Editing Sacred language

{{Short description|Language that is cultivated for religious reasons}}
{{redirect|Holy Language|the language so called by John Dee|Enochian|the concept of a divine language|Divine language}}
[[File:Devimahatmya Sanskrit MS Nepal 11c.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|The oldest surviving manuscript in the sacred [[Sanskrit]] language: [[Devi Mahatmya|Devi Māhātmya]], [[Palm-leaf manuscript|on palm-leaf]], in an early [[Bhujimol]] script, [[Bihar]] or [[Nepal]], 11th century.]]
{{Anthropology of religion}}
A '''sacred language''', '''liturgical language''' or '''holy language''' is a [[language]] that is [[literary language|cultivated]] and used primarily for [[religion|religious]] reasons (like [[church service]]) by people who speak another, primary language in their daily lives.

Some religions, or parts of them, regard the language of their [[sacred texts]] as in itself sacred. These include [[Ecclesiastical Latin]] in [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]], [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] in [[Judaism]], [[Arabic]] in [[Islam]], [[Avestan]] in [[Zoroastrianism]], [[Sanskrit]] in [[Hinduism]], and [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] in [[Sikhism]]. By contrast [[Buddhism]] and [[Christianity|Christian denominations]] outside of Catholicism do not generally regard their sacred languages as sacred in themselves.

==Concept==
{{More citations needed section|date=August 2024}}
A sacred language is often the language which was spoken and written in the society in which a religion's sacred texts were first set down; these texts thereafter become fixed and holy, remaining frozen and immune to later [[Linguistics|linguistic]] developments.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Anttonen |first1=Veikko |title=The notion of "sacred" in language, history, culture and cognition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HPwYBwAAQBAJ&dq=sacred+language+become+fixed+and+holy&pg=PA206 |access-date=August 3, 2024 |date=2008|publisher=Cambridge Scholars |isbn=978-1-4438-0876-7 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Saeidi |first1=Massoud Tossi |title=Religious language as natural-sacred language |url=https://dspace.spbu.ru/bitstream/11701/33044/1/176-190.pdf |website=Cyberleninka |access-date=August 3, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Millard |first1=Alan |title=Sacred Languages and Sacred Texts. |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/240586421 |website=Research Gate |publisher=The Journal of Theological Studies 52(1):124-129 |access-date=August 3, 2024 |doi=10.1093/jts/52.1.124 |date=2001}}</ref><ref name="taylorfrancis.com">{{cite book |last1=Bennet |first1=Brian P. |title=The Routledge Handbook of Language and Religion |chapter=Sacred Languages |chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781003301271-4/sacred-languages-brian-bennett |website=Taylor Francis |access-date=August 3, 2024 |date=2023|pages=25–38 |doi=10.4324/9781003301271-4 |isbn=978-1-003-30127-1 }}</ref> (An exception to this is [[Lucumí language|Lucumí]], a ritual lexicon of the [[Cuba]]n strain of the [[Santería]] religion, with no standardized [[Logical form (linguistics)|form]].)

Once a language becomes associated with religious worship, its believers may ascribe virtues to the language of worship that they would not give to their native tongues.{{Citation needed|date=April 2011}} In the case of sacred texts, there is a fear of losing authenticity and accuracy by a translation or re-translation, and difficulties in achieving acceptance for a new version of a text. A sacred language is typically vested with a solemnity and dignity that the vernacular lacks. Consequently, the training of [[clergy]] in the use of a sacred language becomes an important cultural investment, and their use of the tongue is perceived to give them access to a body of knowledge that untrained [[Laity|laypeople]] cannot (or should not) access.

Because sacred languages are ascribed with virtues that the vernacular is not seen to have,<ref name="taylorfrancis.com"/> these typically preserve characteristics lost in the course of language development. In some cases, the sacred language is a [[Extinct language|dead language]], while in others, it may simply reflect [[archaism|archaic]] forms of a [[living language]]. For instance, 17th-century elements of the [[English language]] remain current in [[Protestantism|Protestant Christian]] worship through the use of the ''[[King James Version|King James Bible]]'' from 1611, or older versions of the [[Anglican]] ''[[Book of Common Prayer]]''. In more extreme cases, the language has changed so much from the language of the [[sacred text]]s that the liturgy is barely comprehensible without special training. For example, the [[Latin liturgical rites|liturgy]] of the [[Latin Church|Roman Catholic Church]] remained in [[Latin]] after the [[Third Council of Tours|Council of Tours in 813]] ordered preaching in [[Romance languages|local Romance]] or German, because Latin was no longer understood. Similarly, [[Old Church Slavonic]] is incomprehensible to speakers of modern [[Slavic languages]], unless they study it.

