Editing Roman conquest of Britain

{{Short description|First century AD invasion of Britain by the Romans}}
{{About|the conquest begun in AD 43|other Roman invasions of Britain|Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain|and|Carausian revolt}}
{{More citations needed|date=March 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}

{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict          = Roman conquest of Britain
| width             = 
| partof            = 
| image             = Roman.Britain.campaigns.43.to.84.jpg
| image_size        = 300px
| alt               = 
| caption           = Roman conquest of Britain, showing the dominant local tribes/kingdoms conquered in each area
| date              = AD 43–84
| place             = [[Great Britain]]
| territory         = Most of Britain annexed by Rome
| result            = Roman victory
| combatant1        = [[Roman Empire]]
| combatant2        = [[Celtic Britons]]
| commander1        = [[Claudius]]<br/>[[Aulus Plautius]]<br/>[[Gaius Suetonius Paulinus]]<br/>[[Vespasian]]<br/>[[Gnaeus Julius Agricola]]
| commander2        = [[Togodumnus]]{{KIA}}<br/>[[Caratacus]]{{POW}}<br/>[[Boudica]]{{KIA|Suicide}}<br/>[[Calgacus]]
| strength1         = 
| strength2         = 
| casualties1       = Boudican revolt: 30,000–40,000 killed (including 7,000 soldiers)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gillespie |first1=Caitlin C. |title=Boudica: Warrior Woman of Roman Britain |date=2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780190875589 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E3FGDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT155}}</ref>
| casualties2       = 100,000–250,000 killed<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nicholas |first1=Crane |title=The Making Of The British Landscape: From the Ice Age to the Present |date=2016 |publisher=Orion |isbn=9780297857358 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m-AeCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT163}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Copeland |first1=Tim |title=Life in a Roman Legionary Fortress |date=2014 |publisher=Amberley Publishing Limited |isbn=9781445643939 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aq2lBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT14}}</ref>
}}

{{Campaignbox Roman conquest of Britain}}

The '''Roman conquest of Britain''' was the [[Roman Empire]]'s conquest of most of the island of [[Great Britain|Britain]], which was inhabited by the [[Celtic Britons]]. It began in earnest in AD 43 under Emperor [[Claudius]], and was largely completed in the southern half of Britain (most of what is now called [[England and Wales]]) by AD 87, when the [[Stanegate]] was established. The conquered territory became the Roman [[Roman Britain|province of Britannia]]. 

Following [[Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain]] in 54 BC, some southern British chiefdoms had become [[Roman client kingdoms in Britain|allies of the Romans]]. The exile of their ally [[Verica]] gave the Romans a pretext for invasion. The [[Roman army]] was recruited in [[Roman Italy|Italia]], [[Hispania]], and [[Gaul]] and used the newly-formed fleet ''[[Classis Britannica]]''. Under their general [[Aulus Plautius]], the Romans pushed inland from the southeast, defeating the Britons in the [[Battle of the Medway]]. By AD 47, the Romans held the lands southeast of the [[Fosse Way]]. British resistance was led by the chieftain [[Caratacus]] until [[Caratacus' last battle|his defeat]] in AD 50. The isle of [[Anglesey|Mona]], a stronghold of the [[druid]]s, was [[Roman conquest of Anglesey|attacked in AD 60]].<ref>Churchill, ''A History of the English-Speaking Peoples'', p. 5</ref> This was interrupted by [[Boudican revolt|an uprising]] led by [[Boudica]],<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' 14.29–39</ref><ref>{{Harvcolnb|Tacitus ''Agricola''|loc=14–16}}</ref><ref>Dio Cassius, ''Roman History'', 62.1–12</ref> in which the Britons destroyed [[Camulodunum]],<ref>Churchill, ''A History of the English-Speaking Peoples'', p. 6</ref> [[Verulamium]]<ref name="englishspeakingP7">Churchill, ''A History of the English-Speaking Peoples'', p. 7</ref> and [[Londinium]].<ref name="englishspeakingP7"/><ref>Welch, ''Britannia: The Roman Conquest & Occupation of Britain'', 1963, p. 107</ref> The Romans put down the rebellion.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'', 14.37</ref><ref>Matyszak, ''The Enemies of Rome'', p. 189</ref> 

The [[Wales in the Roman era|conquest of Wales]] lasted until {{circa|AD 77}}. Roman general [[Gnaeus Julius Agricola]] conquered much of northern Britain during the following seven years. In AD 84, Agricola defeated a [[Caledonians|Caledonian]] army, led by [[Calgacus]], at the [[Battle of Mons Graupius]].<ref>Fraser, ''The Roman Conquest Of Scotland: The Battle Of Mons Graupius AD 84''</ref><ref>Churchill, ''A History of the English-Speaking Peoples'', p. 9</ref> However, the Romans soon withdrew from northern Britain. After [[Hadrian's Wall]] was established as the northern border, tribes in the region repeatedly rebelled against Roman rule and forts continued to be maintained across northern Britain to protect against these attacks.<ref>Churchill, ''A History of the English-Speaking Peoples'', p. 10</ref>

==Background==
{{Further|Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain}}
[[File:South.Britain.Late.Iron.Age.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Southern British tribes before the Roman invasion]]
In common with other regions on the edge of the empire, Britain had enjoyed diplomatic and trading links with the Romans in the century since [[Julius Caesar]]'s [[Caesar's invasions of Britain|expeditions in 55 and 54&nbsp;BC]], and Roman economic and cultural influence was a significant part of the British late pre-Roman [[Iron Age]], especially in the south.

