Editing Repoussé and chasing

{{Short description|Metalworking technique}}
{{redirect|Chasing|other uses|Chasing (disambiguation)}}
{{for|the 2011 British short movie|Chased (film)}}
[[File:Mildenhall treasure great dish british museum.JPG|thumb|upright=1.2|The Great Dish, or Great Plate of Bacchus, from the Roman [[Mildenhall Treasure]]]]
[[File:Museo del Oro Tierradentro golden face.jpg|thumb|Golden mask from [[Colombia]], at the [[Museo del Oro]]. Possibly from the [[Calima culture]] (100&ndash;500 AD)]]
[[File:King Tut Burial Mask.jpg|thumb|[[mask of Tutankhamun|Golden mask]] of [[Tutankhamun]]'s mummy]]

'''''Repoussé''''' ({{IPA|fr|ʁəpuse|lang|fr-repoussé.ogg}}) or '''''repoussage''''' ({{IPA|fr|ʁəpusaʒ||fr-repoussage.ogg}}) is a [[metalworking]] technique in which a [[malleable]] metal is shaped by [[hammer]]ing from the reverse side to create a design in [[low relief]]. '''Chasing''' (French: ''[[:fr:ciselure|ciselure]]'') or '''embossing''' is a similar technique in which the piece is hammered on the front side, sinking the metal. The two techniques are often used in conjunction.

Many metals can be used for chasing and repoussé work, including [[gold]], [[silver]], [[copper]], and alloys such as [[steel]], [[bronze]], and [[pewter]].

These techniques are very ancient and have been extensively used all over the world, as they require only the simplest tools and materials, and yet allow great diversity of expression.  They are also relatively economical, since there is no loss or waste of metal, which mostly retains its original size and thickness.  Toolmarks are often intentionally left visible in the result.

A few among many famous examples of repoussé and chasing are the prehistoric [[Gundestrup cauldron]], the mask on the mummy of [[Tutankhamun]], the [[body armour]]s of the [[Bronze Age]], the copper ornaments made by the [[Southeastern Ceremonial Complex|Native Americans in the Southeastern United States]], and the [[Statue of Liberty]] in New York City.

==Etymology==
The word ''repoussé'' is [[French language|French]] and means "pushed up", ultimately from [[Latin]] ''pulsare'', which means "to push". Repoussage is the [[noun]] to refer to the technique, with ''repoussé'' being an [[adjective]] referring to a piece to which the technique has been applied (e.g. "''repoussé'' work", "''repoussé'' piece").

Chasing comes from the French word, ''chasser'' meaning to drive out, or to chase around which is what the artists are doing as they "chase" the forms on their metal in order to create their final design.

== History ==
The techniques of repoussé and chasing date from Antiquity and have been used widely with [[gold]] and [[silver]] for fine detailed work and with [[copper]], [[tin]], and [[bronze]] for larger sculptures.

===European prehistory and Bronze Age===
During the 3rd millennium BC, in the Middle East, a variety of semi-mass production methods were introduced to avoid repetitive free-hand work. With the simplest technique, sheet gold could be pressed into designs carved in ''intaglio'' in stone, bone, metal or even materials such as [[jet (lignite)|jet]].  The gold could be worked into the designs with wood tools or, more commonly, by hammering a wax or lead "force" over it.

The alternative to pressing gold sheet into a die is to work it over a design in cameo relief.  Here the detail would be greater on the back of the final design, so some final chasing from the front was often carried out to sharpen the detail.

The use of patterned punches dates back to the first half of the [[2nd millennium BC]], if not far earlier. The simplest patterned punches were produced by loops or scrolls of wire.

The [[Gundestrup cauldron]] (a product of the [[Celts|Celtic]] culture, made between 150 BC and 1 AD) had originally thirteen separate silver panels, with repoussé [[relief]], lining the inside and outside of the vessel.

===Ancient Egypt===
In 1400 BC, the Egyptian [[Amarna]] period, resin and mud for repoussé backing was in use.

A fine example of Egyptian repoussé is the mummy mask of [[Tutankhamun]], a [[Pharaoh]] of the late [[Eighteenth Dynasty]]. The majority of the mask was formed using the technique of repoussé from what appears to be a single sheet of gold. The lapis lazuli and other stones were inlaid in chased areas after the height of the form was completed.  The ceremonial beard, [[Nekhbet]] vulture, and [[Uraeus]] were attached separately.