Sacred languages are distinct from [[divine language]]s, which are languages ascribed to the divine (i.e. God or gods) and may not necessarily be natural languages.{{citation needed|date=August 2013}} The concept, as expressed by the name of a script, for example in ''[[Devanagari|Dēvanāgarī]]'', the name of a script that roughly means "[script] of the [[Prayagraj|city of gods]]", and is used to write many [[Languages of India|Indian languages]].

==Buddhism==
When the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]]'s [[sutra]]s were first written down, probably in [[Pali]], there were around 20 schools, each with their own version derived from the original. The present [[Pāli Canon]] originates from the [[Tamrashatiya|Tamrashatiya school]]. The Chinese and Tibetan canons mainly derive from the [[Sarvastivada]], originally written in [[Sanskrit]], of which fragments remain. The texts were translated into [[Chinese language|Chinese]] and [[Lhasa Tibetan|Tibetan]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Heart of Buddha's Teachings|last=Hahn|first=Thich Nhat|publisher=Harmony|year=2015|pages=16}}</ref>

[[Theravada]] Buddhism uses Pali as its main liturgical language and prefers that scripture be studied in the original Pali.{{Citation needed|date=June 2019}} Pali is derived from [[Sanskrit]].<ref name=Norman>{{cite book| last = Norman | first = Kenneth Roy | author-link = K. R. Norman | title = Pali Literature | publisher = Otto Harrassowitz | date = 1983 | location = Wiesbaden | pages = 2{{ndash}}3 | language = en |isbn = 3-447-02285-X}}</ref> In [[Thailand]], Pali is transliterated into the [[Thai alphabet]],{{Citation needed|date=June 2019}} resulting in a Thai pronunciation of the Pali language. Something similar also happens in Myanmar, where Pali is also transliterated into the [[Burmese alphabet]], also resulting in a Burmese pronunciation of Pali.

[[Mahayana]] Buddhism, now only followed by a small minority in [[South Asia]] makes little use of its original language, Sanskrit, mostly using versions of the local language. In [[East Asia]], [[Classical Chinese]] is mainly used.{{Citation needed|date=June 2019}} In Japan, texts are written in [[Kanji|Chinese characters]] and read out or recited with the [[Kanji#Readings|Japanese pronunciations]] of their constituent characters.<ref>{{citation|editor-last=Buswell|editor-first=Robert E.|title=Encyclopedia of Buddhism|volume=1|year=2003|page=137|location=London|publisher=Macmillan}}.</ref>

In [[Vajrayana]] Buddhism, [[Tibetan Buddhism]] is the main surviving school, and [[Classical Tibetan]] is the main language used for study,<ref>{{Cite web|title=What is Tibetan Buddhism?|url=http://gothenburg.chineseconsulate.org/eng/zt/xzwt/t218250.htm|website=Consulate-General of the People's Republic of China in Gothenburg|access-date=2020-05-22}}</ref> although the Tibetan Buddhist canon was also translated into other languages, such as [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]] and [[Manchu language|Manchu]].<ref>Orzech, Charles D. (general editor), 2011. ''Esoteric Buddhism and the Tantras in East Asia.'' Brill, p. 540.</ref> Many items of [[Sanskrit Buddhist literature]] have been preserved because they were exported to Tibet, with copies of unknown ancient Sanskrit texts surfacing in Tibet as recently as 2003.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/neighbours/story/20170612-sanskrit-tibet-chinese-scholars-buddhism-986510-2017-06-03|title = The lost Sanskrit treasures of Tibet| date=3 June 2017 }}</ref> Sanskrit was valued in Tibet as the elegant language of the gods.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43299940|jstor=43299940|title=Sanskrit in Tibetan Literature|last1=Lama|first1=His Holiness the Fourteenth Dalai|journal=The Tibet Journal|year=1979|volume=4|issue=2|pages=3–5}}</ref> Although in Tibetan Buddhist [[deity yoga]] the rest of the [[sadhana]] is generally recited in Tibetan, the [[mantra]] portion of the practice is usually retained in its original Sanskrit.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://fpmt.org/education/teachings/texts/mantras/|title=Mantras – FPMT|date=27 April 2017}}</ref>