Between 55&nbsp;BC and the 40s&nbsp;AD, the ''status quo'' of tribute, hostages, and [[Roman client kingdoms in Britain|client states]] without direct military occupation, begun by Caesar's invasions of Britain, largely remained intact. [[Augustus]] prepared invasions in 34&nbsp;BC, 27&nbsp;BC and 25&nbsp;BC. The first and third were called off due to revolts elsewhere in the empire, the second because the Britons seemed ready to come to terms.<ref>[[Dio Cassius]], ''Roman History'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/49*.html#38 49.38] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221102011210/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/49%2A.html#38 |date=2 November 2022 }}, [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/53*.html#22 53.22], [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/53*.html#25 53.25]</ref> According to Augustus's ''[[Res Gestae Divi Augusti|Res Gestae]]'', two British kings, [[Dubnovellaunus]] and [[Tincomarus]], fled to Rome as supplicants during his reign,<ref>[[Augustus]], ''[[Res Gestae Divi Augusti]]'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Augustus/Res_Gestae/6*.html#32 32] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221102011210/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Augustus/Res_Gestae/6%2A.html#32 |date=2 November 2022 }}. The name of the second king is defaced, but Tincomarus is the most likely reconstruction.</ref> and [[Strabo]]'s ''[[Geographica]]'', written during this period, says Britain paid more in customs and duties than could be raised by taxation if the island were conquered.<ref>[[Strabo]], ''Geography'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/4E*.html 4.5] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221102011210/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/4E%2A.html |date=2 November 2022 }}</ref>

By the 40s&nbsp;AD, the political situation within Britain was in ferment. The [[Catuvellauni]] had displaced the [[Trinovantes]] as the most powerful kingdom in south-eastern Britain, taking over the former Trinovantian capital of [[Camulodunum]] ([[Colchester]]). The [[Atrebates]] tribe whose capital was at Calleva Atrebatum ([[Silchester]]) had friendly trade and diplomatic links with Rome and [[Verica]] was recognised by Rome as their king, but [[Caratacus]]' [[Catuvellauni]] conquered the entire kingdom some time after AD 40 and Verica was expelled from Britain.<ref>[[Dio Cassius]], ''Roman History'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/60*.html#19 60:19] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120717074020/http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/60*.html#19 |date=17 July 2012 }}</ref><ref>John Creighton (2000), ''Coins and Power in Late Iron Age Britain'', Cambridge University Press</ref>

[[Caligula]] may have planned a campaign against the Britons in AD 40, but its execution was unclear: according to [[Suetonius]]' ''[[The Twelve Caesars]]'', he drew up his troops in battle formation facing the [[English Channel]] and, once his forces had become quite confused, ordered them to gather [[seashell]]s, referring to them as "plunder from the ocean due to the [[Capitoline Hill|Capitol]] and the [[Palatine Hill|Palace]]".<ref>[[Suetonius]], ''Caligula'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Caligula*.html#44 44–46] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210713102249/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Caligula%2A.html#44 |date=13 July 2021 }}; Dio Cassius, ''Roman History'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/59*.html#25 59.25] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221102011210/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/59%2A.html#25 |date=2 November 2022 }}</ref> Alternatively, he may have told them to gather "huts", since the word ''musculi'' was also soldier's [[slang]] for engineers' huts and Caligula himself was very familiar with the Empire's soldiers.<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/history/10191974/Caligula-Mad-bad-and-maybe-a-little-misunderstood.html Caligula: Mad, bad, and maybe a little misunderstood] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180730172231/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/history/10191974/Caligula-Mad-bad-and-maybe-a-little-misunderstood.html |date=30 July 2018 }}, ''Telegraph''</ref> In any case this readied the troops and facilities that would make Claudius' invasion possible three years later. For example, Caligula built a lighthouse at Bononia (modern [[Boulogne-sur-Mer]]), the ''Tour d'Ordre'', that provided a model for the one built soon after at [[Dubris]] (Dover).

==Preparations for the invasion under Claudius==

In 43, possibly by reassembling Caligula's troops from 40, [[Claudius]] mounted an invasion force under overall charge of [[Aulus Plautius]], a distinguished senator.<ref>Dio Cassius, ''Roman History'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/60*.html#19 60.19–22] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120717074020/http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/60*.html#19 |date=17 July 2012 }}</ref> A pretext of the invasion was to reinstate [[Verica]], the exiled king of the [[Atrebates]].

