Editing Religious art

{{Short description|Art with religious subjects}}
[[File: Apse mosaic Hagia Sophia Virgin and Child.jpg|thumb|9th century Byzantine mosaic of the [[Hagia Sophia]] showing the image of the Virgin and Child, one of the first [[Byzantine Iconoclasm|post-iconoclastic]] mosaics. It is set against the original golden background of the 6th century]]
'''Religious art''' is a visual representation of religious ideologies and their relationship with humans. Sacred art directly relates to religious art in the sense that its purpose is for [[worship]] and religious practices. According to one set of definitions, [[Work of art|artworks]] that are inspired by [[religion]] but are not considered traditionally [[Sacredness|sacred]] remain under the umbrella term of religious art, but not sacred art.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chute |first=Desmond |title=Sacred, Holy or Religious Art? |date=1955 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43813855 |journal=Blackfriars |volume=36 |issue=418 |pages=570–579 |jstor=43813855 |issn=1754-2014}}</ref>

Other terms often used for art of various religions are [[cult image]], usually for the main image in a [[place of worship]], [[icon]] in its more general sense (not restricted to [[Eastern Orthodox]] images), and "devotional image" usually meaning a smaller image for private prayer or worship. Images can often be divided into "iconic images", just showing one or more figures, and "narrative images" showing moments from an episode or story involving sacred figures.

The use of images has been controversial in many religions. The term for such opposition is [[aniconism]], with [[iconoclasm]] being the deliberate destruction of images by people of the same religion.

==Buddhist art==
{{more citations needed section|date=June 2015}}

{{main|Buddhist art}}
[[File:Sri lanka aukana buddha statue.jpg|thumb|Buddha statue in Sri Lanka.]]
Buddhist art originated on the [[Indian subcontinent]] following the historical life of [[Siddhartha Gautama]], 6th to 5th century BC, and thereafter evolved by contact with other cultures as it spread throughout Asia and the world.

Buddhist art followed believers as the dharma spread, adapted, and evolved in each new host country. It developed to the north through [[Central Asia]] and into [[Eastern Asia]] to form the Northern branch of Buddhist art.

Buddhist art followed to the east as far as [[Southeast Asia]] to form the Southern branch of Buddhist art.

[[File:Thangka Depicting Vajrabhairava, ca. 1740, Sotheby's.jpg|thumb|An example of Tibetan Buddhist art: Thangka Depicting [[Vajrabhairava]], c. 1740]]

In India, the Buddhist art flourished and even influenced the development of [[Hindu art]], until Buddhism nearly disappeared in India around the 10th century due in part to the vigorous expansion of [[Islam]] alongside [[Hinduism]].

===Tibetan Buddhist art===
Most Tibetan Buddhist artforms are related to the practice of [[Vajrayana]] or Buddhist tantra.
[[Tibetan art]] includes [[thangka]]s and [[mandala]]s, often including depictions of [[Buddhahood|Buddhas]] and [[bodhisattva]]s. Creation of Buddhist art is usually done as a [[meditation]] as well as creating an object as aid to meditation. An example of this is the creation of a [[sand mandala]] by monks; before and after the construction prayers are recited, and the form of the mandala represents the pure surroundings (palace) of a Buddha on which is meditated to train the mind. The work is rarely, if ever, signed by the artist. Other Tibetan Buddhist art includes metal ritual objects, such as the [[vajra]] and the [[phurba]].

===Indian Buddhist art===
Two places suggest more vividly than any others the vitality of Buddhist cave painting from about the 5th century AD. One is Ajanta, a site in India long forgotten until discovered in 1817. The other is Dunhuang, one of the great oasis staging posts on the Silk Road...The paintings range from calm devotional images of the Buddha to lively and crowded scenes, often featuring the seductively full-breasted and narrow-waisted women more familiar in Indian sculpture than in painting.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?gtrack=pthc&ParagraphID=bdc#bdc |title=History Of Buddhism |publisher=Historyworld.net |access-date=2013-09-06}}</ref>

===Chinese Buddhist art===
{{See also|Shuilu ritual paintings}}

==Christian art==
{{main|Christian art|Catholic art|Byzantine art}}
{{See also|Religious image#Christianity|Madonna (art)|Icon|Images of Jesus}}

Christian sacred art is produced in an attempt to illustrate, supplement and portray in tangible form the principles of [[Christianity]], though other definitions are possible. It is to make imagery of the different beliefs in the world and what it looks like. Most Christian groups use or have used art to some extent, although some have had strong objections to some forms of religious image, and there have been major periods of [[iconoclasm]] within Christianity.

