Editing Religious antisemitism

{{Short description|Hatred of Jews due to religious reasons}} <!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see [[WP:SDNONE]] -->
{{for multi|total or partial opposition to Judaism and Jews as a religious group|Anti-Judaism|the scholarly criticism of Judaism|Criticism of Judaism|discrimination against Jews|Antisemitism|persecution of Jews|Persecution of Jews}}
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|<!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:Iudaism bez prikras 63-7.gif|right|thumb|An example of state-sponsored atheist anti-Judaism. The [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] book ''"Judaism Without Embellishments"'' published by the Academy of Sciences of the [[Ukrainian SSR]] in 1963 shows typical antisemitic imagery and allegations: "It is in the teachings of Judaism, in the [[Old Testament]], and in the [[Talmud]], that the [[Israel]]i militarists find inspiration for their inhuman deeds, racist theories, and expansionist designs..." {{Deletable image-caption|Saturday, 12 November 2011|date=May 2012}}]] -->
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{{Status of religious freedom |persecution}}
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'''Religious antisemitism''' is the aversion to or discrimination against Jews as a whole based on religious doctrines of [[supersession]], which expect or demand the disappearance of [[Judaism]] and the conversion of Jews to other faiths.{{sfn|Nirenberg|2014|loc=Introduction, Epilogue}} This form of antisemitism has frequently served as the basis for false claims and religious [[antisemitic trope]]s against Judaism. Sometimes, it is called '''theological antisemitism'''.

Some scholars have argued that modern antisemitism is primarily based on nonreligious factors, [[John Higham (historian)|John Higham]] is emblematic of this school of thought. However, this interpretation has been challenged. In 1966, [[Charles Glock]] and [[Rodney Stark]] first published public opinion polling data, which showed that most Americans based their [[stereotypes of Jews]] on religion. Since then, further opinion polling in America and Europe has supported this conclusion.<ref name="Michael">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5G3feplFBYUC&q=religious+anti+semitism&pg=PA101 |title=A Concise History of American Antisemitism |author=Robert Michael |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |page=101 |year=2005|isbn=9780742543133 }}</ref>

==Origins==
Father [[Edward Flannery]], in his 1965 book ''The Anguish of the Jew: Twenty-Three Centuries of Antisemitism'', traces the first clear examples of specific anti-Jewish sentiment back to [[Alexandria]] in the third century BCE. Flannery writes that it was the Jews' refusal to accept Greek religious and social standards that marked them out. Hecataetus of Abdera, a Greek historian of the early third century BCE, wrote that [[Moses]] "in remembrance of the [[The Exodus|exile]] of [[Israelites|his people]], instituted for them a [[Misanthropy|misanthropic]] and inhospitable way of life." [[Manetho]], an Egyptian historian, wrote that the Jews were expelled [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] [[Leprosy|lepers]] who had been taught by [[Moses]] "not to adore the gods". The same themes appeared in the works of [[Chaeremon]], [[Lysimachus]], [[Poseidonius]], [[Apollonius Molon]], [[Apion]] and [[Tacitus]]. [[Agatharchides of Cnidus]] wrote about the "ridiculous practices" of the Jews and of the "absurdity of their Law", and how [[Ptolemy I Soter|Ptolemy Lagus]] was able to invade [[Jerusalem]] in 320 BCE because its inhabitants were observing the [[Shabbat|Sabbath]].<ref name=Flannery>Flannery, Edward H. ''The Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-Three Centuries of Antisemitism''. Paulist Press, first published in 1985; this edition 2004, pp. 11-12.</ref> [[David Nirenberg]] also charts this history in ''[[David Nirenberg#Anti-Judaism: The Western Tradition|Antijudaism: The Western Tradition]]''.{{sfn|Nirenberg|2014|loc=Ch. 1, "The Ancient World: Egypt, Exodus, Empire"}}{{sfn|Nirenberg|2014|loc=Ch. 1, "The Ancient World: Egypt, Exodus, Empire"}}

==Christian antisemitism==
{{main article|Antisemitism in Christianity}}
Christian religious antisemitism is often expressed as [[anti-Judaism]] (i.e., it is argued that the antipathy is to the practices of [[Judaism]]). As such, it is argued, antisemitism would cease if Jews stopped practicing or changed their public faith, especially by [[Religious conversion|converting]] to Christianity. However, there have been times when converts were also discriminated against, as in the case of the liturgical exclusion of Jewish converts, which occurred during the late 15th and 16th centuries, when Christianized ''[[Marranos]]'' or Iberian Jews were accused of secretly practicing Judaism or Jewish customs.<ref>See, for example, Flannery, Edward H. ''The Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-Three Centuries of Antisemitism'', Stimulus Books, first published 1985, this edition 2004.</ref>

===New Testament and antisemitism===
{{Main article|Antisemitism and the New Testament}}
Frederick Schweitzer and Marvin Perry write that the authors of the gospel account sought to place responsibility for the [[Crucifixion of Jesus]] and his death on Jews rather than the Roman emperor or [[Pontius Pilate]].<ref>Perry & Schweitzer (2002), pp. 27, 35.</ref> As a result, Christians for centuries viewed Jews as "the [[Jewish deicide|Christ Killers]]".<ref name=Perry2002p18>Perry & Schweitzer (2002), p. 18.</ref> The destruction of the [[Second Temple]] was seen as a judgment from God to the Jews for that death,<ref>Richardson (1986), p. 23</ref> and Jews were seen as "a people condemned forever to suffer exile and degradation".<ref name=Perry2002p18/> According to historian [[Edward H. Flannery]], the [[Gospel of John]] in particular contains many verses that refer to Jews in a pejorative manner.<ref>Flannery (2004) p. 33.</ref>

In {{bibleverse|1|Thessalonians|2:14–16|31}}, [[Paul (apostle)|Paul]] states that the Churches in Judea had been persecuted by the Jews who killed Jesus and that such people displease God, oppose all men, and had prevented Paul from speaking to the gentile nations concerning the New Testament message. Described by [[Hyam Maccoby]] as "the most explicit outburst against Jews in Paul's Epistles",<ref name=Maccoby203>[[Hyam Maccoby]], ''The Mythmaker: Paul and the Invention of Christianity'', [[Harper & Row]], 1986, {{ISBN|0-06-015582-5}}, p. 203.</ref> these verses have repeatedly been employed for antisemitic purposes. Maccoby views it as one of Paul's innovations responsible for creating Christian antisemitism, though he notes that some have argued these particular verses are later interpolations not written by Paul.<ref name=Maccoby203/> [[Craig Blomberg]] claims that viewing them as antisemitic is a mistake, but "understandable in light of [Paul's] harsh words". In his view, Paul is not condemning all Jews forever, but merely those he believed had specifically persecuted the prophets, Jesus, or the 1st-century church. Blomberg sees Paul's words here as no different in kind than the harsh words the prophets of the Old Testament have for the Jews.<ref>[[Craig Blomberg]], ''From Pentecost to Patmos: An Introduction to Acts Through Revelation'', [[B&H Publishing Group]], 2006, {{ISBN|978-0-8054-3248-0}}, p. 144.</ref>