It is unclear how many [[Roman legion|legions]] were sent: only the ''{{lang|la|[[Legio II Augusta]]}}'', commanded by future emperor [[Vespasian]], was directly attested to have taken part.<ref>{{citation |author=Tacitus |title=[[Histories (Tacitus)|Histories]] |at=[[s:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 3#44|3.44]] }}</ref>

The ''{{lang|la|[[Legio IX Hispana|IX Hispana]]}}'',<ref>{{citation |author=Tacitus |title=Annals |at=[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 14#32|14.32]] }}</ref> the ''{{lang|la|[[Legio XIV Gemina|XIV Gemina]]}}'' (later styled ''{{lang|la|Martia Victrix}}'') and the ''{{lang|la|[[Legio XX Valeria Victrix|XX]]}}'' (later styled ''{{lang|la|Valeria Victrix}}'')<ref>{{citation |author=Tacitus |title=Annals |at=[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 14#34|14.34]] }}</ref> are known to have served during the [[Boudican revolt]] of 60–61, and were probably there since the initial invasion, but the [[Roman army]] was flexible, with cohorts and auxiliary units being moved around whenever necessary.

Three other men of appropriate rank to command legions are known from the sources to have been involved in the invasion. [[Cassius Dio]] mentions [[Gnaeus Hosidius Geta]], who probably led the ''IX Hispana'', and Vespasian's brother [[Titus Flavius Sabinus (consul AD 47)|Titus Flavius Sabinus the Younger]]. He wrote that Sabinus was Vespasian's lieutenant, but as Sabinus was the older brother and preceded Vespasian into public life, he could hardly have been a [[military tribune]]. [[Eutropius (historian)|Eutropius]] mentions [[Gnaeus Sentius Saturninus (consul 41)|Gnaeus Sentius Saturninus]], although as a former consul he may have been too senior, and perhaps accompanied Claudius later.<ref>[[Eutropius (historian)|Eutropius]], ''Abridgement of Roman History'' {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20190911110401/http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/eutropius/trans7.html#13 7:13]}}</ref>

==Crossing and landing==
{{Main|Site of the Claudian invasion of Britain}}
[[File:British.coinage.Roman.invasion.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.1|Campaigns under Aulus Plautius and the British tribes]]

The main invasion force under Aulus Plautius crossed in three divisions. The port of departure is usually taken to have been Bononia ([[Boulogne]]), and the main landing at [[Richborough Castle|Rutupiae]] ([[Richborough]], on the east coast of [[Kent]]). Neither of these locations is certain. Dio does not mention the port of departure, and although Suetonius says that the secondary force under Claudius sailed from Boulogne<ref name="penelope.uchicago.edu">Suetonius, ''Claudius'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Claudius*.html#17 17] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120630034237/http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Claudius*.html#17 |date=30 June 2012 }}</ref> it does not necessarily follow that the entire invasion force did. Richborough had a large natural harbour, which would have been suitable, and archaeology shows Roman military occupation at about the right time. However Dio says the Romans sailed east to west, and a journey from Boulogne to Richborough is south to north. Some historians<ref>For example, John Manley, ''AD43: a Reassessment''.</ref> suggest a sailing from Boulogne to the [[Solent]], landing in the vicinity of [[Noviomagus Reginorum|Noviomagus]] ([[Chichester]]) or [[Southampton]], in territory formerly ruled by Verica.

==River battles==
British resistance was led by [[Togodumnus]] and [[Caratacus]], sons of the late king of the Catuvellauni, [[Cunobeline]]. A substantial British force met the Romans at a river crossing thought to be near [[Rochester, Kent|Rochester]] on the [[River Medway]]. The [[Battle of the Medway]] raged for two days. [[Gnaeus Hosidius Geta]] was almost captured, but recovered and turned the battle so decisively that he was awarded the [[Roman triumph]]. At least one division of auxiliary [[Batavi_(Germanic_tribe)|Batavian]] troops swam across the river as a separate force.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britishbattles.com/wars-of-roman-britain/battle-of-medway/|title=Battle of Medway – Vespasian and the Roman Conquest of Southern England|website=www.britishbattles.com}}</ref>

The British were pushed back to the [[River Thames|Thames]]. They were pursued by the Romans across the river, causing some Roman losses in the marshes of [[Essex]]. Whether the Romans made use of an existing bridge for this purpose or built a temporary one is uncertain.

Togodumnus died shortly after the battle on the Thames. Plautius halted and sent word for Claudius to join him for the final push. Cassius Dio presents this as Plautius needing the emperor's assistance to defeat the resurgent British, who were determined to avenge Togodumnus. However, Claudius was no military man. The [[Praetorian Guard#Under the Julio-Claudian dynasty|Praetorian cohorts]] accompanied Emperor Claudius to Britain in AD 43. [[Arch of Claudius (British victory)|The Arch of Claudius]] in Rome says he received the surrender of eleven British kings with no losses,<ref>[[Wikisource:Arch of Claudius|Arch of Claudius]]</ref> and Suetonius' ''The Twelve Caesars'' says that Claudius received the surrender of the Britons without battle or bloodshed.<ref name="penelope.uchicago.edu"/> It is likely that the Catuvellauni were already as good as beaten, allowing the emperor to appear as conqueror on the final march on Camulodunum. Cassius Dio relates that he brought [[war elephant]]s and heavy armaments which would have overawed any remaining native resistance. Eleven tribes of South East Britain surrendered to Claudius and the Romans prepared to move further west and north. The Romans established their new capital at Camulodunum and Claudius returned to Rome to celebrate his victory. Caratacus escaped with his family, retainers, and treasure, to continue his resistance further west.