Most Christian art is allusive, or built around [[theme (literary)|theme]]s familiar to the intended observer. Images of [[Jesus]] and narrative scenes from the [[Life of Christ in art|Life of Christ]] are the most common subjects, especially the images of [[Christ]] on the [[Cross]].

Scenes from the [[Old Testament]] play a part in the art of most Christian denominations. Images of the [[Mary (mother of Jesus)|Virgin Mary]], holding the [[Child Jesus|infant Jesus]], and images of saints are much rarer in Protestant art than that of [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]] and [[Eastern Orthodoxy]].

For the benefit of the illiterate, an elaborate [[iconographic]] system developed to conclusively identify scenes. For example, [[Saint Agnes]] depicted with a lamb, [[Saint Peter]] with keys, [[Saint Patrick]] with a shamrock. Each saint holds or is associated with attributes and symbols in sacred art.

===History===
[[File:VirgenNino.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Virgin and Child. Wall painting from the early [[catacombs]], Rome, 4th century.]]
[[Early Christian art]] survives from dates near the origins of Christianity. The oldest surviving Christian paintings are from the site at [[Tel Megiddo|Megiddo]], dated to around the year 70, and the oldest Christian sculptures are from [[sarcophagi]], dating to the beginning of the 2nd century. Until the [[Constantine I and Christianity|adoption of Christianity by Constantine]] Christian art derived its style and much of its [[iconography]] from popular [[Roman art]], but from this point grand Christian buildings built under imperial patronage brought a need for Christian versions of Roman elite and official art, of which [[mosaic]]s in churches in Rome are the most prominent surviving examples. 
Christian art would soon become the foundation of churches across Europe. Stained glass windows often depict biblical scenes to be reflected across the inner workings of the building. Murals and altarpiece art also fill churches with intricate and expressive Christian images.

During the development of early Christian art in the [[Byzantine Empire]] (see [[Byzantine art]]), a more abstract aesthetic replaced the naturalism previously established in [[Hellenistic Greece|Hellenistic]] art. This new style was hieratic, meaning its primary purpose was to convey religious meaning rather than accurately render objects and people. Realistic perspective, proportions, light and colour were ignored in favour of geometric simplification of forms, reverse perspective and standardized conventions to portray individuals and events. The controversy over the use of ''graven images'', the interpretation of the Second Commandment, and the crisis of [[Byzantine Iconoclasm]] led to a standardization of religious imagery within the [[Eastern Orthodoxy]].

[[File:Botticelli - Madone de l'Eucharistie.jpg|thumb|An example of a [[Madonna (art)|Madonna]] with an Angel, painted by [[Sandro Botticelli]] (1470) and commissioned by the [[Catholic Church]] during the [[Renaissance]] in [[Florence]] (Boston, Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum)]]

The Renaissance saw an increase in monumental secular works, but until the [[Protestant Reformation]] Christian art continued to be produced in great quantities, both for churches and clergy and for the laity. During this time, [[Michelangelo Buonarroti]] painted the [[Sistine Chapel]] and carved the famous ''[[Pietà]]'', [[Gianlorenzo Bernini]] created the massive columns in [[St. Peter's Basilica]], and [[Leonardo da Vinci]] painted the ''[[Last Supper]]''. The Reformation had a [[The Reformation and art|huge effect on Christian art]], rapidly bringing the production of public Christian art to a virtual halt in Protestant countries, and causing the destruction of most of the art that already existed.

As a secular, non-sectarian, universal notion of art arose in 19th-century Western Europe, secular artists occasionally treated Christian themes ([[Bouguereau]], [[Manet]]). Only rarely was a Christian artist included in the historical canon (such as [[Georges Rouault|Rouault]] or [[Stanley Spencer]]). However many modern artists such as [[Eric Gill]], [[Marc Chagall]], [[Henri Matisse]], [[Jacob Epstein]], [[Elisabeth Frink]] and [[Graham Sutherland]] have produced well-known works of art for churches.<ref>Beth Williamson, ''Christian Art: A Very Short Introduction'', [[Oxford University Press]] (2004), page 110.</ref> Through a social interpretation of Christianity, [[Fritz von Uhde]] also revived the interest in sacred art, through the depiction of Jesus in ordinary places in life.

Since the advent of printing, the sale of reproductions of pious works has been a major element of popular Christian culture. In the 19th century, this included genre painters such as [[Mihály Munkácsy]]. The invention of color lithography led to broad circulation of [[holy card]]s. In the modern era, companies specializing in modern commercial Christian artists such as [[Thomas Blackshear]] and [[Thomas Kinkade]], although widely regarded in the fine art world as [[kitsch]],<ref>Cynthia A. Freeland, ''But Is It Art?: An Introduction to Art Theory'', Oxford University Press (2001), page 95</ref> have been very successful.