===Classical antiquity===
[[Image:Byzantine - Chalice with Apostles Venerating the Cross - Walters 57636 - Profile.jpg|thumb| One of twenty-three silver altar vessels believed to have been found in the Syrian village of Kurin.  Silver repoussé, partially gilt.<ref>{{cite web |publisher= [[The Walters Art Museum]]
 |url= http://art.thewalters.org/detail/9463
 |title=Chalice with Apostles Venerating the Cross}}</ref> The Walters Art Museum.]] 
By [[Hellenistic]] times, combined punches and dies were in use. In 400 BC, the Greeks were using beeswax for filler in repoussé.

Classical pieces using repoussage and chasing include the [[bronze]] [[Greece|Greek]] armour plates from the 3rd century BC. 

The [[Warren Cup]] is a Roman silver cup, and the [[Mildenhall Treasure]], the [[Hoxne Hoard]], the [[Water Newton Treasure]] and the [[Berthouville Treasure]] are examples of [[hoard]]s of Roman silver found in [[England]] and northern [[France]] with many pieces using these techniques. Another example piece using this technique is [[Rhyton#Gallery|The Stag’s Head Rhyton]], dating to around 400 BCE, which is made from a silver sheet and features three scenes of warriors battling, each scene with two warriors.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2021/dec/07/us-billionaire-michael-steinhardt-surrenders-70m-dollars-stolen-art|first=Dalya|last=Alberge|work=www.theguardian.com|title=US billionaire surrenders $70m of stolen art|date=December 7, 2021|accessdate=December 7, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.georgeortiz.com/objects/greek-world-cont/152-rhyton-stag-s-head-classical/|work=www.georgeortiz.com|title=152. Rhyton (stag's head) - Classical|accessdate=December 7, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2021/12/06/hedge-fund-pioneer-michael-steinhardt-surrenders-stolen-antiquities-vance-says-.html|first1=Dan|last1=Mangan|first2=Jim|last2=Forkin|title=Hedge-fund pioneer Michael Steinhardt surrenders 180 stolen antiquities valued at $70 million, Manhattan DA Vance says|website=[[CNBC]] |date=December 6, 2021|accessdate=December 7, 2021}}</ref>

===India===
Repoussé and chasing are commonly used in [[India]] to create objects such as water vessels. These vessels are generally made using sheets of [[copper]] or [[silver]].

===Pre-Columbian America===
Repoussage and chasing were used by many Pre-Columbian civilizations in the Americas, such as the [[Chavín culture]] of [[Peru]] (about 900 to 200 BC), to make ornaments of gold and other metals.

During the [[Hopewell tradition|Hopewell]] and [[Mississippian culture|Mississippian]] periods of the American [[Southeastern United States|Southeast]] and [[Midwestern United States|Midwest]] goods of repoussé copper were fashioned as ritual regalia and eventually used in prestige burials.<ref>{{cite book | last = Power | first = Susan | title = Early Art of the Southeastern Indians-Feathered Serpents and Winged Beings | url = https://archive.org/details/earlyartofsouthe0000powe | url-access = registration | publisher = [[University of Georgia Press]] | year = 2004 | isbn = 0-8203-2501-5}}</ref> Examples have been found with many S.E.C.C. designs such as [[Southeastern Ceremonial Complex#Motifs|Bi-lobed arrow motif]] headdresses and [[Southeastern Ceremonial Complex#Birdman|falcon dancer]] plaques. Although examples have been found in a widely scattered area ([[Spiro Mounds|Spiro]], [[Oklahoma]], [[Etowah plates|Etowah]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], and [[Moundville Archaeological Site|Moundville]], [[Alabama]]), most are in what is known as the ''[[Southeastern Ceremonial Complex#Mississippian Ideological Interaction Sphere horizons|Braden Style]]'', thought to have originated at the [[Cahokia]] Site in [[Collinsville, Illinois]].<ref>{{cite book|editor1=F. Kent Reilly |editor2=James Garber | title = Ancient Objects and Sacred Realms |url=https://archive.org/details/ancientobjectssa0000unse |url-access=registration | publisher = [[University of Texas Press]] | year = 2004|isbn=978-0-292-71347-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |  last = Townsend | first = Richard F. |  title = Hero, Hawk, and Open Hand | publisher = [[Yale University Press]] | year = 2004 |  isbn = 0-300-10601-7}}</ref> Several copper workshops discovered during excavations of [[Mound 34]] at Cahokia are the only known Mississippian culture copper workshops.<ref name=PAWLACZYK>{{ citation| last= Pawlaczyk| first= George| author-link=George Pawlaczyk |url= http://sci.tech-archive.net/Archive/sci.archaeology/2010-02/msg00225.html|title=Copper men: Archaeologists uncover Stone Age copper workshop near Monk's Mound | date=Feb 16, 2010| access-date=2010-11-08 }}</ref><ref name=KELLY2009>{{cite tech report | url= http://cahokiamounds.org/explore/mound34_report2008.pdf | title= Summary of 2008 Field Excavations to Locate the Copper Workshop in the Mound 34 Area | author1= Kelly, John  E. | author2 = Kelly, Lucretia S. | author3 = Brown, James | institution= Central Mississippi Valley Archaeological Research Institute | year=2009}}</ref>