In [[Nepal]], the [[Newar Buddhism|Newar Buddhist]] form of Vajrayana is a storehouse of ancient Sanskrit [[Buddhist texts]], many of which are now only extant in [[Nepal]].<ref>{{cite book |last= Gutschow |first= Niels |title= Architecture of the Newars: A History of Building Typologies and Details in Nepal |date= November 2011 |publisher= Serindia Publications |location= Chicago |isbn=978-1-932476-54-5 |page= 707}}</ref> Whatever language is used, [[Judith Simmer-Brown]] explains that a [[tantra|tantric]] Vajrayana text is often written in an obscure [[twilight language]] so that it cannot be understood by anyone without the verbal explanation of a [[guru|qualified teacher]].<ref>
{{cite book |author-link=Judith Simmer-Brown |last=Simmer-Brown |first=Judith |year=2002 |title=Dakini's Warm Breath: The Feminine Principle in Tibetan Buddhism |location=Boston, Massachusetts |publisher=Shambhala Publications|page=169|isbn=978-1-57062-920-4}}</ref>

[[Old Tamil]] was used for [[Sangam literature|Sangam]] epics of [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] and [[Jainism|Jain]] philosophy.<ref>{{cite book |author=Cornelius Crowley, Geetha Ganapathy-Doré, Michel Naumann|year=2017|title=Heritage and Ruptures in Indian Literature, Culture and Cinema|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing|isbn=978-1-4438-9887-4}}</ref>

==Christianity==
[[File:US Navy 040411-N-1290G-005 Navy Chaplain Milton Gianulis conducts an Easter morning Orthodox Liturgy candlelight service aboard USS Harry S. Truman (CVN 75).jpg|thumb|Eastern Orthodox liturgy in the [[United States]]]]
Christian rites, rituals, and ceremonies are not celebrated in one single sacred language. Most churches which [[Apostolic succession|trace their origin to the Apostles]] continue to use the [[standard language]]s of the first few centuries AD. Many Christian churches make a distinction between a sacred language, a liturgical language, and a vernacular language. The three most important languages in the [[Early Christianity|early Christian era]] were [[Latin language|Latin]], [[Greek language|Greek]], and [[Syriac language|Syriac]] (a dialect of [[Aramaic]]).<ref>{{cite book|title=Paradise and Paradigm: Key Symbols in Persian Christianity and the Baha'i Faith|first=Christopher|last=Buck|year= 1999| isbn=9780791440629| page =6|publisher= State University of New York Press |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Saving Paradise: How Christianity Traded Love of this World for Crucifixion and Empire|first=Rita |last=Nakashima Brock|year= 2008| isbn=9780807067505| page =446|publisher= Beacon Press|quote= the ancient church had three important languages: Greek, Latin, and Syriac.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Rowman & Littlefield Handbook of Christianity in the Middle East|first= Mark |last=A. Lamport|year= 2020| isbn=9780807067505| page =135|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|quote= the ancient church had three important languages: Greek, Latin, and Syriac.}}</ref>

The [[Gospel of John]] notes that the phrase "[[Jesus, King of the Jews]]" was [[Titulus Crucis|inscribed]] upon the [[True Cross|cross of Christ]] in three different languages, thereby sanctifying them as the first languages to proclaim his divinity. These are:
* [[Koine Greek|Greek]], the original language of the [[New Testament]], as well as the [[Septuagint]] (a pre-Christian translation of the [[Hebrew Bible]]). This was the [[lingua franca]] of much of the contemporary [[Levant]]. 
* [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], the dominant language of the [[Old Testament]] (Hebrew Bible). This was the language commonly used among most Jews in the area.
* [[Latin]], the language of the [[Roman Empire]], which soon became an important language of the Christian Church, especially in the western provinces of the Roman Empire as well as being the language of the "[[Primus inter pares|First Among Equals]]", the [[Pope]], in the Christian [[Pentarchy]].

Liturgical languages are those which hold precedence within liturgy due to tradition and dispensation. Many of these languages have evolved from languages which were at one point vernacular, while some are intentional constructions by ecclesial authorities. These include:
* [[Ecclesiastical Latin]] in the [[Latin liturgical rites]] of the [[Catholic Church]].
* ([[Old Church Slavonic|Old]]) [[Church Slavonic]] in several of the [[Autocephaly|autocephalous]] [[Eastern Orthodox Churches]] and ''[[sui iuris]]'' [[Eastern Catholic Churches]]
* [[Koine Greek]] as well as the liturgical language of the [[Greek Orthodox Church]] and the [[Melkite Greek Catholic Church|Greek Catholic Church]].
* [[Old Georgian]] in the [[Georgian Orthodox Church]] and the [[Georgian Byzantine-Rite Catholics|Georgian Byzantine-Rite Catholic Church]].
* [[Classical Armenian]] in the [[Armenian Apostolic Church]] and the [[Armenian Catholic Church]].
* [[Coptic language|Coptic]] in the [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria]] and [[Coptic Catholic Church]].
* [[Geʽez]] in the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Ethiopian Orthodox Church]], [[Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Eritrean Orthodox Church]], [[Ethiopian Catholic Church]] and [[Eritrean Catholic Church]].
* [[Syriac language|Syriac]] in [[Syriac Christianity]] represented by the [[Syriac Orthodox Church]], [[Church of the East]], [[Chaldean Catholic Church]], [[Syriac Catholic Church]], [[Maronite Church]] and [[Saint Thomas Christian Churches]].