The last part of the 20th and the first part of the 21st century have seen a focused effort by artists who claim faith in Christ to re-establish art with themes that revolve around faith, Christ, God, the Church, the Bible and other classic Christian themes as worthy of respect by the secular art world. Art could then be used to cultivate the church to participate in Christianity once again. Artists such as [[Makoto Fujimura]] have had significant influence both in sacred and secular arts. Other notable artists include [[Larry D. Alexander]], Gary P. Bergel, Carlos Cazares, Bruce Herman, Deborah Sokolove, and [[John August Swanson]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Buenconsejo, Clara|date=21 May 2015|title=Contemporary Religious Art|url=http://blog.mozaico.net/contemporary-religious-art/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150929011640/http://blog.mozaico.net/contemporary-religious-art/|archive-date=29 September 2015|access-date=2 June 2015|publisher=Mozaico}}</ref>

== Confucian art ==
{{main|Confucian art}}
[[File:Anonymous - Odes of the State of Bin - 1982.459 - Metropolitan Museum of Art.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Odes of the State of Bin is a poem from [[Classic of Poetry|The Book of Odes]], a collection of poetry complied by Confucius. This image is a section of the scroll of an unidentified artist from the 13th century, and it narrates the poem about rural living.]]
Confucian art is inspired by [[Confucianism]], coined after the [[Chinese philosophy|Chinese philosopher]] and politician [[Confucius]]. Confucian art originated in [[China]], then spread westwards on the [[Silk Road]], southward down to [[Northern and southern China|southern China]] and then onto [[Southeast Asia]], and eastwards through [[North China|northern China]] on to [[Japan]] and [[Korea]]. While it still maintains a strong influence within Indonesia, Confucian influence on western art has been limited. While Confucian themes enjoyed representation in Chinese art centers, they are fewer in comparison to the number of artworks that are about or influenced by [[Taoism|Daoism]] and [[Buddhism]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Karetzky |first=Patricia |title=Chinese Religious Art |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2014 |isbn=9780739180587 |location=Lanham, MD |page=127}}</ref>

=== History ===
Prior to the [[Han dynasty]], the Chinese art hierarchy considered [[Music of China|music]] as the highest form of art and dismissed [[Chinese calligraphy|calligraphy]], [[Chinese poetry|poetry]], and [[Chinese painting|painting]] as art forms and craft practiced by the lower class. Nevertheless, poetry was also popular during Confucius's time, and poetry was both praised and ranked high in status with music. According to Confucius and his disciples, music strives to create and reflect harmony in the world; hence, education should begin with the foundations of poetry and moral behavior, and conclude with music.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Andrijauskas |first=Antanas |date=2016 |title=Visual Arts and Music in Traditional Chinese Art System |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/90012994 |journal=Music in Art |volume=41 |issue=1–2 |pages=165–187 |jstor=90012994 |issn=1522-7464}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Huang |first=Siu-Chi |date=1963 |title=Musical Art in Early Confucian Philosophy. |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1396785 |journal=Philosophy East and West |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=49–60 |doi=10.2307/1396785 |jstor=1396785 }}</ref> Over time, the development of the [[Written Chinese|Chinese writing system]] promoted the growth of calligraphy and visual arts in terms of social status. Confucian aesthetics and values further contributed to the development of these visual art forms, with [[Chinese painting|landscape paintings]] and calligraphy works centralizing on the written works and teachings of Confucianism.<ref name=":1" />

==Hindu art==
{{main|Hindu art}}
[[File:Painting of Indic deities (Krishna, Vishnu, Lakshmi, Shesha, Shiva, Parvati, Nandi, Lakshmi, Garuda, Hanuman, Rama, Sita) and a devotee (possibly Diwan Dina Nath), Mandi, ca.1830.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Painting of Indic deities (Krishna, Vishnu, Lakshmi, Shesha, Shiva, Parvati, Nandi, Lakshmi, Garuda, Hanuman, Rama, Sita) and a devotee (possibly Diwan Dina Nath), Mandi, ca.1830]]
{{Expand section|date=December 2023}}
[[Hinduism]], with its [[Hinduism by country|1 billion followers]], it makes up about 15% of the world's population and as such the culture that ensues it is full of different aspects of life that are effected by art.  There are 64 traditional arts that are followed that start with the classics of music and range all the way to the application and adornment of jewellery.  Since religion and culture are inseparable with Hinduism recurring symbols such as the gods and their reincarnations, the [[Padma (attribute)|lotus]] flower, extra limbs, and even the traditional arts make their appearances in many sculptures, paintings, music, and dance.

