Editing Safflower

{{Short description|Species of plant}}
{{distinguish|saffron}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = Safflower
| image = Safflower.jpg
| genus = Carthamus
| species = tinctorius
| authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tropicos.org/Name/2700365|title=Tropicos|publisher=[[Missouri Botanical Garden]], St. Louis, MO|date=2016|access-date=16 June 2016}}</ref>
}}
[[File:Illustration Carthamus tinctorius0.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Carthamus tinctorius'']][[File:Saffloweroutput.png|thumb|300px|right|Worldwide safflower production]]
[[File:Carthamus tinctorius MHNT.BOT.2011.3.34.jpg|thumb|''Carthamus tinctorius'' - [[MHNT]]]]

'''Safflower''' ('''''Carthamus tinctorius''''') is a highly branched, [[herbaceous]], [[thistle]]-like [[annual plant]] in the family Asteraceae. It is one of the world's oldest crops; today, it is commercially cultivated for [[vegetable oil]] extracted from the [[seed]]s. Plants are {{convert|30|to|150|cm|in|abbr=on}} tall with globular [[flower head]]s having [[yellow]], [[orange (colour)|orange]], or [[red]] [[flower]]s. Each branch will usually have from one to five flower heads containing 15 to 20 seeds per head. Safflower is native to arid environments having [[Wet season|seasonal rain]]. It grows a deep [[taproot]] which enables it to thrive in such environments.

==Biology==
[[File:Carthamus tinctorius Sturm21.jpg|thumb|400x400px|Safflower (''Carthamus tinctorius''), Illustration]]

===Plant morphology===
Safflower is a fast growing, erect, winter/spring-growing [[Annual plant|annual herb]], that resembles a [[thistle]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=Grain research & development corporation|date=2020-11-06|title=Safflower plant growth and physiology|url=https://grdc.com.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0023/370580/GrowNote-Safflower-North-04-Physiology.pdf}}</ref> Originating from a leaf [[Rosette (botany)|rosette]] emerges a branched central stem (also referred to as terminal stem), when day length and temperature increase. The main shoot reaches heights of {{cvt|30|–|150|cm|in}}. The plant also develops a strong [[taproot]], growing as deep as {{cvt|2|m}}. First lateral branches develop, once the main stem is about {{cvt|20|–|40|cm}} high. These lateral branches can then branch again to produce secondary and tertiary branches. The chosen variety as well as growing conditions influence the extent of branching.

The elongated and [[Serration|serrated]] leaves reach lengths of {{cvt|10|–|15|cm}} and widths of {{cvt|2.5|–|5|cm}} and run down the stem. The upper leaves that form the [[bract]]s are usually short, stiff and ovate, terminating in a spine.<ref name=":1" /> [[Bud]]s are borne on the ends of branches, and each composite flower head ([[Capitulum (flower)|capitulum]]) contains 20–180 individual [[florets]]. Depending on variety, crop management and growing conditions, each plant can develop 3–50 or more flower heads of {{cvt|1.25|–|4|cm}} diameter. [[Flowering]] commences with terminal flower heads (central stem), followed sequentially by primary, secondary and sometimes tertiary branch flower heads. Individual florets usually flower for 3–4 days. Commercial varieties are largely self-pollinated. Flowers are commonly yellow, orange and red, but white and cream coloured forms exist.<ref name=":1" /> The [[Carpel|dicarpelled]], [[epigynous]] ovary forms the [[ovule]]. The safflower plant then produces [[achene]]s. Each flower head commonly contains 15–50 seeds; however, the number can exceed 100. The shell content of the seeds varies between 30 and 60%, while the oil content of the seeds varies between 20 and 40%.<ref name=":1" />

===Plant development===
{{one source|section|date=October 2021}}
Safflower usually emerges 1–3 weeks after sowing and grows slower under low temperatures. Germination of safflower is [[epigeal]]. The first true leaves emerging form a [[Rosette (botany)|rosette]]. This stage occurs in winter with short daylength and cold temperature, as the safflower can tolerate frosts up to {{cvt|-7|°C}} during the rosette stage.

When temperature and daylength start to increase, the central stem begins to elongate and branch, growing more rapidly. Early sowing allows more time for developing a large rosette and more extensive branching, which results in a higher yield.