The extensive use of Greek in the Roman Liturgy has continued, in theory; it was used extensively on a regular basis during the [[Papal Mass]], which has not been celebrated for some time. By the reign of [[Pope Damasus I]], the continuous use of Greek in the Roman Liturgy had come to be replaced in part by Latin. Gradually, the Roman Liturgy took on more and more Latin until, generally, only a few words of [[Hebrew]] (e.g. ''Dominus Deus '''sabaoth''''') and Greek (e.g. '''''Kyrie eleison''''') remained. The adoption of Latin was further fostered when the [[Vetus Latina]] (old Latin) version of the Bible was edited and parts retranslated from the original Hebrew and Greek by [[Saint Jerome]] in his [[Vulgate]]. Latin continued as the western Church's language of liturgy and communication.

In the mid-16th century the [[Council of Trent]] rejected a proposal to introduce [[national language]]s as this was seen, among other reasons, as potentially divisive to Catholic unity.{{Citation needed|date=April 2011}}

During the [[English Reformation|Reformation in England]], when the Protestant authorities banned the use of Latin liturgy, various schools obtained a dispensation to continue to use Latin, for educational purposes.

From the end of the 16th century, in coastal [[Croatia]], the local vernacular language began to replace [[Church Slavonic]] as the liturgical language. This change occurred because Church Slavonic, which had been used in the [[Glagolitic]] liturgical books published in [[Rome]], was becoming increasingly difficult to understand. This difficulty arose from linguistic reforms that adapted the [[Church Slavonic of Croatian recension]] used in Croatia to the norms of Church Slavonic used in Russia. For example, the vernacular was used to ask the bride and groom if they accepted their marriage vows.

[[Jesuit]] missionaries to [[China]] initially obtained permission to translate the Roman [[Missal]] into [[Classical Chinese]], a scholarly form of the language. However, this permission was later revoked amid the [[Chinese Rites controversy]]. In contrast, among the Algonquin and Iroquois peoples, missionaries were allowed to translate [[Proper (liturgy)|certain parts of the Mass]] into their native languages.<ref>Salvucci, Claudio R. 2008. [http://mysite.verizon.net/driadzbubl/IndianMasses.html The Roman Rite in the Algonquian and Iroquoian Missions] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121008092144/http://mysite.verizon.net/driadzbubl/IndianMasses.html |date=2012-10-08 }}. Merchantville, NJ:Evolution Publishing. See also</ref>

In the 20th century, [[Pope Pius XII]] granted permission for a few vernaculars to be used in a few rites, rituals, and ceremonies. This did not include the Roman Liturgy of the Mass.

The Catholic Church, long before the [[Second Vatican Council]] (Vatican II), had accepted and promoted the use of the non-vernacular liturgical languages listed above; while vernacular (i.e. modern or native) languages were also used liturgically throughout history; usually as a special concession given to religious orders conducting missionary activity.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/view.cfm?recnum=2786|title=Library : Liturgical Languages|website=www.catholicculture.org}}</ref>

In the 20th century, Vatican II set out to protect the use of Latin as a liturgical language. To a large degree, its prescription was disregarded and the vernacular not only became standard, but was generally used exclusively in the liturgy. Latin remains the chief language of the [[Latin liturgical rites]] and of [[Catholic canon law]], but the use of [[liturgical Latin]] is now discouraged. The use of vernacular language in liturgical practice after 1964 created controversy, and opposition to liturgical vernacular is a major tenet of the Catholic [[Traditionalist Catholic|Traditionalist]] movement. Meanwhile, the numerous [[Eastern Catholic Churches]] in union with Rome each have their own respective parent-language.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}}

[[Eastern Orthodox]] churches vary in their use of liturgical languages. Koine Greek and Church Slavonic are the main sacred languages used in communion. Other languages are also permitted for liturgical worship, and each country often has the liturgical services in their own language. This has led to a wide variety of languages used for liturgical worship, but there is still uniformity in the liturgical worship itself.{{citation needed|date=July 2013}}

Languages used in the Eastern Orthodox Church include (but are not limited to): Koine Greek, Church Slavonic, [[Romanian language|Romanian]], [[Georgian language|Georgian]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]], [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]], [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]], [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]], [[Serbian language|Serbian]], [[Montenegrin language|Montenegrin]], [[English language|English]], [[German language|German]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[French language|French]], [[Polish language|Polish]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Albanian language|Albanian]], [[Finnish language|Finnish]], [[Swedish language|Swedish]], [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Estonian language|Estonian]], [[Latvian language|Latvian]], [[Korean language|Korean]], [[Japanese Language|Japanese]], and multiple African languages.