==Islamic  art==
{{main|Islamic art}}
[[File:Mihrab, Great Mosque of Kairouan.jpg|thumb|right|A specimen of Islamic sacred art: in the [[Great Mosque of Kairouan]] in [[Tunisia]], the upper part of the ''mihrab'' (prayer niche) is decorated with 9th-century lusterware tiles and painted intertwined vegetal motifs.]]

A prohibition against depicting representational images in religious art, as well as the naturally decorative nature of Arabic script, led to the use of calligraphic decorations, which usually involved repeating geometrical patterns and vegetal forms ([[arabesque]]s) that expressed ideals of order and nature. These were used on religious architecture, carpets, and handwritten documents.<ref name="huntfor">{{cite web|title=Islamic Art – Islamic Art of Calligraphy and Arabesque|url=http://www.huntfor.com/arthistory/medieval/islamic.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040218232141/http://www.huntfor.com/arthistory/medieval/islamic.htm|archive-date=2004-02-18|access-date=2014-02-11}}</ref> Islamic art has reflected this balanced, harmonious world-view. It focuses on spiritual essence rather than physical form.

While there has been an aversion to potential idol worship through Islamic history, this is a distinctly modern [[Sunni]] view. [[Persian miniature]]s, along with medieval [[depictions of Muhammad]] and [[angels in Islam]], stand as prominent examples contrary to the modern Sunni tradition. Also, [[Shi'a]] Muslims are much less averse to the depiction of figures, including the Prophet's as long as the depiction is respectful.

===Figure representation===
The Islamic resistance to the representation of living beings ultimately stems from the belief that the creation of living forms is unique to God. It is for this reason that the role of images and image makers has been controversial.

The strongest statements on the subject of figural depiction are made in the [[Hadith]] (Traditions of the Prophet), where painters are challenged to "breathe life" into their creations and threatened with punishment on the Day of Judgment. 
[[File:Ardabil Carpet.jpg|thumb|The [[Ardabil Carpet]], a [[Persian carpet]], [[Tabriz]], mid-16th century, depicts floral gardens shaped in a manner that reflects the Islamic symbolism of paradise.]]
The Qur'an is less specific but condemns idolatry and uses the Arabic term musawwir ("maker of forms", or artist) as an epithet for God. Partially as a result of this religious sentiment, figures in painting were often stylized and, in some cases, the destruction of figurative artworks occurred. [[Iconoclasm]] was previously known in the Byzantine period and aniconicism was a feature of the Judaic world, thus placing the Islamic objection to figurative representations within a larger context. As ornament, however, figures were largely devoid of any larger significance and perhaps therefore posed less challenge.<ref>{{cite web|title=Figural Representation in Islamic Art &#124; Thematic Essay &#124; Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/figs/hd_figs.htm|access-date=2013-09-06|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art}}</ref>
As with other forms of Islamic ornamentation, artists freely adapted and stylized basic human and animal forms, giving rise to a great variety of figural-based designs.

===Arabesque===
{{main|Arabesque}}

Arabesque is a decorative art style characterized by repetitive, intricate patterns of intertwined plants and abstract curvilinear motifs.<ref>{{cite web |title=Arabesque {{!}} decorative style {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/art/arabesque-decorative-style |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> 
It is believed to have originated in the Islamic world, and its use spread throughout the Middle East, Europe, and North Africa. It has played an important role in Islamic art, often serving as a form of religious expression. The term "arabesque" is a French term derived from the Italian word arabesco, meaning "in the Arabic style" <ref>{{cite web |title=Arabesque {{!}} Definition of Arabesque by Lexico |url=https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/arabesque |date=22 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191122225637/https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/arabesque |archive-date=2019-11-22 }}</ref>
Arabesque patterns can be found in various media, including ceramics, architecture, calligraphy, and textiles. Since the 19th century, Arabesque art has been highly influential in Western art and design, with many designers and artists incorporating patterns into their work.