After the invasion, Verica may have been restored as king of the Atrebates although by this time he would have been very elderly. In any case a new ruler for their region, [[Cogidubnus]], soon appeared as his heir and as king of a number of territories following the first stage of the conquest as a reward as a Roman ally.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Tacitus ''Agricola''|loc=14}}</ref>

==AD&nbsp;44–60==
[[File:Roman.Britain.campaigns.43.to.60.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Roman campaigns from AD&nbsp;43 to 60]]
[[File:Forts of the conquest period of Roman Britain.jpg|thumb|Forts of the conquest period of Roman Britain<ref>Anne Johnson, Roman Forts of the 1st and 2nd Centuries Ad in Britain and the German Provinces {{ISBN|0-312-68981-0}}</ref>]]

[[Vespasian]] took a force westwards, subduing tribes and capturing ''[[oppidum|oppida]]'' settlements as he went. The force proceeded at least as far as [[Exeter]], which became a base for the Roman legion, Legio II Augusta, from 55 until 75.<ref>Suetonius, ''Vespasian'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Vespasian*.html#4 4] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210713102257/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Vespasian%2A.html#4 |date=13 July 2021 }}</ref> [[Legio IX Hispana]] was sent north towards [[Lincoln, England|Lincoln]] ({{langx|la|Lindum Colonia}}) and by 47 it is likely that an area south of a line from the [[Humber]] to the [[Severn Estuary]] was under Roman control. That this line is followed by the Roman road of the [[Fosse Way]] has led many historians to debate the route's role as a convenient frontier during the early occupation. It is unlikely that the border between Roman and Iron Age Britain was fixed with modern precision during this period.

Late in 47 the new governor of Britain, [[Publius Ostorius Scapula]], began a campaign against the tribes of modern-day [[Wales]], and the [[Cheshire Plain|Cheshire Gap]]. The [[Silures]] of southeast Wales caused considerable problems to Ostorius and fiercely defended their border country. Caratacus himself led this guerilla campaign but was defeated when he finally chose to offer a [[Caratacus' last battle|decisive battle]]; he fled to the Roman client tribe of the Brigantes who occupied the [[Pennines]]. Their queen [[Cartimandua]] was unable or unwilling to protect him however, given her own accommodation with the Romans, and handed him over to the invaders. Ostorius died and was replaced by [[Aulus Didius Gallus]] who brought what are now the Welsh borders under control but did not move further north or west, probably because Claudius was keen to avoid what he considered a difficult and drawn-out war for little material gain in the mountainous terrain of upland Britain. When [[Nero]] became emperor in 54, he seems to have decided to continue the invasion and appointed [[Quintus Veranius]] as governor, a man experienced in dealing with the troublesome hill tribes of [[Anatolia]]. Veranius and his successor [[Gaius Suetonius Paulinus]] mounted a successful campaign across North Wales, famously killing many [[druid]]s when he [[Roman conquest of Anglesey|invaded the island of Anglesey]] in 60. Final occupation of Wales was postponed however when the rebellion of [[Boudica]] forced the Romans to return to the south east in 60 or 61.

==AD&nbsp;60–78==
Following the successful [[Battle of Watling Street|suppression]] of [[Boudica]]'s uprising in 60 or 61, new Roman governors continued the conquest by edging north.
{{See|Boudican revolt}}

===Conquests to the North===

The [[casus belli]] presented itself in 69 when [[Cartimandua]] queen of the Brigantes<ref>Tacitus, ''Histories'', 3.45, Rome.</ref> following a rebellion by her husband [[Venutius]] was forced to ask the Romans for aid, who evacuated her leaving Venutius in power. About Venutius one speculation is that he might have been a [[Carvetii|Carvetian]] and may therefore have been responsible for the incorporation of Cumbria into a Brigantian federation whose territory straddled Britain along the [[Solway Firth|Solway]]-[[River Tyne|Tyne]] line; furthermore Cartimandua may have ruled the Brigantian peoples east of the Pennines (possibly with a centre at [[Stanwick Iron Age Fortifications|Stanwick]], Yorkshire), while Venutius was the chief of the Brigantes west of the Pennines (or Carvetii), in Cumbria (with a possible centre based at [[Clifton Dykes]]).<ref name="Shotter2004">{{Cite book |last=Shotter |first=David C. A. |title=Romans and Britons in North-West England |date=2004 |publisher=Centre for North-West Regional Studies, University of Lancaster |isbn=978-1-86220-152-1 |edition=3 |series=Occasional paper / Centre for North-West Regional Studies, University of Lancaster}}</ref>{{rp|16–17}}
In any case Tacitus says that in 71 Cerialis (governor AD&nbsp;71–74) waged a successful war against the [[Brigantes]].<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Tacitus ''Agricola''|loc=17}}</ref> He praises both Cerialis and his successor, [[Sextus Julius Frontinus|Julius Frontinus]] (governor 75–78).