The [[Codex Sinaiticus]] contains two extra books in the New Testament—the [[Shepherd of Hermas]] and the [[Epistle of Barnabas]].<ref name="bbc">{{cite news|title=The rival to the Bible|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/7651105.stm|work=BBC News|author=Roger Bolton|date=October 6, 2008|access-date=January 1, 2010}}</ref> The latter emphasizes the claim that it was the Jews, not the Romans, who killed Jesus and is full of antisemitism.<ref name="bbc"/> The Epistle of Barnabas was not accepted as part of the canon; Professor [[Bart Ehrman]] has stated, "the suffering of Jews in the subsequent centuries would, if possible, have been even worse had the Epistle of Barnabas remained".<ref name="bbc"/>

===Early Christianity===
Many early and influential Church works—such as the dialogues of [[Justin Martyr]], the homilies of [[John Chrysostom]], and the testimonies of the church father [[Cyprian]]—are strongly anti-Jewish.

During a discussion on the celebration of [[Easter]] during the [[First Council of Nicaea]] in 325 CE, Roman emperor [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine]] said,<ref name="Eusebius">[[Eusebius of Caesarea|Eusebius]]. [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/25023.htm "Life of Constantine (Book III)"], 337 CE. Retrieved March 12, 2006.</ref> <blockquote> ... it appeared an unworthy thing that in the celebration of this most holy feast we should follow the practice of the Jews, who have impiously defiled their hands with enormous sin, and are, therefore, deservedly afflicted with blindness of soul. ... Let us then have nothing in common with the detestable Jewish crowd; for we have received from our Saviour a different way.</blockquote>

Prejudice against Jews in the [[Roman Empire]] was formalized in 438, when the ''Code of [[Theodosius II]]'' established Christianity as the only legal religion in the Roman Empire. The [[Justinian Code]] a century later stripped Jews of many of their rights, and Church councils throughout the 6th and 7th centuries, including the Council of Orleans, further enforced anti-Jewish provisions. These restrictions began as early as 305, when, in Elvira (now [[Granada]]), a Spanish town in [[Andalucia]], the first known laws of any church council against Jews appeared. Christian women were forbidden to marry Jews unless the betrothed Jewish male first converted to Catholicism. Jews were forbidden to extend hospitality to Catholics. Jews could not keep Catholic Christian [[concubine]]s and were forbidden to bless the fields of Catholics. In 589, in Catholic [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]], the [[Third Council of Toledo]] ordered that children born of a marriage between Jews and Catholics be baptized by force. By the Twelfth Council of Toledo (681), a policy of forced conversion of all Jews was initiated (Liber Judicum, II.2 as given in Roth).<ref name=Roth>Roth, A. M. Roth, and Roth, Norman. ''Jews, Visigoths and Muslims in Medieval Spain'', Brill Academic, 1994.</ref> Thousands fled, and others converted to Roman Catholicism.

====Accusations of deicide====
{{Main article|Jewish deicide}}
Although never a part of [[Christianity|Christian]] [[dogma]], many Christians, including members of the [[clergy]], held the Jewish people under an [[antisemitic canard]] to be [[collective guilt|collectively responsible]] for [[deicide]], the [[Jewish deicide|killing of Jesus]], who they believed was the son of God.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/jubilee_2000/magazine/documents/ju_mag_01111997_p-31_en.html|title=Nostra Aetate: a milestone - Pier Francesco Fumagalli}}</ref>  According to this interpretation, some Christian traditions historically attributed responsibility for Jesus’ death to the Jewish people present at the time, as well as collectively over generations, labeling it as the sin of deicide, or God-killing. This belief played a significant role in fueling antisemitic attitudes and actions in various Christian societies throughout history.<ref>Perry & Schweitzer (2002), p. 26.</ref>

[[Passion play]]s are dramatic stagings representing the trial and death of [[Jesus]], and they have historically been used in remembrance of Jesus' death during [[Lent]]. These plays historically blamed the Jews for the death of Jesus in a [[polemic]]al fashion, depicting a crowd of Jewish people condemning Jesus to death by [[crucifixion]] and a Jewish leader assuming eternal [[collective guilt]] for the crowd for the murder of Jesus, which, ''[[The Boston Globe]]'' explains, "for centuries prompted vicious attacks—or [[pogrom]]s—on Europe's Jewish communities".<ref name=Sennott>Sennott, Charles M.[http://www.boston.com/news/globe/living/articles/2004/04/10/in_poland_new_passion_plays_on_old_hatreds/ "In Poland, new 'Passion' plays on old hatreds"], ''[[The Boston Globe]]'', April 10, 2004.</ref>

====Blood libel====
{{main article|Blood libel}}
[[File:Sandomierz katedra - mord rytualny.jpg|thumb|Painting in [[Sandomierz Cathedral]], Poland, depicts Jews murdering Christian children for their blood, ~ 1750]]
Blood libels are false accusations that Jews use human blood in religious [[rituals]].<ref>"Blood Accusation", Jewish Encyclopedia, retrieved 7 May 2007.[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=1173&letter=B Jewish Encyclopedia]</ref> Historically, these are accusations that the blood of [[Christians|Christian]] children is especially coveted. In many cases, blood libels served as the basis for a blood libel [[cult]], in which the alleged victim of human sacrifice was elevated to the status of a [[martyr]] and, in some cases, [[canonized]].

Although the first known instance of a blood libel is found in the writings of [[Apion]], who claimed that the Jews sacrificed [[Greeks|Greek]] victims in the Temple, no further incidents are recorded until the 12th century when blood libels began to proliferate. These libels have persisted from then through the 21st century.<ref>"The World: Saudi Editor Retracts Article That Defamed Jews", Los Angeles Times, March 20, 2003, fetched 19 the April 2008, [https://web.archive.org/web/20110524212539/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/latimes/access/110674395.html?dids=110674395:110674395&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Mar+20,+2002&author=MICHAEL+SLACKMAN&pub=Los+Angeles+Times&edition=&startpage=A.3&desc=The+World%3B+Saudi+Editor+Retracts+Article+That+Defamed+Jews]</ref>

In the modern era, the blood libel continues to be a major aspect of antisemitism. It has extended its reach to accuse Jews of many different forms of harm that can be carried out against other people.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://antisemitism.uk/recognising-antisemitism/blood-libel/|title=Recognising Antisemitism: Blood Libel|date=2016-02-15|language=en-GB|access-date=2016-07-23}}</ref>

===Medieval and Renaissance Europe===
{{Main article|Medieval antisemitism|History of European Jews in the Middle Ages}}
Antisemitism was widespread in Europe during the [[Middle Ages]]. In those times, the main cause of prejudice against Jews in Europe was the religious one. Although not part of [[Roman Catholic]] [[dogma]], many Christians, including members of the [[clergy]], held the Jewish people [[collective guilt|collectively responsible]] for the death of Jesus, a practice originated by [[Melito of Sardis]].