===Calligraphy===
{{main|Islamic calligraphy}}

Calligraphy is a highly regarded element of Islamic art. The [[Qur'an]] was transmitted in Arabic, and inherent within the Arabic script is the potential for ornamental forms. The employment of calligraphy as ornament had a definite aesthetic appeal but often also included an underlying [[talisman]]ic component. While most works of art had legible inscriptions, not all Muslims would have been able to read them. One should always keep in mind, however, that calligraphy is principally a means to transmit a text, albeit in a decorative form.<ref>{{cite web|title=Calligraphy in Islamic Art &#124; Thematic Essay &#124; Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/cali/hd_cali.htm|access-date=2013-09-06|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art}}</ref>
From its simple and primitive early examples of the 5th and 6th century AD, the Arabic alphabet developed rapidly after the rise of Islam in the 7th century into a beautiful form of art. The main two families of calligraphic styles were the dry styles, called generally the [[Kufic]], and the soft cursive styles, which include [[Naskh (script)|Naskhi]], [[Thuluth]], [[Nastaliq]] and [[Islamic calligraphy|many others]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Art of Arabic Calligraphy|url=http://www.sakkal.com/ArtArabicCalligraphy.html|access-date=2013-09-06|publisher=Sakkal}}</ref>

===Geometry===
{{main|Islamic geometric patterns}}
Geometric patterns make up one of the three non-figural types of decoration in Islamic art.<ref name="Sam Amara">{{cite web |last1=Henry |first1=Richard |title=Language of Symmetry in Islamic Art |url=https://artofislamicpattern.com/resources/educational-posters/ |website=artofislamicpattern.com |publisher=Sam Amara |access-date=March 20, 2023}}</ref> Whether isolated or used in combination with non-figural ornamentation or figural representation, geometric patterns are popularly associated with Islamic art, largely due to their aniconic quality.<ref name="Sam Amara"/> These abstract designs not only adorn the surfaces of monumental Islamic architecture but also function as the major decorative element on a vast array of objects of all types.<ref>{{cite web|title=Geometric Patterns in Islamic Art &#124; Thematic Essay &#124; Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History &#124; The Metropolitan Museum of Art|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/geom/hd_geom.htm|access-date=2013-09-06|publisher=Metmuseum.org}}</ref>

'''Types Of Geometric Styles'''
 
[[Pattern|Geometric patterns]] are frequently associated with Islamic art, partly because of their iconic appeal, whether used alone or in conjunction with figural depiction or non-configurable adornment.<ref name="Jonathon Goldmann">{{cite web |last1=Morrison |first1=Geoffrey |title=Exploring The Alhambra Palace And Fortress In Granada, Spain |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/geoffreymorrison/2015/10/15/exploring-the-alhambra-palace-granada-spain/?sh=748419b948f1 |website=www.forbes.com/sites/geoffreymorrison |publisher=Jonathon Goldmann |access-date=March 20, 2023}}</ref> These [https://classroom.synonym.com/what-do-patterns-mean-in-islamic-architecture-12087246.html abstract patterns] are used as the primary ornamental feature on various items of all kinds, in addition to adorning the surfaces of massive Islamic buildings.<ref name="Jonathon Goldmann"/> Although geometric ornamentation may have peaked in the Islamic world, the Greeks, Romans and Sasanians in Iran were the sources for geometric shapes and elaborate patterns.<ref name="Geometric Patterns in Islamic Art">{{cite web |last1=Corbin |first1=Margaret |title=Geometric Patterns in Islamic Art |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/geom/hd_geom.htm |website=www.metmuseum.org |publisher=David Nick |access-date=March 20, 2023}}</ref> [https://www.ifdcouncil.org/5-of-the-most-awe-inspiring-islamic-artists/ Islamic artists] incorporated significant components of the classical past to invent a new form of decoration that highlighted the vitality of order and unity. Islamic astronomers, mathematicians and scientists contributed these forms, which were crucial for their type of art style.<ref name="Geometric Patterns in Islamic Art"/>

'''History And Design'''

Geometric shapes resemble the arabesque design found in many vegetal designs in terms of its abstraction, repeated motifs and symmetry. Geometric designs frequently coexist with [[Islamic calligraphy|calligraphic]] decoration.<ref name="Nimira Dewji">{{cite web |last1=Dewji |first1=Nimira |title=Geometric patterns in Islamic art emphasised unity and order |url=https://ismailimail.blog/2016/07/08/geometric-patterns-in-islamic-art-emphasised-unity-and-order/ |website=ISMAILIMAIL |date=8 July 2016 |publisher=Nimira Dewji |access-date=March 20, 2023}}</ref> Circles and interlaced circles, squares or four-sided polygons are the typical star pattern resulting from squares and triangles inscribed in a circle.<ref name="Nimira Dewji"/> Multi-sided polygons are the four fundamental shapes or “repeat units” from which the more complex patterns are built.<ref name="Nimira Dewji"/> It is evident, however, that the intricate designs found on several things come in various sizes and configurations, making them suitable for inclusion more than category.