Much of the conquest of the north may have been achieved under the governorships of [[Vettius Bolanus]] (governor AD 69–71), and of [[Quintus Petillius Cerialis]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Shotter |first=D. C. A. |date=September 2000 |title=Petillius Cerialis in Northern Britain |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1179/007817200790177879 |journal=Northern History |language=en |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=189–198 |doi=10.1179/007817200790177879 |issn=0078-172X|url-access=subscription }}</ref> From other sources it seems that Bolanus had possibly dealt with Venutius and penetrated into Scotland, and evidence from the carbon-dating of the gateway timbers of the Roman fort at Carlisle ([[Luguvalium]]) suggests that they were felled in AD 72, during the governorship of Cerialis.<ref name="Shotter2004" />{{rp|28–35}} Lead ingots from [[Deva Victrix]], the Roman fortress at [[Chester]], indicate that construction there was probably under way by AD 74.<ref>Mason, David J. P. (2002a). "The Foundation of the Legionary Fortress: The Flavians and Imperial Symbolism". In Carrington, Peter (ed.). Deva Victrix: Roman Chester Re-assessed. Chester: Chester Archaeological Society. pp. 33–52. {{ISBN|0-9507074-9-X}}. p.33</ref> 

Nevertheless, [[Gnaeus Julius Agricola]] played his part in the west as commander of the legion XX [[Valeria Victrix]] (71–73), while Cerialis led the [[IX Hispania]] in the east. In addition, the [[Legio II Adiutrix]] sailed from Chester up river estuaries to surprise the enemy. The western thrust was started from [[Lancaster, Lancashire|Lancaster]], where there is evidence of a Cerialian foundation, and followed the line of the Lune and Eden river valleys through Low Borrow Bridge and [[Brougham, Cumbria|Brougham]] ([[Brocavum]]). On the Cumbrian coast, [[Ravenglass]] and [[Blennerhasset]] were probably involved from evidence of one of the earliest Roman occupations in Cumbria. [[Beckfoot]] and [[Maryport]] may also have featured early on.<ref>Caruana (1997), pp. 1-168, 40-51.</ref> At some point between 72 and 73, part of Cerialis's force moved across the Stainmore Pass from Corbridge westwards to join Agricola, as evidenced by campaign camps (which may have been previously set up by Bolanus) at [[Rey Cross]], Crackenthorpe, [[Kirkby Thore]] and Plumpton Head. Signal- or watch-towers are also in evidence across the Stainmore area: Maiden Castle, Bowes Moor and Roper Castle, for example.<ref name="Shotter2004" />{{rp|29-36}} The two forces then moved up from the vicinity of Penrith to Carlisle, establishing the fort there in AD&nbsp;72–73.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shotter |first=David |title=North-West England from the Romans to the Tudors: essays in memory of John Macnair Todd |date=30 June 2014 |publisher=Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society |isbn=9781873124659 |editor-last=Stringer |editor-first=Keith J. |pages=1–28 |chapter=Roman Cumbria: Rome's "wild west"?}}</ref>

===Frontinus===
[[Frontinus]] (who was sent into Roman Britain in 74 to succeed Cerialis as [[Roman governors of Britain|governor]]) returned to the conquest of Wales interrupted years before and with steady and successful progress finally subdued the [[Silures]] (around 76) and other hostile tribes, establishing a new base at [[Caerleon]] for [[Legio II Augusta|Legio II ''Augusta'']] ([[Isca Augusta]]) in 75 and a network of smaller forts {{convert|15–20|km|mi|0|adj=ri0}} apart for his auxiliary units. During his tenure, he probably established the fort at [[Pumsaint]] in west Wales, largely to exploit the gold deposits at [[Dolaucothi]]. He left the post in 78, and was later appointed water commissioner in Rome.

==Campaigns of Agricola (AD&nbsp;78–84)==
[[File:Agricola.Campaigns.78.84.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.1|Agricola's campaigns.]]

The new governor was Agricola, returning to Britain, and made famous through the highly laudatory biography of him written by his son-in-law, Tacitus. Arriving in mid-78, Agricola completed the conquest of Wales in defeating the Ordovices<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Tacitus ''Agricola''|loc=18}}</ref> who had destroyed a cavalry [[ala (Roman military)|ala]] of Roman auxiliaries stationed in their territory. Knowing the terrain from his prior military service in Britain, he was able to move quickly to subdue them. He then invaded [[Roman conquest of Anglesey#Second invasion (77 CE)|Anglesey]], forcing the inhabitants to sue for peace.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Tacitus ''Agricola''|loc=18}}</ref>

The following year he moved against the [[Brigantes]] of northern England and the [[Selgovae]] along the southern coast of Scotland, using overwhelming military power to establish Roman control.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Tacitus ''Agricola''|loc=20-21}}</ref>