Among socio-economic factors were restrictions by the authorities. Local rulers and church officials closed the doors for many professions to the Jews, pushing them into occupations considered socially inferior such as accounting, rent-collecting, and [[moneylending]], which was tolerated then as a "[[consequentialism|necessary evil]]".<ref name=Paley>Paley, Susan and Koesters, Adrian Gibbons, eds. {{cite web|url=http://moses.creighton.edu/JRS/pdf/ViewersGuide.pdf |title=A Viewer's Guide to Contemporary Passion Plays |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110301033826/http://moses.creighton.edu/JRS/pdf/ViewersGuide.pdf |archive-date=2011-03-01}}&nbsp;{{small|(74.4&nbsp;KB)}}. Retrieved March 12, 2006.</ref> During the [[Black Death]], Jews were accused of being the cause and were often killed.<ref name="Black">See Stéphane Barry and Norbert Gualde, ''La plus grande épidémie de l'histoire'' ("The greatest epidemics in history"), in ''[[L'Histoire]]'' magazine, n°310, June 2006, p.47 {{in lang|fr}}</ref> There were expulsions of Jews from England, France, Germany, Portugal and [[Antisemitism in Spain|Spain]] during the Middle Ages as a result of antisemitism.<ref>{{cite book |title=Holocaust and Return to Zion: A Study in Jewish Philosophy of History |last=Spero |first=Shubert |year=2000 |publisher=KTAV Publishing House, Inc. |isbn=0-88125-636-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/holocaustreturnt00shub/page/164 164] |url=https://archive.org/details/holocaustreturnt00shub/page/164}}</ref>

[[File:Judensau Frankfurt.jpg|thumb|left|18th century Frankfurt Judensau]]
German for "Jews' sow", ''[[Judensau]]'' was the derogatory and dehumanizing imagery of Jews that appeared around the 13th century. Its popularity lasted for over 600 years and was revived by the Nazis. The Jews, typically portrayed in [[obscene]] contact with [[unclean animals]] such as pigs or owls or representing a [[devil]], appeared on [[cathedral]] or [[church (building)|church]] ceilings, pillars, utensils, etchings, etc. Often, the images combined several antisemitic motifs and included derisive prose or poetry.
<blockquote>"Dozens of Judensaus... intersect with the portrayal of the Jew as a Christ killer. Various illustrations of the murder of [[Simon of Trent]] blended images of Judensau, the devil, the murder of little Simon himself, and the [[Crucifixion]]. In the 17th-century engraving from Frankfurt...<ref>Cohen's book includes an earlier variation of the same image.</ref> a well-dressed, very contemporary-looking Jew has mounted the sow backward and holds her tail, while a second Jew sucks at her milk and a third eats her feces. The horned devil, himself wearing a [[Yellow badge|Jewish badge]], looks on and the butchered Simon, splayed as if on a cross, appears on a panel above."<ref>Jeremy Cohen (2007): ''Christ Killers: The Jews and the Passion from the Bible to the Big Screen.'' Oxford University Press. p.208 {{ISBN|0-19-517841-6}}</ref></blockquote>

In [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]]'s ''[[Merchant of Venice]]'', considered to be one of the greatest romantic comedies of all time, the villain [[Shylock]] was a Jewish moneylender. By the end of the play, he is mocked on the streets after his daughter elopes with a Christian. Shylock, then, compulsorily converts to Christianity as a part of a deal gone wrong. This has raised profound implications regarding Shakespeare and antisemitism.<ref>[http://www.berens.org/tikkun.html On Beyond Shylock] by Bradley S. Berens</ref>

During the Middle Ages, the story of Jephonias,<ref>[http://www.christusrex.org/www1/ofm/pilgr/sources/TransVirginis.html#46 Transitus or Dormitio Virginis] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629004339/http://www.christusrex.org/www1/ofm/pilgr/sources/TransVirginis.html#46 |date=2011-06-29}}, the original 5th or 6th century text</ref> the Jew who tried to overturn Mary's funeral bier, changed from his converting to Christianity into his simply having his hands cut off by an angel.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sicsa.huji.ac.il/99an2a.html|title=Discussion|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721133805/http://sicsa.huji.ac.il/99an2a.html|archive-date=2011-07-21}}</ref>

[[File:Descreationofhost.gif|thumb|right|A 15th-century German woodcut showing an alleged host desecration.<br />''1:'' the hosts are stolen<br />''2:'' the hosts bleed when pierced by a Jew<br />''3:'' the Jews are arrested<br />''4:'' they are burned alive.]]
On many occasions, Jews were subjected to [[blood libel against Jews|blood libels]], false accusations of drinking the blood of Christian children in mockery of the Christian [[Eucharist]].
Jews were subject to a wide range of legal restrictions throughout the Middle Ages, some of which lasted until the end of the 19th century. Jews were excluded from many trades, the occupations of which varied with place and time and were determined by the influence of various non-Jewish competing interests. Often, Jews were barred from all occupations except money-lending and peddling, with even these at times forbidden.

===19th century===
{{See also|Antisemitism in Christianity|Christianity and Judaism|Catholic Church and Judaism|Protestantism and Judaism}}
[[File:proper hands.jpg|right|200px|thumb|[[Branford Clarke]] illustration of the [[Ku Klux Klan|KKK]] against both [[Antisemitism in Christianity|Jews]] and [[Anti-Catholicism|Catholics]] in [[Heroes of the Fiery Cross]] by Bishop [[Alma White]] 1928 Published by the [[Pillar of Fire Church]] in [[Zarephath, New Jersey]]]]
Throughout the 19th century and into the 20th century, the [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic Church]] still incorporated strong antisemitic elements, despite increasing attempts to separate [[anti-Judaism]], the opposition to the Jewish religion on religious grounds, and [[racial antisemitism]]. [[Pope Pius VII]] (1800–1823) had the walls of the Jewish [[Ghetto]] in Rome rebuilt after the Jews were [[Napoleon and the Jews|released by Napoleon]], and Jews were restricted to the Ghetto through the end of the Papal States in 1870.