The geometric shape of the circle is used in Islamic art to signify the fundamental symbol of oneness and the ultimate course of all diversity in creation.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Dewji |first1=Nimira |title=Geometric Patterns in Islamic Art |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/geom/hd_geom.htm |website=ISMAILIMAIL |publisher=David Nick |access-date=March 20, 2023}}</ref> As the illustration below shows, many classic Islamic patterns have ritual beginnings in the circle's raw partition into regular sections.

Four circle divisions resulted in the above pattern, created in [[Yazd|Yazd, Iran]], in the fifteenth century.<ref name="artofislamicpattern.com">{{cite web |last1=Henry |first1=Richard |title=Language of Symmetry in Islamic Art |url=https://artofislamicpattern.com/resources/educational-posters/ |website=The Art of Islamic Pattern |publisher=Sam Amara |access-date=March 20, 2023}}</ref> From there, a regular grid of triangles is created, and then the design is added on top of it. See how the intricate pattern intertwines with the fundamental design, shown in the images above as a white outline.<ref name="artofislamicpattern.com"/>

'''Alhambra Palace Geometry'''

Geometric patterns, biomorphic design [https://www.britannica.com/art/arabesque-decorative-style (arabesque)] and calligraphy are expertly combined in the Alhambra in Spain from the 14th century.<ref name="artofislamicpattern.com"/> Islamic art is made up of these three separate but complementary fields. They are arranged in a three-tiered hierarchy, with geometry at the button.<ref name="artofislamicpattern.com"/> This is frequently indicated by its use on the lower portions of walls or floors, as in the example above.

The decorative features used use a variety of symmetries that are now recognized as belonging to separate mathematical groups, yet the patterns’ delicacy and elegance are unmatched in contemporary mathematical thought.<ref name="Anna Yang">{{cite web |last1=Aba |first1=Ali |title=The Stunning Beauty of Islamic Geometric Pattern |url=https://medium.com/however-mathematics/the-stunning-beauty-of-islamic-geometric-patterns-4fb57ed5644a |website=Medium |date=3 November 2022 |publisher=Anna Yang |access-date=March 20, 2023}}</ref> Although it was once customary in Islam to use geometric shapes, these designs are works of architecture.<ref name="Anna Yang"/> Since the eighth century, [https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/cali/hd_cali.htm Muslim calligraphers] and geometric pattern designers have decorated mosques, castles and manuscripts.<ref name="Anna Yang"/> Most often, Islamic geometric designs are employed in places of worship as a way to exalt [[God in Islam|God.]] Grand structures made by divine geometry include buildings, gardens and floors.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Aba |first1=Ali |title=Exploring The Alhambra Palace And Fortress In Granada, Spain |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/geoffreymorrison/2015/10/15/exploring-the-alhambra-palace-granada-spain/?sh=748419b948f1 |website=Medium |publisher=Anna Yang |access-date=March 20, 2023}}</ref>
'''The Blue Mosque Geometry'''

There are observable patterns spanning a thousand years of Islamic history and throughout the entire Islamic world since these geometric patterns are also connected to [https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/islamic-culture#:~:text=The%20term%20%E2%80%9CIslamic%20culture%E2%80%9D%20embraces,at%20any%20point%20in%20time. Islamic culture].<ref name="Anna Yang"/> In some pieces of architecture, Islamic architects follow the same guidelines, such as in the [[Blue Mosque, Istanbul|Blue Mosque]] and the [[Alhambra]] in Granada pictured above. The Alhambra palace in Spain and the Samarkand mosque in Uzbekistan are just two examples of the art of repeated geometric designs that can be seen worldwide.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Aba |first1=Ali |title=Geometric Patterns in Islamic Art |url=https://ismailimail.blog/2016/07/08/geometric-patterns-in-islamic-art-emphasised-unity-and-order/ |website=www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/geom/hd_geom.htm |date=8 July 2016 |publisher=Anna Yang |access-date=March 20, 2023}}</ref>

== Jain art ==
{{main|Jain art}}
Jain art refers to religious works of art associated with [[Jainism]]. Even though Jainism spread only in some parts of India, it has made a significant contribution to [[Indian art]] and architecture.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kumar |first=Sehdev |title=Jain Temples of Rajasthan |url={{Google books|nSDACkmA_ukC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |year=2001 |publisher=Abhinav Publications |isbn=978-81-7017-348-9 |page=1}}</ref>