===Agricola in Caledonia===

Tacitus says that after a combination of force and diplomacy quieted discontent among the Britons who had been conquered previously, Agricola built forts in their territories in 79. In 80, he marched to the [[Firth of Tay]] (some historians hold that he stopped along the [[Firth of Forth]] in that year), not returning south until 81, at which time he consolidated his gains in the new lands that he had conquered, and in the rebellious lands that he had re-conquered.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Tacitus ''Agricola''|loc=19–23}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcolnb|Tacitus ''Agricola''|loc=24–38}}</ref> In 82, he sailed to either [[Kintyre]] or the shores of [[Argyll]], or to both. In 83 and 84, he moved north along Scotland's eastern and northern coasts using both land and naval forces, campaigning successfully against the inhabitants and winning a significant victory over the northern British peoples led by [[Calgacus]] at the [[Battle of Mons Graupius]]. Archaeology has shown the Romans built military camps in the north along [[Gask Ridge]], controlling the glens that provided access to and from the [[Scottish Highlands]], and also throughout the [[Scottish Lowlands]] in northeastern Scotland.

Agricola built a network of military roads and forts to secure the Roman occupation. Existing forts were strengthened and new ones planted in northeastern Scotland along the [[Highland Line]], consolidating control of the glens that provided access to and from the [[Scottish Highlands]]. The line of military communication and supply along southeastern Scotland and northeastern England (i.e., [[Dere Street]]) was well-fortified. In southernmost Caledonia, the lands of the [[Selgovae]] (approximating to modern [[Dumfriesshire]] and the [[Kirkcudbrightshire|Stewartry of Kirkcudbright]]) were heavily planted with forts, not only establishing effective control there, but also completing a military enclosure of south-central Scotland (most of the [[Southern Uplands]], [[Teviotdale]], and western [[Tweeddale]]).<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Frere|1987|pp=88–89}}, ''Britannia''</ref> In contrast to Roman actions against the Selgovae, the territories of the [[Novantae]], [[Damnonii]], and [[Votadini]] were not planted with forts, and there is nothing to indicate that the Romans were at war with them. Agricola was recalled to Rome in 84.

=== Archaeology ===

In 2019 a marching camp dating to the 1st century AD was found, thought to have been used by Roman legions during the invasion of [[Gnaeus Julius Agricola|Agricola]]. Clay-domed ovens and 26 fire pits dated to AD 77–90 were also found, loaded with burnt objects and charcoal contents. The fire pits were 30 metres (98 feet) apart in two parallel lines. Archaeologists suggested that this site had been chosen as a strategic location for the Roman conquest of [[Ayrshire]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Archaeologists find remains of the Roman invasion of Ayrshire|url=https://www.heraldscotland.com/news/17663920.archaeologists-find-remains-roman-invasion-ayrshire/|access-date=13 September 2020|website=HeraldScotland|date=24 May 2019 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=24 May 2019|title=New evidence uncovered for Roman conquest of Scotland|url=https://www.heritagedaily.com/2019/05/new-evidence-uncovered-for-roman-conquest-of-scotland/123820|access-date=13 September 2020|website=HeritageDaily - Archaeology News|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Lost Roman marching camp sheds new light on invasion of Scotland|url=https://www.scotsman.com/heritage-and-retro/heritage/lost-roman-marching-camp-sheds-new-light-invasion-scotland-1416571|access-date=13 September 2020|website=www.scotsman.com|date=28 May 2019 |language=en}}</ref>

==AD&nbsp;84–117==
[[File:Roman.Scotland.north.84.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.1|Roman military organisation in the north {{circa|84 AD}}]]
Agricola's successors are not named in any surviving source, but it seems they were unable or unwilling to further subdue the far north. The fortress at [[Inchtuthil]] was dismantled before its completion and the other fortifications of the [[Gask Ridge]] in [[Perthshire]], erected to consolidate the Roman presence in Scotland in the aftermath of [[Mons Graupius]], were abandoned within the space of a few years. It is equally likely that the costs of a drawn-out war outweighed any economic or political benefit and it was more profitable to leave the Caledonians alone and only under ''[[de jure]]'' submission.

With the decline of imperial ambitions in Scotland (and Ireland) by  AD 87 (the withdrawal of the 20th legion), consolidation based on the line of the [[Stanegate]] road (between Carlisle and Corbridge) was settled upon. Carlisle was the seat of a ''centurio regionarius'' (or district commissioner). When the Stanegate became the new frontier it was augmented by large forts as at [[Vindolanda]] and additional forts at half-day marching intervals were built at [[Newbrough]], [[Magnis (Carvoran)|Magnis]] (Carvoran) and [[Brampton Old Church]].

The period from 87 to 117 was used for consolidation and only a few sites north of the Stanegate line were maintained, while the signs are that an orderly withdrawal to the Solway-Tyne line was made.<ref name="Shotter2004" />{{rp|56}}

Modifications to the Stanegate line, with the reduction in the size of the forts and the addition of fortlets and watchtowers between them, seem to have taken place from the mid-90s onwards.<ref name="Shotter2004" />{{rp|58}} Apart from the Stanegate line, other forts existed along the Solway Coast at Beckfoot, [[Alauna (Maryport)|Maryport]], Burrow Walls (near the present town of Workington) and [[Moresby, Cumbria|Moresby]] (near Whitehaven). Other forts in the region were built to consolidate Roman presence (Beckfoot for example may date from the late 1st century). A fort at [[Troutbeck, Eden|Troutbeck]] may have been established from the period of Emperor [[Trajan]] ({{Reign}}98–117) onwards. Other forts that may have been established during this period include Ambleside ([[Galava]]), positioned to take advantage of ship-borne supply to the forts of the [[Lake District]]. From here, a road was constructed during the Trajanic period to [[Hardknott Roman Fort]]. A road between Ambleside to Old Penrith and/or Brougham, going over [[High Street (Lake District)|High Street]], may also date from this period.