[[Oriental Orthodox]] churches outside their ancestral lands regularly pray in the local vernacular, but some clergymen and communities prefer to retain their traditional language or use a combination of languages.

Many [[Anabaptism|Anabaptist]] groups, such as the [[Amish]], use [[High German languages|High German]] in their worship despite not speaking it amongst themselves.

==Hinduism==
[[Hinduism]] is traditionally considered to have [[Sanskrit]] as its primary liturgical language.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Frost |first=Christine Mangala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qtLYDwAAQBAJ&dq=sanskrit+hinduism+liturgical&pg=PA317 |title=The Human Icon: A Comparative Study of Hindu and Orthodox Christian Beliefs |date=2017-05-25 |publisher=ISD LLC |isbn=978-0-227-90612-5 |pages=317 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Sanskrit ===
[[Sanskrit]] is the language of the [[Vedas]], [[Bhagavad Gita]], [[Puranas]] like the [[Bhagavata Purana|Bhagavatam]], the [[Upanishads]], the epics like [[Ramayana]] and [[Mahabharata]], and various other liturgical texts such as the [[Sahasranama]], [[Shri Rudram Chamakam|Chamakam]], and [[Rudram]].

Sanskrit is also the tongue of [[Hindu]] rituals. It also has secular [[literature]] along with its religious canon. Most [[Hindu theology|Hindu theologians]] of later centuries continued to prefer to write in Sanskrit even when it was no longer spoken as a day-to-day language. Sanskrit remains as the only liturgical link language which connects the different strains of Hinduism that are present across [[India]]. The ''de facto'' position that Sanskrit enjoyed, as the principal language of Hinduism, enabled its survival not only in India, but also in other areas, where Hinduism thrived like [[Southeast Asia]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Flood |first=Gavin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n79vEAAAQBAJ&dq=hindu+tamil+literature&pg=PT179 |title=The Wiley Blackwell Companion to Hinduism |date=2022-05-13 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-119-14488-5 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Old Tamil ===
[[Old Tamil]] is the language of the [[Shaivism|Shaiva]] (Devaram) and [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnava]] ([[Divya Prabhandham]]) scriptures.<ref name="sangam.org">{{Cite web |title=The Tamil Buddhists of the Past and the Future |url=https://sangam.org/2010/12/Tamil_Buddhists.php?uid=4177#:~:text=The%20well%20known%20Tamil%20Buddhist,work%20done%20in%20Tamil%20Nadu. |access-date=2021-07-27 |website=sangam.org}}</ref>

===Early Telugu===
Most of [[Carnatic Music]] is in [[Telugu language|Telugu]].
[[Amaravati Stupa]].<ref name=":14">{{cite journal |last=Mahadevan |first=Iravatham |author-link=Iravatham Mahadevan |date=1 January 2010 |title=Harappan Heritage of Andhra: A New Interpretation |url=https://rmrl.in/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/papers/41.pdf |journal=International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=12 |quote=Nagabu: Personal name on a pillar in the Amaravati Stupa (ca. 2nd cent. BCE.).}}</ref> It is dated to 2nd century BCE and is probably, the name of a stonemason. Its structural and grammatical analysis played a key role in studying [[Indus script]] by [[Iravatham Mahadevan]].<ref name=":14" /><ref>{{cite web |title=The Arrow Sign in the Indus Script 3 |url=https://www.harappa.com/arrow/3.html |website=Harappa.com |quote=Nagabu: Prob. name of a stone mason. On a granite pillar in the Amaravati Stupa. Dated variously between 2nd cent. B.C.E. and 2nd cent. CE}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=ప్రాచీనాంధ్రశాసనములు, శ్రీ వేటూరి ప్రభాకర శాస్త్రి, భారతి మాస పత్రిక, జూన్ 1928 |date=June 1928 |url=https://archive.org/details/bharathi19280601/page/n109/mode/2up}}</ref>

Several personal names and place names traceable to Telugu roots are found in various [[Sanskrit]] and [[Prakrit]] inscriptions of 2nd and 1st centuries BCE.<ref>{{Cite web |last=p.23, Chapter: III. |title=Historical Grammar of Telugu, K Mahadeva Sastri |date=3 April 1969 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.153565}}</ref>

Many Hindu epics were also composed in Telugu. Some examples are the Amukthamalayada, Basava Purana, Andhra Mahabharatam, and the Ranganatha Ramayanamu.