== Mandaean art ==
{{see also|List of Mandaean scriptures}}
[[File:Abatur at the scales.jpg|thumb|[[Mandaeism|Mandaean]] manuscript art featuring [[Abatur]] at the scales, from the ''[[Scroll of Abatur]]'']]
[[Mandaeism|Mandaean]] art can be found in illustrated manuscript scrolls called ''diwan''. Mandaean scroll illustrations, usually labeled with lengthy written explanations, typically contain abstract geometric drawings of [[uthra]]s that are reminiscent of [[cubism]] or [[prehistoric rock art]].<ref>{{cite book | last=Nasoraia | first=Brikha H.S. | title=The Mandaean gnostic religion: worship practice and deep thought | publisher=Sterling | publication-place=New Delhi | year=2021 | isbn=978-81-950824-1-4 | oclc=1272858968}}</ref>

== Sikh art ==
{{main|Sikh art}}

The art, culture, identity, and societies of the [[Sikhs]] has been merged with different locality and ethnicity of different Sikhs into categories such as '[[Agrahari Sikh]]s', '[[Dakhni Sikh]]s' and '[[Assamese Sikh]]s'; however there has emerged a niche cultural phenomenon that can be described as 'Political Sikh'.  The art of [[Sikh diaspora|diaspora Sikhs]] such as Amarjeet Kaur Nandhra,<ref>[http://www.artministry.co.uk/services/delta_cms/content/communitygroup.aspx?GroupID=104 Textile artist Amarjeet Kaur Nandhra]</ref> and Amrit and Rabindra Kaur Singh ([[The Singh Twins]]),<ref>[http://sikhchic.com/article-detail.php?id=168&cat=1 Singh Twins Art Launches Liverpool Fest]</ref> is partly informed by their Sikh spirituality and influence.

=== Images of the Sikh Gurus ===
Sikhism was founded in the 16th century by [[Guru Nanak]], who was first painted more than 200 years after he lived. The widely popular portraits of the [[Sikh gurus|ten Sikh gurus]] only appeared in the first half of the 18th century.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Brown |first1=Kerry |title=Sikh Art and Literature |date=1999 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=0-415-20288-4}}</ref> One of the first set of paintings of the Gurus were commissioned by [[Ram Rai|Baba Ram Rai]], the eldest son of the seventh Sikh guru, [[Guru Har Rai]].<ref name="Sikh Art">{{cite book |last1=Kaur Singh |first1=Nikky-Guninder |chapter=Sikh Art |publisher=Oxford Academic |title=The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies}}{{pn|date=February 2024}}</ref>

Most of the early portraits of the Sikh Gurus were painted in courtly Mughal style. Under the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal empire]], Punjabi artists at the time became trained in the Mughal style of painting, resulting in their work being highly influenced by the Mughal style of art.<ref name="Sikh Art"/> The early portraits of the Sikh Gurus and the elements in them, like their outfits, turbans, and poses, looked similar to Mughal nobles and princes. The Gurus are identified in [[Devanagari]], [[Gurmukhi]], and [[Persian alphabet|Persian scripts]], also composed in the Mughal style.<ref name="Sikh Art"/> In a painting from around 1750, the sixth Sikh guru is depicted in courtly Mughal dress and setting.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Brown |first1=Kerry |title=Sikh Art and Literature |date=1999 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=0-415-20288-4 |page=24}}</ref>

One of the first images of [[Guru Nanak]] depicts him as a pious, religious man with simple clothes and a rosary held in his hand, portraying his contemplative nature. The earlier of the ten Gurus have their images modeled on Guru Nanak's piety and simplicity. A transformation can be noticed with the sixth Guru when elements of political resistance and power are added, showing Sikh political struggles at the time. Further, with [[Guru Gobind Singh]], elements of grandeur were added, such as royal attire, precious jewels, elegant shoes, a grand turban, and a warrior-like sword.  

The Gurus are also extensively depicted in the [[Janamsakhis]] ([[Hagiography|hagiographies]] of the Guru). There are many paintings and depictions of Guru Nanak's life, specifically in the B-40 Janamsakhi. He is shown growing up from a little boy to a teenager to a youth, and then into a middle-aged man and eventually an old, wise man.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kaur Singh |first1=Nikky-Guninder |title=Corporeal Metaphysics: Guru Nanak in Early Sikh Art |journal=History of Religions |date=2013 |volume=53 |page=35 |doi=10.1086/671249 |s2cid=162323904}}</ref> The images also depict many core Sikh values along with the Political and Cultural forces that influenced his life and religion.