Additionally, official organizations such as the [[Jesuits]] banned candidates "who are descended from the Jewish race unless it is clear that their father, grandfather, and great-grandfather have belonged to the Catholic Church" until 1946. Brown University historian [[David Kertzer]], working from the Vatican archive, has further argued in his book ''[[The Popes Against the Jews]]'' that in the 19th century and early 20th century, the Church adhered to a distinction between "good antisemitism" and "bad antisemitism".

The "bad" kind promoted hatred of Jews because of their descent. This was considered un-Christian because the Christian message was intended for all of humanity regardless of ethnicity; anyone could become a Christian. The "good" kind criticized alleged Jewish conspiracies to control newspapers, banks, and other institutions, to care only about the accumulation of wealth, etc. Many Catholic bishops wrote articles criticizing Jews on such grounds and, when accused of promoting hatred of Jews, would remind people that they condemned the "bad" kind of antisemitism. Kertzer's work is not, therefore, without critics; the scholar of Jewish-Christian relations [[Rabbi David G. Dalin]], for example, criticized Kertzer in the ''[[Weekly Standard]]'' for using evidence selectively.

===The Holocaust===
{{further|Martin Luther and antisemitism}}
The Nazis used [[Martin Luther]]'s book, ''[[On the Jews and Their Lies]]'' (1543), to [[Luther and antisemitism#Use by the Nazis|claim]] a moral righteousness for their ideology. Luther seems to advocate the murder of those Jews who refused to convert to Christianity, writing that "we are at fault in not slaying them"<ref>Luther, Martin. ''On the Jews and Their'' ''Lies'', cited in Robert.Michael. "Luther, Luther Scholars, and the Jews,"''Encounter'' 46 (Autumn 1985) No.4.343–344</ref>

Archbishop [[Robert Runcie]] has asserted that: "Without centuries of Christian antisemitism, Hitler's passionate hatred would never have been so fervently echoed...because for centuries Christians have held Jews collectively responsible for the death of [[Jesus]]. On Good Friday Jews, have in times past, cowered behind locked doors with fear of a Christian mob seeking 'revenge' for deicide. Without the poisoning of Christian minds through the centuries, the Holocaust is unthinkable."<ref>"''After the evil: Christianity and Judaism in the shadow of the Holocaust"'', Richard Harries, p. 21, Oxford University Press, 2003</ref> The dissident Catholic priest [[Hans Küng]] has written in his book ''On Being a Christian'' that "Nazi anti-Judaism was the work of godless, anti-Christian criminals. But it would not have been possible without the almost two thousand years' pre-history of 'Christian' anti-Judaism..."<ref>Hans Küng, ''On Being a Christian'' (Doubleday, Garden City NY, 1976), p. 169.</ref>

The document [[Dabru Emet]] was issued by many American Jewish scholars in 2000 as a statement about Jewish-Christian relations. This document states,<blockquote>
Nazism was not a Christian phenomenon. Without the long history of Christian anti-Judaism and Christian violence against Jews, Nazi ideology could not have taken hold nor could it have been carried out. Too many Christians participated in, or were sympathetic to, Nazi atrocities against Jews. Other Christians did not protest sufficiently against these atrocities. But Nazism itself was not an inevitable outcome of Christianity.</blockquote>

According to American [[historian]] [[Lucy Dawidowicz]], antisemitism has a long history within Christianity. The line of "antisemitic descent" from Luther, the author of ''On the Jews and Their Lies'', to Hitler is "easy to draw". In her ''[[The War Against the Jews]], 1933-1945'', she contends that Luther and Hitler were obsessed with the "demonologized universe" inhabited by Jews. Dawidowicz writes that the similarities between Luther's anti-Jewish writings and modern antisemitism are no coincidence because they derived from a common history of ''Judenhass'', which can be traced to [[Haman (Bible)|Haman's]] advice to [[Ahasuerus]]. Although modern German antisemitism also has its roots in German [[nationalism]] and the [[liberalism|liberal]] revolution of 1848, [[Christianity|Christian]] antisemitism, she writes, is a foundation that was laid by the [[Roman Catholic Church]] and "upon which Luther built".<ref>''The War Against the Jews, 1933-1945''. First published 1975; this Bantam edition 1986, p.23. {{ISBN|0-553-34532-X}}</ref> Dawidowicz's allegations and positions are criticized and not accepted by most historians, however. For example, in ''Studying the Jew'' Alan Steinweis notes that, "Old-fashioned antisemitism, Hitler argued, was insufficient, and would lead only to pogroms, which contribute little to a permanent solution. This is why, Hitler maintained, it was important to promote 'an antisemitism of reason,' one that acknowledged the racial basis of Jewry."<ref>(Studying the Jew: Scholarly Antisemitism in Nazi Germany by Alan Steinweis :8)</ref> Interviews with Nazis by other historians show that the Nazis thought that their views were rooted in biology, not historical prejudices. For example, "S. became a missionary for this biomedical vision... As for anti-Semitic attitudes and actions, he insisted that 'the racial question... [and] resentment of the Jewish race... had nothing to do with medieval anti-Semitism...' That is, it was all a matter of scientific biology and of community."<ref>(The Nazi Doctors: Medical Killing and the Psychology of Genocide by Robert Lifton :130)</ref>

===Post-Holocaust===
The [[Second Vatican Council]], the ''[[Nostra aetate]]'' document, and the efforts of [[Pope John Paul II]] helped reconcile Jews and Catholicism in recent decades, however. According to Catholic Holocaust scholar [[Michael Phayer]], the Church as a whole recognized its failings during the council, when it corrected the traditional beliefs of the Jews having committed deicide and affirmed that they remained [[Jews as the chosen people|God's chosen people]].<ref>"''Pius XII, The Holocaust and the Cold War''", Indiana University Press, p. 252, 2008, {{ISBN|978-0-253-34930-9}}</ref>

In 1994, the Church Council of the [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in America]], the largest [[Lutheran]] denomination in the United States and a member of the [[Lutheran World Federation]] publicly [[Luther and antisemitism#Recent Lutheran Church responses|rejected]] Luther's antisemitic writings.

==Islamic antisemitism==
{{main article|Antisemitism in Islam}}
{{See also|Antisemitism in the Arab world|History of the Jews under Muslim rule|Islamic–Jewish relations}}
With the origin of [[Islam]] in the 7th century AD and its rapid spread through the [[Arabian Peninsula]] and beyond, Jews (and many other peoples) became subject to the will of Muslim rulers. The quality of the rule varied considerably in different periods, as did the attitudes of the rulers, government officials, clergy and general population to various subject peoples from time to time, which was reflected in their treatment of these subjects.