=== Others ===
Apart from Sanskrit, several Hindu spiritual works were composed in the various regional languages of India such as [[Hindi]], [[Assamese language|Assamese]], [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]], [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Odia language|Odia]], [[Maithili language|Maithili]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], [[Kannada]], [[Malayalam]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]], [[Tulu language|Tulu]], as well as [[Kawi language|Old Javanese]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_-dCAAAAcAAJ&q=kawi+language+hindu+literature&pg=PR16|title = The History of Java: In Two Volumes|last1 = Raffles|first1 = Thomas Stamford|year = 1817}}</ref> and [[Balinese language|Balinese]] of [[Southeast Asia]].<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Modern Hindu Intellectuals and Ancient Texts: Reforming Śaiva Yoga in Bali|year=2013|doi=10.1163/22134379-12340023|last1=Acri|first1=Andrea|journal=Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde|volume=169|pages=68–103|s2cid=170982790 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

==Islam==
[[Salah]], including [[Qira'at|Quran recitation]] must be conducted in [[Classical Arabic]] (Qur'anic Arabic), which is the original language of the [[Quran|Qur'an]]. [[Muslims]] believe the Qur'an as [[divine revelation]], and as such it is believed to be the direct word of [[Allah|God]]. Thus Muslims hold that the Qur'an is only truly the Qur'an if it is precisely as it was revealed—i.e., in Classical Arabic. Translations of the Qur'an into other languages are therefore not treated as the Qur'an itself; rather, they are seen as interpretive texts, which attempt to communicate a translation of the Qur'an's message.

According to a number of sources, it is a requirement for sermons (''[[khutbah]]'') to be delivered completely in [[classical Arabic]],<ref>Mufti Muhammad Taqi Usmani. ''The Language of the Friday Khutab.'' Karachi, Pakistan. [https://ia800502.us.archive.org/34/items/TheLanguageOfTheFridayKhutbahByMuftiTaqiUsmani/TheLanguageOfTheFridayKhutbahBySheikhMuhammadTaqiUsmani.pdf Access via archive.org]</ref> while other sources state that there is no objection if the sermon is conducted in the language understood by most attendees.<ref>{{Cite web |title=حكم إلقاء خطبة الجمعة بغير اللغة العربية |url=https://binbaz.org.sa/fatwas/17206/%D8%AD%D9%83%D9%85-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%A1-%D8%AE%D8%B7%D8%A8%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%A9-%D8%A8%D8%BA%D9%8A%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9 |access-date=2025-04-16 |website=binbaz.org.sa |language=ar}}</ref>

==Judaism==
=== Hebrew ===
The core of the [[Hebrew Bible]] is written in [[Biblical Hebrew]], referred to by some [[Jew]]s as ''[[Lashon Hakodesh]]'' ({{lang|he|לשון הקודש}}, "Language of Holiness"). Hebrew (and in the case of a few texts such as the [[Kaddish]], [[Judeo-Aramaic languages|Aramaic]]) remains the traditional language of [[Jewish services|Jewish religious services]]. [[Rabbinic Hebrew]] and Aramaic are used extensively by the [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] for writing religious texts.

=== Ladino ===
Among the [[Sephardi]]m, [[Ladino language|Ladino]] was used for translations such as the [[Ferrara Bible]]. It was also used during the Sephardi liturgy. Ladino is also often referred to as [[Judeo-Spanish]], as it is a dialect of [[Castilian language|Castilian]] used by Sephardim as an everyday language until the 20th century.<ref name="Sephiha"><!-- The link http://www.vallenajerilla.com/berceo/florilegio/vidalsephiha/ladino1.htm triggers the spam filters. --> ''EL LADINO: Lengua litúrgica de los judíos españoles'', Haim Vidal Sephiha, [[University of Paris|Sorbona]] (París), Historia 16 – AÑO 1978:</ref><ref name="Cohen">[http://www.cryptojews.com/clearing_up_ladino.htm "Clearing up Ladino, Judeo-Spanish, Sephardic Music"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080416142720/http://www.wzo.org.il/en/resources/view.asp?id=1596 |date=2008-04-16 }} Judith Cohen, HaLapid, winter 2001; [http://www.wzo.org.il/en/resources/view.asp?id=1596 Sephardic Song]  Judith Cohen, Midstream July/August 2003</ref>