=== Sikh Art and Architecture during Maharaja Ranjit Singh's Reign ===
[[Ranjit Singh|Maharaja Ranjit Singh's]] reign (1801-1839) holds prime importance in Sikh history. He was a great patron of art and architecture and sponsored the construction of many magnificent forts, palaces, temples, [[gurdwara]]s, precious jewels, clothes, colorful paintings, minting of coins and luxury tents and canopies.<ref name="OUP Oxford">{{cite book |last1=Kaur Singh |first1=Nikky-Guninder |title=The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies |date=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780191004117 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7YwNAwAAQBAJ&q=sikh+art |access-date=2023-03-20}}{{pn|date=February 2024}}</ref> The most significant of these were the golden throne built by [[Hafez Muhammad Multani]] and the bejewelled canopy for the [[Guru Granth Sahib]].<ref name="OUP Oxford"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kaur Singh |first1=Nikky-Guninder |title=The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies |date=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780191004117}}{{pn|date=February 2024}}</ref>

[[Ranjit Singh|Ranjit Singh's]] most remarkable contribution was the refurbishment of the [[Golden Temple|Harmandir Sahib]]. He invited skilled architects, artists, wood carvers and other craftsmen to [[Amritsar]] for the renovation. He also hired a technical expert for the gold plating of the [[Golden Temple|Harmandir Sahib.]]<ref name="OUP Oxford"/> The [[Golden Temple|Harmandir Sahib]] is now embellished with semi-precious stones like [[Lapis lazuli|lapis lazulli]] and [[onyx]] along with its [[marble]] walls on the exterior. The walls also boast [[Arabesque]] and [[Kaleidoscope|kaleidoscopic]] designs. The interior is lined with mirrors and colorful glass and its upper part is covered with gilded copper plates.<ref name="OUP Oxford"/>
Besides the [[Golden Temple|Harmandir Sahib]], Ranjit Singh also contributed to the embellishments many other gurdwaras, drawing spectacular imagery from the [[Guru Granth Sahib]], the lives of the Gurus and the [[Janamsakhis]].<ref name="OUP Oxford"/> He also contributed to temples and mosques, with one of the most significant ones being expensive silver doors at a Hindu temple of [[Kali|Goddess Kali]]. Under Maharaja Ranjit Singh, cities like [[Lahore]], [[Amritsar]], [[Multan]], [[Sialkot]], [[Srinagar]] and [[Patiala]] thrived as centres of the arts.<ref name="OUP Oxford"/>

==Taoist art==
{{main|Taoist art}}
Taoist art (also spelled as Daoist art) relates to the Taoist philosophy and narratives of Lao-tzu (also spelled as Laozi) that promote "living simply and honestly and in harmony with nature."<ref>Augustin, Birgitta. “Daoism and Daoist Art.” In ''Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History''. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/daoi/hd_daoi.htm  (December 2011)</ref>

==Religious Symbolism and Iconography==
Across many religions, symbols or icons are used to represent specific beliefs. These small pieces of art are summaries of religion which can and have been used by many to imply what their beliefs are. For example, Christianity being symbolized by the cross icon and Islam being symbolized by the image of the star and crescent.
Also see: [[Religious symbol|Religious symbols]]

==See also==
*[[Religious image]]
*[[Spiritualist art]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book | author1=Evans, Helen C. | author2=Wixom, William D. | title=''The glory of Byzantium: art and culture of the Middle Byzantine era, A.D. 843–1261'' | location=New York | publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art | year=1997 | isbn=978-0-8109-6507-2 | url=https://archive.org/details/gloryofbyzantium00evan | url-access=registration }}
* Hein, David. “Christianity and the Arts.” ''The Living Church'', May 4, 2014, 8–11.
*{{cite book | title=''The Vatican: spirit and art of Christian Rome'' | location=New York | publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art | year=1982 | isbn=978-0-87099-348-0 | url=https://archive.org/details/vaticanspirit00metr | url-access=registration }}
*[[David Morgan (Art Historian)|Morgan, David]] (1998). ''[http://www.ucpress.edu/book.php?isbn=9780520219328 Visual Piety: A History and Theory of Popular Religious Images.]'' Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
*[http://philpapers.org/rec/SAUTWT Sauchelli, Andrea (2016). The Will to Make‐Believe: Religious Fictionalism, Religious Beliefs, and the Value of Art. ''Philosophy and Phenomenological Research'', 93, 3.]
* [[Charlene Spretnak]], ''[http://www.palgrave.com/page/detail/the-spiritual-dynamic-in-modern-art-charlene-spretnak/ The Spiritual Dynamic in Modern Art : Art History Reconsidered, 1800 to the Present]''.
* [[Gene Edward Veith|Veith, Gene Edward, ''junior'']]. ''The Gift of Art: the Place of the Arts in Scripture''. Downers Grove, Ill.: Inter-Varsity Press, 1983. 130 p. {{ISBN|978-0-87784-813-4}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Religious art}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Religious art| ]]
[[Category:Visual arts genres]]