==From AD 117==
{{main|Scotland during the Roman Empire}}
[[File:Roman.Britain.Romanisation.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Levels of Romanisation by area and date]]
Under [[Hadrian]] ({{Reign}}117–138), Roman occupation was withdrawn to a defensible frontier in the [[River Tyne, England|River Tyne]]-[[Solway Firth]] frontier area by the construction of [[Hadrian's Wall]] from around 122.

When [[Antoninus Pius]] rose to the throne, he moved quickly to reverse the empire limit system put in place by his predecessor. Following his defeat of the [[Brigantes]] in 139 AD,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unrv.com/empire/timeline-of-second-century.php |title=Roman Timeline 2nd Century AD |last= |first= |date= |website=unrv.com |publisher=UNRV |access-date=1 June 2017 |quote=}}</ref> [[Quintus Lollius Urbicus]], the [[List of governors of Roman Britain|Roman Governor of Britannia]],<ref>W. Eck, ''Die Statthalter der germanischen Provinzen vom 1.-3. Jahrhundert'' (''Epigraphische Studien'' Band 14, Cologne/Bonn, 1985, p.&nbsp;168.</ref><ref>''Historia Augusta'', ''Antoninus Pius'' 5.4.</ref><ref>Freeman, Charles (1999) ''Egypt, Greece, and Rome''. Oxford University Press. p. 508. {{ISBN|0-19-872194-3}}.</ref> was ordered by Antoninus Pius to march north of [[Hadrian's Wall]] to conquer the Caledonian [[Scottish Lowlands|Lowlands]] which were settled by the [[Otadini]], [[Selgovae]], [[Damnonii]] and the [[Novantae]], and to push the frontier further north. Lollius Urbicus moved three legions into position initially establishing his supply routes from [[Coria (Corbridge)|Coria]] and [[Bremenium]] and moved three legions, the [[Legio II Augusta]] from [[Caerleon]], the [[Legio VI Victrix]] from [[Eboracum]], and the [[Legio XX Valeria Victrix]] from [[Deva Victrix]] into the theatre between 139 and 140 AD, and thereafter moved his army, a force of at least 16,500 men,<ref>Hanson, William S. "The Roman Presence: Brief Interludes", in Edwards, Kevin J. & Ralston, Ian B.M. (Eds) (2003) Scotland After the Ice Age: Environment, Archaeology and History, 8000 BC – AD 1000. Edinburgh. Edinburgh University Press.</ref> north of Hadrian's Wall.

The [[Selgovae]], having settled in the regions of present-day [[Kirkcudbrightshire]] and [[Dumfriesshire]] immediately northwest of Hadrian's Wall, were amongst the first of the Caledonian tribes to face Lollius Urbicus's legions together with the [[Otadini]]. The Romans, who were well versed in warfare on hilly terrain since their founding, moved quickly to occupy strategic points and high ground, some of which had already been fortified by the Caledonians with [[Hillforts in Scotland|hill forts]]. One such was [[Burnswark Hill]] which was strategically located commanding the western route north further into Caledonia and where significant evidence of the battle has been found.<ref name="Live Science">{{cite web |url=http://www.livescience.com/55049-photos-ancient-roman-battle-sling-bullets.html |title=In Photos: 1,800-Year-Old Roman Battle Site |last=Metcalfe |first=Tom |date=13 June 2016 |website=livescience.com |publisher=Live Science |access-date=2 June 2017 |quote=}}</ref>

By 142 the Romans had occupied the entire area and had successfully moved the frontier north to the [[River Clyde]]-[[River Forth]] area when the [[Antonine Wall]] was constructed. This was abandoned in 162 and only subsequently re-occupied on an occasional basis. Meanwhile, the Romans retreated to the earlier and stronger Hadrian's Wall.