== List ==
{{More citations needed section|date=December 2011}}

* [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] was a long used liturgical language. 
* [[Aramaic]], used in some later books of the [[Tanakh]], some Jewish prayers, and the [[Talmud]].
* [[Avestan]], the language of the [[Avesta]], the sacred texts of [[Zoroastrianism]].
* [[Bahasa tanah]], a sacred language used in special traditional ceremonies of the [[Alfur people]] in [[Maluku Islands|Maluku]] and is generally written using the Alifuru script. It literally means 'language of the land'.
* [[Balaibalan]] was invented in the context of [[Sufi]] devotion, although it was only briefly used.
* [[Christian Bengali]], the language of Christian worship and Bengali Christian literature restricted to the Anglo-Bengali Christian community
* [[Classical Arabic]], the language of the [[Quran]]; it differs from the [[Varieties of Arabic|various forms of contemporary spoken Arabic]] in lexical and grammatical areas.
* [[Classical Chinese]], the language of older Chinese literature and the [[Confucianism|Confucian]], [[Taoism|Taoist]], and in East Asia also of the [[Mahayana Buddhism|Mahayana Buddhist]] sacred texts. The current pronunciation of [[Chinese characters]] is based on local pronunciation, for example [[Buddhism in Japan|Japanese Buddhists]] read [[Buddhist texts]] in [[Japanese language|Japanese]] [[Kanji]] pronunciation. 
* [[Coptic language|Coptic]], a form of ancient [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]], is used by the [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria]] and the [[Coptic Catholic Church]].
* [[History of the Czech language#Old Czech|Old Czech]] is used by the [[Moravian Church]].
* [[Damin]], an initiation language of the [[Lardil people]] in Australia.
* [[Dutch language|Early Modern Dutch]] is the language of the [[Statenvertaling]], still in use among orthodox Calvinist denominations in the Netherlands.
* [[Early Modern English]] is used in some parts of the [[Anglican Communion]] and by the [[Continuing Anglican movement]], as well as by a variety of [[King James Only movement|English-speaking Protestants]].
* [[Eskayan]] in the Philippines.
* [[Etruscan language|Etruscan]], cultivated for religious and [[magic and religion|magical]] purposes in the [[Roman Empire]].
* [[Geʽez]], the predecessor of many [[Ethiopian Semitic languages]] (e.g. [[Amharic]], [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]], [[Tigre language|Tigre]]) used as a liturgical language by [[Beta Israel|Ethiopian Jews]] and by [[Ethiopia]]n and [[Eritrea]]n [[Christianity|Christians]] (in the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church]], the [[Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church]], and the [[Roman Catholic Church]]).
* [[Early New High German]] is used in [[Amish]] communities for Bible readings and sermons.
* [[Gothic language|Gothic]], the sole East Germanic language which is attested by significant texts, is usually considered to have been preserved by the [[Arianism|Arian churches]], while the [[Goths]] themselves spoke [[vulgar Latin]] dialects of their areas. 
* [[Koine Greek]], the language of early [[Pauline Christianity]] and all of its [[New Testament]] books. It is today the liturgical language of [[Greek Orthodox Christianity]] and several other directly Greek connected [[Eastern Orthodox Churches]]. It differs markedly from [[Modern Greek]] but remains comprehensible for Modern Greek speakers.
* [[Habla Congo]] (or ''Habla Bantu'') is a [[Kongo language|Kongo]]-based [[liturgical language]] of the [[Palo religion]] with origins in Cuba, later spreading to other countries in the [[Caribbean Basin]].
* [[Hattic language|Hattic]] was used by the [[Hittites]] who spoke an unrelated language.
* [[Biblical Hebrew]] – the languages in which the [[Hebrew Bible]] has been written over time; these differ from [[Modern Hebrew|today's spoken Hebrew]] in lexical and grammatical areas.
* [[Jamaican Maroon Spirit Possession Language]], spoken by [[Jamaican Maroons]], the descendants of runaway slaves in the mountains of [[Jamaica]], during their "Kromanti Play", a ceremony in which the participants are said to be [[spirit possession|possessed by their ancestors]] and to speak as their ancestors did centuries ago.
* [[Early Middle Japanese]] is chanted in [[Shinto]] rituals.
* [[Old Javanese]] is utilized in [[Kejawèn]], the polytheistic [[ethnic religion]] of the [[Javanese people]] in [[Indonesia]].
* [[Kallawaya language|Kallawaya]], a secret medicinal language used in the Andes.
* [[Ecclesiastical Latin]] is the liturgical language of the [[Latin Church]]'s [[Latin liturgical rites]] of the [[Catholic Church]]. It is based on the Italian pronunciation.