Various definitions of antisemitism in the context of Islam are given. The extent of antisemitism among [[Muslim]]s varies depending on the chosen definition:
* Scholars like [[Claude Cahen]] and [[Shelomo Dov Goitein]] define it to be the animosity specifically applied to Jews only and do not include discriminations practiced against Non-Muslims in general.<ref name="Shelomo Dov Goitein">[[Shelomo Dov Goitein]], A Mediterranean Society: An Abridgment in One Volume, p. 293</ref><ref name="Cahen">"Dhimma" by Claude Cahen in [[Encyclopedia of Islam]]</ref><ref name="OxfordDic">The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion,''Antisemitism''</ref> For these scholars, antisemitism in Medieval Islam has been local and sporadic rather than general and endemic [Shelomo Dov Goitein],<ref name="Shelomo Dov Goitein"/> not at all present [Claude Cahen],<ref name="Cahen"/> or rarely present.<ref name="OxfordDic"/>
* According to [[Bernard Lewis]], antisemitism is marked by two distinct features: Jews are judged according to a standard different from that applied to others, and they are accused of "cosmic evil".<ref>Lewis, Bernard. "The New Anti-Semitism", The American Scholar, Volume 75 No. 1, Winter 2006, pp. 25–36. The paper is based on a lecture delivered at Brandeis University on March 24, 2004</ref> For Lewis, from the late 19th century, movements appear among Muslims of which for the first time one can legitimately use the technical term antisemitic.<ref>Lewis(1984), p.184</ref> However, he describes demonizing beliefs, anti-Jewish discrimination and systematic humiliations, as an "inherent" part of the traditional Muslim world, even if violent persecutions were relatively rare.<ref>Lewis(1984), p.8, 32–33, 41–45, etc.</ref>

===Pre-modern times===
{{Status of religious freedom}}
According to Jane Gerber, "the Muslim is continually influenced by the theological threads of anti-Semitism embedded in the earliest chapters of Islamic history."<ref name="Gerber 1986, p. 82">Gerber (1986), p. 82</ref> In the light of the Jewish defeat at the hands of [[Muhammad]], Muslims traditionally viewed Jews with contempt and as objects of ridicule. Jews were seen as hostile, cunning, and vindictive, but nevertheless weak and ineffectual. Cowardice was the quality most frequently attributed to Jews. Another stereotype associated with the Jews was their alleged propensity to trickery and deceit. While most anti-Jewish polemicists saw those qualities as inherently Jewish, [[Ibn Khaldun]] attributed them to the mistreatment of Jews at the hands of the dominant nations. For that reason, says Ibn Khaldun, Jews "are renowned, in every age and climate, for their wickedness and their slyness".<ref>Lewis (1999), pp. 129–130</ref>

Muhammad's attitude towards Jews was basically neutral at the beginning. During his lifetime, Jews lived on the [[Arabian Peninsula]], especially in and around [[Medina]]. They refused to accept Muhammad's teachings. Eventually he fought them, defeated them, and most of them were killed.<ref>Laqueur 191–192</ref> The [[Sirah Rasul Allah|traditional biographies of Muhammad]] describe the expulsion of the [[Banu Qaynuqa]] in the post [[Battle of Badr|Badr]]period, after a marketplace quarrel broke out between the Muslims and the Jews in [[Medina]]<ref>Akram Diya al Umari (1991) ''Madinan Society At the Time of the Prophet,'' (Virginia: International Islamic Publishing House and the [[International Institute of Islamic Thought]]) "The Expulsion of Banu Qaynuqa"</ref><ref>Rodinson (1971), pg. 172-3</ref> and Muhammad's negotiations with the tribe failed.<ref>Watt (1956), pg. 209</ref>

Following his defeat in the [[Battle of Uhud]], Muhammad said he received a divine revelation that the Jewish tribe of the [[Banu Nadir]] wanted to assassinate him. Muhammad besieged the Banu Nadir and expelled them from Medina.<ref>Stillman ''Jews of Arab Lands'' 14</ref> Muhammad also [[Battle of Khaybar|attacked the Jews of the Khaybar]] oasis near Medina and defeated them, after they had betrayed the [[Muslims]] in a time of war, and he only allowed them to stay in the oasis on the condition that they deliver one-half of their annual produce to Muslims.

Anti-Jewish sentiments in certain historical contexts often intensified during periods of Muslim political or military instability or when Muslims perceived that certain Jewish individuals or communities had acted outside the social norms and restrictions established by Islamic law.<ref name="Lewis 1999 p. 130">Lewis (1999), p. 130; Gerber (1986), p. 83</ref> In Spain, ibn Hazm and [[Abū Isḥāq al-Ilbirī|Abu Ishaq]] focused their anti-Jewish writings on the latter allegation. This was also the chief motivating factor behind the massacres of Jews in [[Granada]] in 1066, when nearly 3,000 Jews were killed, and in [[Fes, Morocco|Fez]] in 1033, when 6,000 Jews were killed.<ref name=Morris10>[[Benny Morris|Morris, Benny]]. ''Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict, 1881-2001''. Vintage Books, 2001, pp. 10-11.</ref> There were further massacres in Fez in 1276 and 1465.<ref name="Gerber 1986, p. 84">Gerber (1986), p. 84</ref>

Islamic law does not differentiate between Jews and Christians in their status as ''[[dhimmi]]s''. According to [[Bernard Lewis]], the normal practice of Muslim governments until modern times was consistent with this aspect of [[sharia]] law.<ref name="Lewis p128"/> This view is countered by Jane Gerber, who maintains that of all dhimmis, Jews had the lowest status. Gerber maintains that this situation was especially pronounced in the latter centuries in the [[Ottoman Empire]], where Christian communities enjoyed protection from the European countries<!-- huh? -->, which was unavailable to the Jews. For example, in 18th-century [[Damascus]], a Muslim noble held a festival, inviting to it all social classes in descending order, according to their social status: the Jews outranked only the peasants and the prostitutes.<ref>Gerber (1986), pp. 84–85</ref>