Roman troops penetrated far into the north of modern Scotland several more times. There is a greater density of Roman marching camps in Scotland than anywhere else in Europe as a result of at least four major attempts to subdue the area.{{cn|date=February 2025}}

==3rd and 4th centuries==
[[File:Roman.Britain.Severan.Campaigns.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|The brief [[Roman invasion of Caledonia (208–211)]]]]

The most notable later expedition was in 209 when the emperor [[Septimius Severus]], claiming to be provoked by the belligerence of the [[Maeatae]] tribe, campaigned against the [[Caledonian Confederacy]], a coalition of [[Common Brittonic|Brittonic]] [[Pictish]]<ref>^ Encyclopaedia Romana. University of Chicago. accessed 1 March 2007</ref> tribes of the north of Britain.  He used the three legions of the British garrison (augmented by the recently formed 2nd Parthica legion), 9000 imperial guards with cavalry support, and numerous auxiliaries supplied from the sea by the British fleet, the Rhine fleet and two fleets transferred from the Danube for the purpose. According to [[Dio Cassius]], he inflicted genocidal depredations on the natives and incurred the loss of 50,000 of his own men to the attrition of [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] tactics before having to withdraw to Hadrian's Wall. He repaired and reinforced the wall with a degree of thoroughness that led most subsequent Roman authors to attribute the construction of the wall to him. During the negotiations to purchase the truce necessary to secure the Roman retreat to the wall, Septimius Severus's wife, [[Julia Domna]], criticised the sexual morals of the Caledonian women; the wife of [[Argentocoxos]], a Caledonian chief, replied: "We consort openly with the best of men while you allow yourselves to be debauched in private by the worst".<ref>Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' 77.16</ref> This is the first recorded utterance confidently attributable to a native of the area now known as Scotland. The emperor Septimius Severus died at [[York]] while planning to renew hostilities, and these plans were abandoned by his son [[Caracalla]].

Emperor [[Constantius Chlorus|Constantius]] came to Britain in 306, despite his poor health, with an army aiming to invade northern Britain, after the provincial defences had been rebuilt following the [[Carausian Revolt]]. Little is known of his campaigns with scant archaeological evidence, but fragmentary historical sources suggest he reached the far north of Britain and won a major battle in early summer before returning south. His son Constantine (later [[Constantine the Great]]) spent a year in northern Britain at his father's side, campaigning against the [[Picts]] beyond [[Hadrian's Wall]] in the summer and autumn.<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 27, 298; Elliott, ''Christianity of Constantine'', 39; Odahl, 77–78, 309; Pohlsander, ''Emperor Constantine'', 15–16.</ref><ref>Mattingly, 233–34; Southern, 170, 341.</ref>

Later excursions into Scotland by the Romans were generally limited to the scouting expeditions of ''exploratores'' in the buffer zone that developed between the walls, trading contacts, bribes to purchase truces from the natives, and eventually the spread of Christianity. The degree to which the Romans interacted with the [[Goidelic languages|Goidelic]]-speaking island of [[Hibernia]] (modern [[Ireland]]) is still unresolved amongst archaeologists in Ireland.

==See also==
[[File:Roman Conquest Monument, Walmer.jpg|thumb|A modern monument to the Roman conquest, in [[Walmer]], [[Kent]].]]
{{RomanMilitary}}
*[[Ancient Britain]]
*[[British military history]]
*[[Roman governors of Britain]]
*[[Roman mining]]
*[[Roman sites in Great Britain]]
*[[Itius Portus]]
*[[Dogs of Roman Britain]]
*[[Esunertos]]

==Citations==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{Citation
|last=Frere
|first=Sheppad Sunderland
|author-link=Sheppard Frere
|year=1987
|title=Britannia: A History of Roman Britain
|edition=3rd, revised
|publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul
|publication-date=1987
|location=London
|isbn=0-7102-1215-1
}}
*{{Citation
|last=Tacitus
|first=Cornelius
|author-link=Tacitus
|orig-year=98
|contribution=The Life of Cnaeus Julius Agricola
|contribution-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GMRJ5aWahRUC&pg=PA343
|title=The Works of Tacitus (The Oxford Translation, Revised)
|volume=II
|publisher=Henry G. Bohn
|date=1854
|location=London
|pages=343–389
|ref={{harvid|Tacitus ''Agricola''}}
}}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
*The Great Invasion, Leonard Cottrell, Coward–McCann, New York, 1962, hardback. Was published in the UK in 1958.
*[[Tacitus]], ''[[Histories (Tacitus)|Histories]]'', ''[[Annals (Tacitus)|Annals]]'' and ''[[Agricola (book)|De vita et moribus Iulii Agricolae]]''
*''A.D. 43'', [[John Manley (archaeologist)|John Manley]], Tempus, 2002.
*''Roman Britain'', Peter Salway, Oxford, 1986
*Miles Russel – Ruling Britannia – [[History Today]] 8/2005 pp 5–6
*[[Francis Pryor]]. 2004. ''Britain BC''. New York: HarperPerennial.
*Francis Pryor. 2004. ''Britain AD''. New York: [[HarperCollins]].
*George Shipway – Imperial Governor. 2002. London: Cassell Military Paperbacks.
*Hingley, Richard. [[Conquering the Ocean: The Roman Invasion of Britain]]. 2022. New York: [[Oxford University Press]].

{{Ancient Roman Wars|state=collapsed}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Roman Conquest Of Britain}}
[[Category:1st-century conflicts]]
[[Category:1st century in Great Britain]]
[[Category:1st century in the Roman Empire]]
[[Category:43]]
[[Category:Iron Age Britain]]
[[Category:Military history of Roman Britain]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Roman Empire]]
[[Category:Invasions of England]]
[[Category:Invasions of Scotland]]
[[Category:Invasions of Wales]]
[[Category:Roman Britain]]