Insecta: Phthiraptera) from some Australian birds | last1=Stranger | first1=R.H. | last2=Palma | first2=R.L. | journal=Records of the Western Australian Museum | volume= 19 |year=1998|pages= 169–86|url=http://museum.wa.gov.au/sites/default/files/LICE%20(INSECTA%20PHTHIRAPTERA)%20FROM%20SOME%20AUSTRALIAN%20BIRDS.pdf}}</ref>

==Interactions with people==
Red wattlebirds are adversely impacted by land and [[undergrowth]] clearing, and have vanished from some habitats thus altered.{{sfn|Higgins|2001|p=465}} Despite this, they are classified as [[Least Concern]] on the [[IUCN Red List]], as they occur over a wide range, have a large population, and the population decline is not rapid.<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" /> Red wattlebirds are regularly killed by cats and dogs, as well as being hit by cars on roads.{{sfn|Higgins|2001|p=465}} In 1924 in northern Victoria, the red wattlebird was described as very wary, on account of being highly regarded (and shot) for its meat.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Leach|first=Hugh A.C.|date=1928|title=The birds of Central Northern Victoria|journal=Emu|volume=28|issue=2|pages=83–99| doi=10.1071/MU928083|bibcode=1928EmuAO..28...83L |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/398471 }}</ref> Indeed, it was shot widely for food or sport,<ref name=gilbert23>{{cite journal|last=Gilbert|first=P.A.|date=1928|title=Notes on Honeyeaters|journal=Emu|volume=23|issue=2|pages=109–18| doi=10.1071/MU923109}}</ref> or because it was held to be a pest of vineyards or orchards.{{sfn|Higgins|2001|p=465}} On occasion, red wattlebirds have raided vineyards and orchards for grapes, stone fruit, figs, olives, [[loquat]]s, apples, pears, and berries, which they puncture and extract the juice or flesh from.<ref>{{ cite web | work=Managing bird damage to fruit and other horticultural crops | title= Fact Sheets for Breeders | url=http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0010/193744/managing_bird_damage-4.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160616230000/http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0010/193744/managing_bird_damage-4.pdf | archive-date=16 June 2016 | page=167 | publisher=New South Wales Government | author= Department of Primary Industries (Agriculture) | access-date=12 July 2016}}</ref>

The red wattlebird has been kept as an aviary bird in Sydney. It is not difficult to look after, but can be very aggressive to other cage birds. [[Grevillea 'Robyn Gordon'|''Grevillea'' 'Robyn Gordon']] is a useful companion shrub as it bears flowers all year round.{{sfn|Shephard|1989|p=241}}<!-- cites previous two sentences -->

==References==
{{Reflist| 30em}}

==Cited texts==
* {{cite book | last=Beruldsen | first=Gordon | author-link=Gordon Beruldsen | year=2003 | title=Australian Birds: Their Nests and Eggs  | publisher=self-published  | location=Kenmore Hills, Queensland  | isbn=978-0-646-42798-0 }}
* {{cite book | last=Ford | first=Hugh A. | year=2001 | chapter=Family Meliphagidae honeyeaters and Australian chats | title=Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Volume 5: Tyrant-flycatchers to Chats| editor1-last=Higgins | editor1-first=Peter J. | editor2-last=Peter | editor2-first=Jeffrey M. | editor3-last=Steele | editor3-first=W.K. | publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Melbourne |isbn=978-0-19-553258-6 | chapter-url=http://nzbirdsonline.org.nz/sites/all/files/317_Red%20Wattlebird_0.pdf#6 | pages=457–61 | title-link=Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds }}
* {{cite book |title=Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Volume 5: Tyrant-flycatchers to Chats|editor=Higgins, Peter J.|editor2=Peter, Jeffrey M.|editor3=Steele, W. K. |year=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Melbourne |isbn=978-0-19-553258-6  | chapter=''Anthochaera carunculata'' Red Wattlebird | chapter-url=http://nzbirdsonline.org.nz/sites/all/files/317_Red%20Wattlebird_0.pdf | pages=463–81 | ref={{sfnRef|Higgins|2001}} |title-link=Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds}}
* {{cite book | last= Jobling | first= James A. | year= 2010| title=The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names | url= https://archive.org/details/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling | publisher=Christopher Helm | location=London |  isbn=978-1-4081-2501-4 }}
* {{cite book| last= Latham | first= John | year=1790 | title= Index Ornithologicus, Sive Systema Ornithologiae: Complectens Avium Divisionem In Classes, Ordines, Genera, Species, Ipsarumque Varietates (Volume 1) | language=la | place=London | publisher= Leigh & Sotheby | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QV5UAAAAcAAJ&pg=PT6 }}
* {{ cite book | last=Salomonsen | first=F. | year=1967 | chapter=Family Meliphagidae, Honeyeaters | editor-last=Paynter | editor1-first=R.A. Jnr. | title=Check-list of birds of the world (Volume 12) | volume=12 | place=Cambridge, Mass. | publisher=Museum of Comparative Zoology | pages=338–450  | chapter-url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/14482455 }}
* {{cite book |last=Shephard|first=Mark |title=Aviculture in Australia: Keeping and Breeding Aviary Birds |year=1989 |publisher=Black Cockatoo Press |location=Prahran, Victoria |isbn=978-0-9588106-0-9 }}
* {{ cite journal | last1=Vigors | first1=N.A. | author1-link=Nicholas Aylward Vigors | last2=Horsfield  | first2=T. | author2-link=Thomas Horsfield | year=1827 | title=A description of the Australian birds in the collection of the Linnean Society; with an attempt at arranging them according to their natural affinities (Part 1) | journal=Transactions of the Linnean Society of London | volume=15 | issue=1 | pages=170–331 | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/778416 | doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.1826.tb00115.x}} The title page of the issue has the year 1826.
* {{cite book | last=White | first=John | year=1790  |title=Journal of a Voyage to New South Wales with Sixty-five Plates of Non-descript Animals, Birds, Lizards, Serpents, Curious Cones of Trees and Other Natural Productions | volume=1790 | place=London | publisher=J. Debrett  | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/47182587 }}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Anthochaera carunculata}}
{{Wikispecies|Anthochaera carunculata}}
* [http://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/ObjectDetails.aspx?oid=537779 Holotype of the red wattlebird ''Anthochaera carunculata'' in the collection of the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa]
* [http://ibc.lynxeds.com/species/red-wattlebird-anthochaera-carunculata Internet Bird Collection: videos, photos and sound recordings of the red wattlebird]
* [http://www.xeno-canto.org/species/Anthochaera-carunculata Xeno-canto: Sound recordings of the red wattlebird]

{{Taxonbar|from=Q607540}}

[[Category:Anthochaera|red wattlebird]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1790|red wattlebird]]
[[Category:Birds of New South Wales]]
[[Category:Birds of Victoria (state)]]
[[Category:Birds of South Australia]]
[[Category:Birds of Western Australia]]
[[Category:Endemic birds of Australia]]
[[Category:Taxa named by George Shaw]]