===Jews in Islamic texts===
[[Leon Poliakov]],<ref name="EncJud">Poliakov</ref> [[Walter Laqueur]],<ref name="Laqueur192"/> and [[Jane Gerber]],<ref>Gerber 78</ref> suggest that later passages in the [[Quran]] contain very sharp attacks on Jews for their refusal to recognize [[Muhammad]] as a [[prophet]] of [[God]].<ref name="EncJud"/> There are also Quranic verses, particularly from the earliest Quranic [[sura]]hs, showing respect for the Jews (e.g. see {{qref|2|47|b=y}}, {{qref|2|62}})<ref name="Poliakov (1961), pg. 27">Poliakov (1961), pg. 27</ref> and preaching tolerance (e.g. see {{qref|2|256}}).<ref name="Laqueur192">Laqueur 192</ref> This positive view tended to disappear in the later Surahs. Taking it all together, the Quran differentiates between "good and bad" Jews, Poliakov states.<ref name="Poliakov (1961), pg. 27"/> Laqueur argues that the conflicting statements about Jews in the Muslim holy text have defined [[Arab]] and Muslim attitudes towards Jews to this day, especially during periods of rising [[Islamic fundamentalism]].<ref>Laqueur 191</ref>

===Differences with Christianity===
[[Bernard Lewis]] holds that Muslims were not antisemitic in the way Christians were for the most part because:
# The [[Gospel]]s are not part of the educational system in Muslim societies and therefore, Muslims are not brought up with the stories of [[Jewish deicide]]; on the contrary, the notion of deicide is rejected by the Quran as a blasphemous absurdity.
# Muhammad and his early followers were not Jews and therefore, they did not present themselves as the true Israel or feel threatened by the survival of the old Israel.
# The Quran was not viewed by Muslims as a fulfillment of the [[Hebrew Bible]], but rather as a restorer of its original messages that had been distorted over time. Thus no clash of interpretations between [[Judaism]] and Islam could arise.
# Muhammad was not killed by the Jewish community and he was ultimately victorious in his clash with the Jewish community in Medina.
# Muhammad did not claim to be either the Son of God or the Messiah. Instead, he claimed that he was only a prophet; a claim which Jews repudiated less.
# Muslims saw the conflict between Muhammad and the Jews as something of minor importance in Muhammad's career.<ref name="Lewis 1999 p117-118">Lewis (1999), pp. 117-118</ref>

===Status of Jews under Muslim rule===
Before the fall of the Ottoman Empire, [[History of the Jews under Muslim rule|Jews who lived in Muslim lands]], known as [[dhimmis]] (along with Christians), were allowed to practice their religion, and they were also allowed to administer their internal affairs, but they were subjected to certain conditions.<ref name="Gerber p10,20">Lewis (1984), pp.10,20</ref> They had to pay the [[jizya]] (a per capita tax imposed on free adult non-Muslim males) to Muslims.<ref name="Gerber p10,20"/> Dhimmis had an inferior status under Islamic rule. They had several social and legal [[Disabilities (Jewish)|disabilities]] such as prohibitions against bearing arms or giving testimony in courts in cases involving Muslims.<ref>Lewis (1987), p. 9, 27</ref> The most degrading one was the requirement of distinctive clothing, not found in the Quran or the hadith but invented in [[Early Middle Ages|early medieval]] [[Baghdad]]; its enforcement was highly erratic.<ref>Lewis (1999), p.131</ref> Jews rarely faced martyrdom or exile, or forced compulsion to change their religion, and they were mostly free in their choice of residence and profession.<ref>Lewis (1999), p.131; (1984), pp.8,62</ref>

Some notable massacres of Jews include the [[1066 Granada massacre]], when a Muslim mob stormed the royal palace in [[Granada]], [[crucifixion|crucified]] Jewish [[vizier]] [[Joseph ibn Naghrela]] and massacred most of the Jewish population of the city. "More than 1,500 Jewish families, numbering 4,000 persons, fell in one day."<ref name="Gottheil-1906">[http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=412&letter=G&search=Granada Granada] by Richard Gottheil, [[Meyer Kayserling]], ''[[Jewish Encyclopedia]]''. 1906 ed.</ref> This was the first persecution of Jews on the Peninsula under Islamic rule. There was also the killing or forcible conversion of them by the rulers of the [[Almohad]] dynasty in [[Al-Andalus]] in the 12th century.<ref>Lewis (1984), p. 52; Stillman (1979), p.77</ref> Notable examples of the cases where the choice of residence was taken away from them includes confining Jews to walled quarters ([[mellah]]s) in Morocco beginning from the 15th century and especially since the early 19th century.<ref>Lewis (1984), p. 28</ref> Most conversions were voluntary and happened for various reasons. However, there were some forced conversions in the 12th century under the [[Almohad]]dynasty of North Africa and al-Andalus as well as in Persia.<ref>Lewis (1984), pp.17,18,94,95; Stillman (1979), p.27</ref>

===Medieval period===
The portrayal of the Jews in the early Islamic texts played a key role in shaping the attitudes towards them in the Muslim societies. According to [[Jane Gerber]], "the Muslim is continually influenced by the theological threads of anti-Semitism embedded in the earliest chapters of Islamic history."<ref name="Gerber 1986, p. 82"/> In the light of the Jewish defeat at the hands of Muhammad, Muslims traditionally viewed Jews with contempt and as objects of ridicule. Jews were seen as hostile, cunning, and vindictive, but nevertheless weak and ineffectual. Cowardice was the quality most frequently attributed to Jews. Another stereotype associated with the Jews was their alleged propensity to trickery and deceit. While most anti-Jewish polemicists saw those qualities as inherently Jewish, [[Ibn Khaldun]] attributed them to the mistreatment of Jews at the hands of the dominant nations. For that reason, says ibn Khaldun, Jews "are renowned, in every age and climate, for their wickedness and their slyness".<ref>Lewis (1999), pp. 129–130</ref>

Some Muslim writers have inserted racial overtones in their anti-Jewish polemics. [[Al-Jahiz]] speaks of the deterioration of the Jewish stock due to excessive inbreeding. [[Ibn Hazm]] also implies racial qualities in his attacks on the Jews. However, these were exceptions, and the racial theme left little or no trace in the medieval Muslim anti-Jewish writings.<ref>Lewis (1999), pp. 131–132</ref>

Anti-Jewish sentiments usually flared up at times of the Muslim political or military weakness or when Muslims felt that some Jews had overstepped the boundary of humiliation prescribed to them by the Islamic law.<ref name="Lewis 1999 p. 130"/> In [[Al-Andalus|Moorish Iberia]], ibn Hazm and Abu Ishaq focused their anti-Jewish writings on the latter allegation. This was also the chief motivation behind the 1066 Granada massacre, when "[m]ore than 1,500 Jewish families, numbering 4,000 persons, fell in one day",<ref name="Gottheil-1906"/> and in [[Fes, Morocco|Fez]] in 1033, when 6,000 Jews were killed.<ref name=Morris10 /> There were further massacres in Fez in 1276 and 1465.<ref name="Gerber 1986, p. 84"/>