* [[Old Latin]] was used in various prayers in [[ancient Roman religion|Roman paganism]], such as the [[Carmen Arvale]] and [[Carmen Saliare]]. These texts were unintelligible to classical Latin speakers and remain somewhat obscure to scholars even today.
* [[Manchu language|Manchu]] was the language used in [[Shamanism in the Qing dynasty#The .22Shamanic Code.22 of 1747|Manchu shamanic rituals]].
* [[Mandaic language|Mandaic]], an Aramaic language, in [[Mandaeanism]].
* [[:simple:Classical Meitei|Classical Meitei]], the holy language of [[Sanamahism]] (Meitei religion). 
* [[Classical Mongolian language|Classical Mongolian]] was used alongside Classical Tibetan as sacred languages of Tibetan Buddhism in Mongolia.
* [[Old Norse]], used in some [[Heathenry (new religious movement)|Heathenry]] groups as a religious language
* [[Palaic language|Palaic]] and [[Luwian language|Luwian]], cultivated as a religious language by the [[Hittites]].
* [[Pali]], the original language of [[Theravada]] [[Buddhism]].
* Some [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] and [[Latin]] prayers are retained by the [[Kakure Kirishitan]] (Hidden Christians) of Japan, who recite it without understanding the language.
* [[Sant Bhasha]], a mélange of archaic [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] and several other languages, is the language of the [[Sikh]] holy scripture [[Guru Granth Sahib]].<ref name="Dass2000">{{cite book | author=Nirmal Dass | title=Songs of Saints from Adi Granth | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GZSndbFnrVIC&pg=PA13 | access-date=29 November 2012 | year=2000 | publisher=SUNY Press | isbn=978-0-7914-4684-3 | page=13 | quote = Any attempt at translating songs from the Adi Granth certainly involves working not with one language, but several, along with dialectical differences. The languages used by the saints range from Sanskrit; regional Prakrits; western, eastern and southern Apabhramsa; and Sahaskrit.  More particularly, we find sant bhasha, Marathi, Old Hindi, central and Lehndi Panjabi, Sindhi and Persian. There are also many dialects deployed, such as Purbi Marwari, Bangru, Dakhni, Malwai, and Awadhi.}}</ref> It is different from the various dialects of Punjabi that exist today.
*  [[Vedic]] & Classical [[Sanskrit]], the dialects of the [[Veda]]s and other sacred texts of [[Hinduism]] as well as the original language of several sects of early [[Buddhism]] and a language of [[Jainism]].
* [[Old Church Slavonic]], also called [[Old Bulgarian]], the liturgical language of the Slavic Eastern Orthodoxy
* [[Church Slavonic language|Church Slavonic]] is the current liturgical language of the [[Russian Orthodox Church]], [[Serbian Orthodox Church]], [[Bulgarian Orthodox Church]]  and the [[Macedonian Orthodox Church]] and certain [[Byzantine]] ([[Ruthenian Greek Catholic Church|Ruthenian]]) [[Eastern Catholic]] churches.
* [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]], cultivated and preserved in [[Assyria]] and [[Babylon]] long after its extinction as an everyday language.
* [[Syriac language|Syriac]], a dialect of [[Aramaic]], is used as a liturgical language by [[Syriac Christianity|Syriac Christians]] who belong to the [[Chaldean Catholic Church]], [[Assyrian Church of the East]], [[Syriac Orthodox Church]], [[Syriac Catholic Church]], [[Syro Malabar Catholic Church]] and [[Maronite Church]].
* [[Old Tamil]] is the language of the Shaiva (Devaram) and Vaishnava (Divya Prabhandham) scriptures.<ref name="sangam.org"/>
* [[Classical Tibetan]], known as ''Chhokey'' in [[Bhutan]], the sacred language of [[Tibetan Buddhism]].
* [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]] (known as [[Lucumi language|Lucumi]] in [[Cuba]]), the language of the [[Yoruba people]], brought to the [[New World]] by [[Africa]]n [[slavery|slaves]], and preserved in [[Santería]], [[Candomblé]], and other transplanted African religions. The Yoruba descendants in these communities, as well as non-descendants that have adopted one of the Yoruba-based religions in the diaspora, no longer speak any of the Yoruba dialects with any level of fluency.  And the liturgical usage also reflects the compromise of the language whereby there isn't an understanding of correct grammar nor proper intonation.  Spirit possession by the Yoruba deities in Cuba shows that the deity manifested in the devotee at a Cuban orisa ceremony delivers messages to the faithful in [[Bozal]], a type of Spanish-based creole with some words of Yoruba language as well as those of [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] origin with an inflection similar to the way Africans would speak as they were learning Spanish during enslavement.

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Buddhism topics}}
{{Sacraments, rites, and liturgies of the Catholic Church}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Sacred languages| ]]
[[Category:Holiness]]
[[Category:Religious language| ]]
[[Category:Ritual languages]]
[[Category:Theology]]