===Modern works===
The largest known [[sculpture]] created with this technique is the [[Statue of Liberty]], properly ''Liberté éclairant le monde'', ("Liberty Enlightening The World"), in [[Upper New York Bay]]. The statue was formed by [[copper]] repoussé in sections using wooden structures to shape each piece during the hammering process. 
<gallery>
File:Rawnsley shield.jpg|Arts and Crafts repousse shield made by [[Keswick School of Industrial Art]], UK, 1895
File:Repujado- caballo griego alestilo del período geométrico, por el artista mexicano Manolo Vega, 2011.jpg|Repoussè on tin sheet – "Greek horse" by Mexican artist Manolo Vega, 2011
File:Statueofliberty.jpg|The Statue of Liberty, New York (NY)
File:Construction of the Statue2.jpg|Construction of The Statue of Liberty
</gallery>

== Methods ==
[[Image:Maurice Ascalon 2.jpg|thumb|Sculptor [[Maurice Ascalon]] at work undertaking the finishing chasing of a copper repoussé relief sculpture circa 1939.]]

The process of chasing and repoussé requires a number of steps.

===Annealing===
The metal plate should usually be [[annealing (metallurgy)|annealed]]—that is, heated for some time at a temperature sufficient to [[recovery (metallurgy)|reduce its internal stresses]]—to make it as [[malleability|malleable]] as possible.  This process may have to be repeated several times, as many metals [[work hardening|harden]] and become brittle as they are deformed by the hammering.

===Pitch backing===
The plate must then be fixed on a suitable support.  A commonly used technique is to place the metal over a layer of [[chasers pitch]].  The pitch is heated until it is soft enough to make good contact with the metal, filling all its nooks and crannies, and then allowed to cool.  At room temperature, the pitch must be hard enough to adhere to the metal and hold it in place, but still soft and [[plasticity (physics)|plastic]] enough to "give" as the metal is hammered into it.

The pitch is often cast as a thick layer over some softer backing material that can absorb larger deformations.

The metal plate will have to be released from the pitch several times, for turning it over and/or for re-annealing.  Pitch residues stuck to the plate must be removed with an appropriate [[solvent]].

===Lining===
Once the plate is firmly held by the pitch, front side up, the outline of the desired design is lightly chased ("lined") on it by a special tool (a "liner"), that creates narrow raised lines on the other side.

===Repoussé and chasing===
The metal is turned over, and firmed again over the pitch, with the back side up. The main repoussé work is then performed, using a variety of punches.

Once the main repoussé is done, the piece is again released by heating.  The cavities on the back side, created by the repoussé  work, are filled with melted pitch.  Once that filling has hardened, the plate is again turned over and placed on top of a layer of softened pitch.  Once the pitch has hardened, the design is then refined by chasing.  These procedures can be repeated several times, alternating between repoussé and chasing.

===Hot forming===
Repoussé and chasing can also be done on materials, like [[steel]], that are too hard to be cold-formed by hammering.  That is accomplished by heating the piece to a high enough temperature to make it malleable, as in [[forging]].  In this case pitch must be dispensed with, or replaced by some material (like sand) that can withstand the heat and provide the right kind of "giving" support.

== Tools ==
[[File:The copper chaser.jpg|thumb|A chaser in [[Tunis]] using a lightweight chasing hammer and a liner to chase a pattern into a [[brass]] [[Mortar and pestle|mortar]].]]
The tools needed for these techniques are 
<ref name=oppi2011>Oppi Untracht (2011): ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kqZ1-HM9MBwC&dq=jeweler%27s+pitch&pg=PT508 Jewelry Concepts & Technology]''. Doubleday; 864 pages. {{isbn|9780307784117}}</ref>
* A container for the pitch, such as a "pitch tray" for larger plates, or a heavy [[Sphere|hemispherical]] [[cast iron]] "pitch bowl" for smaller ones.  The bowl can be placed over a sand bag or leather ring, and tilted to whatever angle is most convenient.
* A [[heat gun]] or [[blow torch]] to soften the pitch in order to fix the plate, or to release it.
* A set of "[[Punch (tool)|punches]]", that is, chisels with smooth tips that are used to push the metal:
**A "liner" has a flattened tip with a slightly curved blunt edge.  It is used to chase narrow grooves in the metal, or to repoussé narrow ridges from the back side; both for outlining the work, and to refine edges in the final object. 
**A "planisher" has a smooth, flat tip meant for pushing out large, flat areas of metal. 
**A "doming" or "dotting" tool has a round or oval tip of small to moderate diameter, and can be used to chase dimples or grooves, or repoussé bumps and ridges, of various widths.
**A "matting" tool has a pattern cut into the tip, and is used (mainly in chasing) to create textured areas.
**A "hollow-faced" punch has a raised contour (circular, or with some other shape) with a hollowed-out middle, and is used to stamp that contour, usually on the front face.
* A lightweight "chasing hammer", to drive the punches.
* An [[oxyacetylene]] torch, [[blowtorch]], or a [[forge]] for annealing or hot-working.