Islamic law does not differentiate between Jews and Christians in their status as dhimmis. According to [[Bernard Lewis]], the normal practice of Muslim governments until modern times was consistent with this aspect of [[sharia]] law.<ref name="Lewis p128">Lewis (1999), p. 128</ref> This view is countered by Jane Gerber, who maintains that of all dhimmis, Jews had the lowest status. Gerber maintains that this situation was especially pronounced in the latter centuries, when Christian communities enjoyed protection, unavailable to the Jews, under the provisions of [[Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire]]. For example, in 18th century [[Damascus]], a Muslim noble held a festival, inviting to it all social classes in descending order, according to their social status: the Jews outranked only the peasants and prostitutes.<ref>Gerber (1986), pp. 84–85</ref> In 1865, when the equality of all subjects of the Ottoman Empire was proclaimed, [[Ahmed Cevdet Pasha]], a high-ranking official observed: "whereas in former times, in the Ottoman State, the communities were ranked, with the Muslims first, then the Greeks, then the Armenians, then the Jews, now all of them were put on the same level. Some Greeks objected to this, saying: 'The government has put us together with the Jews. We were content with the supremacy of Islam.{{'"}}<ref>Lewis (1999), pp. 136–137; Gerber (1986), p. 86</ref>

Some scholars have questioned the correctness of the term "antisemitism" to Muslim culture in pre-modern times.<ref name="Lewis 1999 p117-118" /><ref>Cahen, Cl. "[http://www.brillonline.nl/subscriber/entry?entry=islam_SIM-1823 ḎH̲imma.]" Encyclopaedia of Islam. Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2006. Brill Online.21 November 2006.</ref><ref>[[Mark R. Cohen|Mark Cohen]] (1995) p. xvii</ref><ref>Nissim Rejwan, ''Israel's Place in the Middle East: A Pluralist Perspective'', University Press of Florida, p.31</ref> Robert Chazan and Alan Davies argue that the most obvious difference between pre-modern Islam and pre-modern Christendom was the "rich melange of racial, ethic, and religious communities" in Islamic countries, within which "the Jews were by no means obvious as lone dissenters, as they had been earlier in the world of polytheism or subsequently in most of medieval Christendom." According to Chazan and Davies, this lack of uniqueness ameliorated the circumstances of Jews in the medieval world of Islam.<ref>Encyclopedia of religion, anti-semitism article.</ref> According to [[Norman Stillman]], antisemitism, understood as hatred of Jews as Jews, "did exist in the medieval Arab world even in the period of greatest tolerance".<ref>Stillman (1979), p. 63</ref> Also see Bostom, Bat Ye'or, and the CSPI issued text, supporting Stillman and cited in the bibliography.{{Where|date=July 2021}}

===Nineteenth century===
Historian [[Martin Gilbert]] wrote that in the 19th century the position of Jews worsened in Muslim countries.{{Citation needed|date=May 2007}} There was a massacre of Jews in [[Baghdad]] in 1828<ref name=Morris10/> and in 1839, in the eastern Persian city of [[Mashhad]], a mob burst into the Jewish Quarter, burned the synagogue, and destroyed the [[Sefer Torah|Torah scrolls]]. It was only by forcible conversion that a massacre was averted.<ref name=Gilbert179>[[Martin Gilbert|Gilbert, Martin]]. ''Dearest Auntie Fori. The Story of the Jewish People''. HarperCollins, 2002, pp. 179–182.</ref> There was another massacre in Barfurush in 1867.<ref name=Morris10/>

In 1840, the [[History of the Jews in Syria|Jews of Damascus]] were falsely accused of having murdered a Christian monk and his Muslim servant and of having [[blood libel|used their blood]] to bake [[Matzah|Passover bread]] or Matza. A Jewish barber was tortured until he "confessed"; two other Jews who were arrested died under torture, while a third converted to Islam to save his life. Throughout the 1860s, the [[History of the Jews in Libya|Jews of Libya]] were subjected to what Gilbert calls punitive taxation. In 1864, around 500 Jews were killed in [[Marrakech]] and [[Fes, Morocco|Fez]] in [[Morocco]]. In 1869, 18 Jews were killed in [[Tunis]], and an Arab mob looted Jewish homes and stores, and burned synagogues, on [[Djerba|Jerba Island]]. In 1875, 20 Jews were killed by a mob in [[Demnat]], Morocco; elsewhere in Morocco, Jews were attacked and killed in the streets in broad daylight. In 1891, the leading Muslims in [[Jerusalem]] asked the Ottoman authorities in [[Constantinople]] to prohibit the entry of Jews arriving en masse from Russia. In 1897, synagogues were ransacked and Jews were murdered in [[Tripolitania]].<ref name=Gilbert179/>

[[Benny Morris]] writes that one symbol of Jewish degradation was the phenomenon of stone-throwing at Jews by Muslim children. Morris quotes a 19th-century traveler: "I have seen a little fellow of six years old, with a troop of fat toddlers of only three and four, teaching [them] to throw stones at a Jew, and one little urchin would, with the greatest coolness, waddle up to the man and literally spit upon his Jewish [[gaberdine]]. To all this the Jew is obliged to submit; it would be more than his life was worth to offer to strike a Mahommedan."<ref name=Morris10/>

According to [[Mark R. Cohen|Mark Cohen]] in ''The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Studies'', most scholars conclude that Arab antisemitism in the modern world arose in the 19th century, against the backdrop of conflicting Jewish and Arab nationalism, and was imported into the Arab world primarily by nationalistically minded Christian Arabs (and only subsequently was it "Islamized").<ref>[[Mark R. Cohen|Mark Cohen]] (2002), p.208</ref>

===Modern Islamic antisemitism===
{{see also|Relations between Nazi Germany and the Arab world|Mein Kampf in Arabic|Jewish exodus from the Muslim world|International Conference to Review the Global Vision of the Holocaust}}
The massacres of Jews in Muslim countries continued into the 20th century. [[Martin Gilbert]] writes that 40 Jews were murdered in [[Taza]], Morocco, in 1903. In [[Yemen]] in 1905, old laws were revived, they forbade Jews from raising their voices in front of Muslims, they forbade Jews from building their houses higher than the houses of Muslims, and they forbade Jews from engaging in any traditional Muslim trade or occupation.<ref name=Gilbert179/> The Jewish quarter in Fez was almost destroyed by a Muslim mob in 1912.<ref name=Morris10/>

Antagonism and violence intensified as resentment against [[Zionism|Zionist]] efforts in the [[Mandatory Palestine|British Mandate of Palestine]] spread. The [[Grand Mufti of Jerusalem]], [[Mohammad Amin al-Husayni]], played a key role in stoking violent opposition to Zionism and he closely allied himself with the Nazi regime.<ref>[[Ilan Pappe|Pappe, Ilan]] (2002) 'The Rise and Fall of a Palestinian Dynasty. The Husaynis 1700-1948.'' AL Saqi edition 2010. {{ISBN|978-0-86356-460-4}}. pp.309,321</ref><ref>[[Aharon Cohen|Cohen, Aharon]] (1970) ''Israel and the Arab World''. W.H. Allen. {{ISBN|0-491-00003-0}}. p.312</ref> From 1941 al-Husayni was based in Germany from where he urged attacks on Jews. There were [[Nazism|Nazi]]-inspired pogroms in [[Algeria]] in the 1930s, and massive attacks on the Jews in [[Iraq]] and [[Libya]] in the 1940s (see [[Farhud]]). Pro-Nazi Muslims slaughtered dozens of Jews in Baghdad in 1941.<ref name=Morris10/>

[[Holocaust denial]] and Holocaust minimization efforts have found increasingly overt acceptance as sanctioned historical discourse in a number of Middle Eastern countries.<ref>''"Parallel lines: anti-Zionism and antisemitism in the 21st century"'' (2013). Robert S Wistrich</ref><ref>''"Anti-Semitism and anti-Zionism in Iran"'' by R Jaspal, 2013.</ref> Arabic and Turkish editions of Hitler's ''[[Mein Kampf]]'' and ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'' have found an audience in the region<ref>{{Cite web|title=Mein Kampf for sale, in Arabic|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1388161/Mein-Kampf-for-sale-in-Arabic.html|access-date=2021-01-09|website=The Telegraph|language=en-GB}}</ref> with limited critical response by local intellectuals and media.

According to [[Robert Satloff]], both as rescuers and perpetrators, Muslims and Arabs were involved in the Holocaust during the pro-Nazi rule of Vichy in French North Africa, as well as during the Italian and German Nazi occupations of Tunisia and Libya.<ref>[http://www.meforum.org/article/1073Righteous Muslims. A briefing by Robert Satloff] {{dead link|date=December 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} by Rachel Silverman, ''Jewish Exponent'', December 14, 2006 ([[Middle East Forum]], December 11, 2006)</ref>

According to a [[Pew Global Attitudes Project]] report released on August 14, 2005, anti-Jewish sentiment was endemic. Of six Muslim majority countries surveyed, all have high percentages of their populations with unfavorable views of Jews. [[Turkey]] reported that 60% had unfavorable views of Jews, [[Pakistan]] reported 74%, [[Indonesia]] reported 76%, and [[Morocco]] reported 88%. 99% of [[Lebanon|Lebanese]] Muslims viewed Jews unfavorably, as did 99% of the [[Jordan]]ian people.<ref>[http://pewglobal.org/reports/display.php?ReportID=248 PEW Global Attitudes Report] statistics on how the world views different religious groups</ref>

George Gruen attributes the increased animosity towards Jews in the [[Arab world]] to several factors, including the breakdown of the [[Ottoman Empire]] and traditional [[Islamic]] society; domination by Western [[colonialism|colonial powers]] under which Jews gained a larger role in the commercial, professional, and administrative life of the region; the rise of [[Arab nationalism]], whose proponents sought the wealth and positions of local Jews through government channels; resentment against Jewish [[nationalism]] and the Zionist movement; and the readiness of unpopular [[regime]]s to [[scapegoat]] local Jews for political purposes.<ref name=Gruen>Gruen, George E.[http://www.jcpa.org/jl/jl102.htm "The Other Refugees: Jews of the Arab World"], ''The Jerusalem Letter'', [[Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs]], June 1, 1988.</ref>

==See also==
* [[Anti-Judaism]]
* [[Expulsions and exoduses of Jews]]
* [[History of antisemitism]]
* [[Nation of Islam and antisemitism]]
* [[New antisemitism]]

== Notes ==
{{reflist|2}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}
* Abulafia, Anna Sapir (ed.)(1998). ''Christians and Jews in Dispute: Disputational Literature and the Rise of Anti-Judaism in the West (c. 1000-1150)'' (Variorum Collected Studies Series). Aldershot, Hampshire: Ashgate. {{ISBN|0-86078-661-7}}.
* Langmuir, Gavin (1971). "Anti-Judaism as the necessary preparation for anti-Semitism". ''Viator'', '''2''': p.&nbsp;383.
* {{cite book|last=Lewis|first=Bernard|title=From the Prophet Muhammad to the Capture of Constantinople. Volume 1. Politics and War|orig-year=1976|year=1987|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0195050878}}
* {{cite book|last=Lewis|first=Bernard|title=The Jews of Islam|year=1984|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=0-691-00807-8}}
* {{cite book|last=Lewis|first=Bernard|title=Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice|orig-year=1986|year=1999|publisher=W. W. Norton|isbn=0-393-31839-7}}
* {{cite journal|last=Lewis|first=Bernard|title=The New Anti-Semitism: First religion, then race, then what?|journal=The American Scholar|year=2006|volume=75|issue=1|pages=25–36|url=http://theamericanscholar.org/the-new-anti-semitism/|access-date=20 June 2012|postscript=. The paper is based on a lecture delivered at Brandeis University on March 24, 2004.}}
* Modras, Ronald E. [https://books.google.com/books?id=g3Vg85_4npIC&dq=The+Catholic+Church+and+Antisemitism+Poland&pg=PP1 The Catholic Church and Antisemitism Poland, 1933-1939]
* {{cite book|last=Nirenberg|first=David|author-link=David Nirenberg|title-link=David Nirenberg#Anti-Judaism: The Western Tradition|title=Anti-Judaism: The Western Tradition|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|date=2014 |orig-date=2013 |isbn=978-0-393-34791-3}}
* {{cite book|last=Perry |first=Marvin |author2=Schweitzer, Frederick M. |title=Antisemitism: Myth and Hate from Antiquity to the Present |year=2002 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=0-312-16561-7}}

{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Anti-Judaism}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20001206174000/http://www.chrysostom.org/jews.html Was St. John Chrysostom Anti-Semitic?]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150318044953/http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1058/is_10_121/ai_n6159172/print Anti-Semitism or anti-Judaism?]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071028160859/http://spanish-inquisition.cuqr.com/spanish-inquisition/ The Spanish Inquisition - Presentation with images and videos]

{{Antisemitism topics|state=collapsed}}
{{Jews and Judaism}}
{{Religious persecution}}{{Discrimination}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Religious Antisemitism}}
[[Category:Christianity and antisemitism]]
[[Category:Islam and antisemitism]]