Other tools are usually handy, such as [[tweezer]]s or [[tongs]] to hold the hot plates.

The punches are usually made of steel, especially [[tool steel]]—a hard alloy that can keep its shape even after years of use—and are [[forge]]d and [[tempering (metallurgy)|tempered]] at the tip.  They usually have a beveled rear end, to better handle the hammer blows. They can be purchased and used as such, modified by the user to suit the needs of a specific work, or made by the user from bar stock.<ref name=Bowie>{{cite book|last=Bowie|first=Hamish|title=Jewelry Making|year=1977|publisher=Henry Regnery Company|location=Chicago|isbn=0-8092-8084-1|pages=36}}</ref>  To make or reform the punches, one needs a [[saw]] or other cutting device, as well as a [[grinding (abrasive cutting)|grinder]] and abrasives to shape and polish the tip.

==Gallery==
===Face masks===
<gallery>
File:Golden Mask of Princess of Chen State.jpg|Princess. Gold; Chen Kingdom of [[Liao dynasty|Liao Dynasty]], 1018 CE.
File:Golden mask of Agamemnon.jpg|"[[Mask of Agamemnon]]". Gold; [[Mycenae]], ca. 1600 BCE.
File:Detail 2 from Gundestrupkarret.jpg|Woman or goddess, Gundestrup Cauldron. Silver; Celtic, ca. 100 BCE.
File:Detail of Gundestrup Cauldron.jpg|Man or god, Gundestrup Cauldron. Silver; Celtic, ca. 100 BCE.
File:The golden life-size mask of Teres I found in his tomb in the Valley of the Thracian Kings.png|King [[Teres I]]. Gold; [[Thracia]], 431 BCE.
File:Golden Cavalry Face-Mask Helmet (Type Ribchester), found on the bed of the Corbulo Canal (Fossa Corbulonis) near the Roman fort of Matilo (modern Leiden), Rijksmuseum van Oudheden, Leiden, Netherlands (9570875526).jpg|Helmet. Gold; Roman.
</gallery>

==See also==
*[[Embossing (manufacturing)]] – rolling sheet metal through dies to produce a raised or sunk relief design.
*[[Metal spinning]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* {{Cite book | last1 = Coatsworth | first1 = Elizabeth | last2 = Pinder | first2 = Michael | editor1-first = John | editor1-last = Hines | editor2-first = Catherine | editor2-last = Cubitt | title = The Art of the Anglo-Saxon Goldsmith: Fine Metalwork in Anglo-Saxon England, its Practice and Practitioners | series = Anglo-Saxon Studies | volume = 2 | date = 2002 | publisher = The Boydell Press | location = Woodbridge | isbn = 0-85115-883-8 | name-list-style = amp }}
*{{cite book|last=Corwin|first=Nancy Megan|title=Chasing & Repoussé|year=2009|publisher=Brynmorgen Press|isbn=978-1-929565-32-0}}
*{{cite book|last=Googerty|first=Thomas Francis|title=Hand-forging and Wrought-iron Ornamental Work|url=https://archive.org/details/handforgingandw00googgoog|year=1911|publisher=Popular mechanics Company|page=[https://archive.org/details/handforgingandw00googgoog/page/n138 134]}}
* {{Cite book | last = Maryon | first = Herbert | author-link = Herbert Maryon | title = Metalwork and Enamelling | edition = 5th | date = 1971 | publisher = Dover | location = New York | chapter = Repoussé Work | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=AOP_RiQE6-AC&pg=PA113 | isbn = 0-486-22702-2 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/metalworkenamell00mary }}

==External links==
{{commons category|Repoussé}} 
*{{Cite NIE|wstitle=Chasing|year=1905|short=x}}
*{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Repoussé|short=x}}

{{Jewellery|state=collapsed}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Repousse And Chasing}}
[[Category:Visual arts terminology]]
[[Category:Jewellery making]]
[[Category:Sculpture techniques]]
[[Category:Native American art]]
[[Category:Metal forming]]