Flowering is mainly influenced by daylength. The period from the end of flowering to maturity is usually 4 weeks. The total period from sowing to harvest maturity varies with variety, location, sowing time and growing conditions; for June or July sowings, it may be about 26–31 weeks.<ref name=":1" />

Both wild and cultivated forms have a diploid set of 2n = 24 chromosomes. Crossings with ''Carthamus palaestinus'', ''Carthamus oxyacanthus'' and ''Carthamus persicus'' can produce fertile offspring.{{citation needed|date=November 2020}}

==History==
Safflower is one of humanity's oldest crops. It was first cultivated in [[Mesopotamia]], with archaeological traces possibly dating as early as 2500 BC.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Prance |editor1-first=Ghillean |editor2-last=Nesbitt |editor2-first=Mark |last1=Pearman |first1=Georgina |date=2005 |title=The Cultural History of Plants |publisher=Routledge |page=150 |isbn=0415927463}}</ref>

Chemical analysis of [[ancient Egypt]]ian textiles dated to the [[Twelfth dynasty of Egypt|Twelfth Dynasty]] (1991–1802 BC) identified dyes made from safflower, and garlands made from safflowers were found in the tomb of the [[pharaoh]] [[Tutankhamun]].<ref name=Zohary-211/> [[John Chadwick]] reports that the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] name for safflower ({{transliteration|grc|kárthamos}}, {{lang|grc|κάρθαμος}}) occurs many times in [[Linear B]] tablets, distinguished into two kinds: a white safflower (ka-na-ko re-u-ka, {{transliteration|grc|knākos leukā}}, {{lang|grc|κνάκος λευκά}}), which was measured, and red (ka-na-ko e-ru-ta-ra, {{transliteration|grc|knākos eruthrā}}, {{lang|grc|κνάκος ερυθρά}}) which was weighed. "The explanation is that there are two parts of the plant which can be used; the pale seeds and the red [[floret]]s."<ref>John Chadwick, ''The Mycenaean World'' (Cambridge: University Press, 1976), p. 120</ref>

The early Spanish colonies along the Rio Grande in [[New Mexico]] used safflower as a substitute for [[saffron]] in traditional recipes. An heirloom variety originating in [[Corrales, New Mexico]], called "Corrales Azafran", is still cultivated and used as a saffron substitute in [[New Mexican cuisine]].<ref name="nss">{{cite web|url=https://shop.nativeseeds.org/collections/herbs/products/hb014|title=Corrales Azafrán - Native-Seeds-Search|website=shop.nativeseeds.org}}</ref> Also in his 14th-century work ''Kaftor va-Ferach ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: כפתור ופרח)'', [[Ishtori Haparchi]] noted that the inhabitants of the Land of Israel in his time used Safflower to dye their food as a substitute for ''[[Crocus sativus]]''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Amar |first=Zohar |last2= |first2= |date=1993 |title=Estori ha-Parchi and the Identification of the Flora of Eretz Israel |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23536280 |journal=Proceedings of the World Congress of Jewish Studies |language=he |volume=11 |pages=137 |issn=0333-9068}}</ref>

==Cultivation==

===Climate===
Safflower prefers high temperatures and grows best at {{cvt|28|-|35|°C}}. It tolerates {{cvt|40|°C}}, but there are also some varieties which grow under very low temperatures.<ref name=":3">{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-1-4613-0433-3 |title=Food and Feed from Legumes and Oilseeds |year=1996 |isbn=978-1-4613-8050-4 |editor1-last=Nwokolo |editor1-first=E |editor2-first=J |editor2-last=Smartt }}</ref> Safflower is cultivated in different seasons: as a winter crop in south central India, as an early summer crop in California and as a mid-summer crop in the Northern Great Plains of the United States.<ref name=":4">{{cite book |doi=10.2135/1980.hybridizationofcrops.c38 |chapter=Safflower |title=Hybridization of Crop Plants |year=2015 |last1=Knowles |first1=P. F. |pages=535–548 |isbn=9780891185666 }}</ref> Minimum length of the growing season is 120 and 200 days for summer and winter cultivars, respectively.<ref name=":5">{{cite journal |last1=Knowles |first1=P. F. |title=Safflower — production, processing and utilization |journal=Economic Botany |date=July 1955 |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=273–299 |doi=10.1007/BF02859823 |s2cid=46373776 }}</ref> Plant performance is highly dependent on the different planting dates in terms of temperature and day length.<ref name=":4" /> Winter hard varieties only form a rosette in late fall and elongates in spring.<ref name=":4" /> In early stages, safflower tolerates humidity but after bud stage the danger of a Botrytis blight infestation increases<ref name=":4" />

Safflower is drought tolerant.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hussain |first1=M. Iftikhar |last2=Lyra |first2=Dionyssia-Angeliki |last3=Farooq |first3=Muhammad |last4=Nikoloudakis |first4=Nikolaos |last5=Khalid |first5=Nauman |title=Salt and drought stresses in safflower: a review |journal=Agronomy for Sustainable Development |date=March 2016 |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=4 |doi=10.1007/s13593-015-0344-8 |s2cid=18210727 |doi-access=free |hdl=20.500.14279/9052 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The tap root makes moisture from deep soil layers available.<ref name=":4" /> Additionally, this tolerance can also be explained by the higher water use efficiency compared to other oil crops such as linseed and mustard.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kar |first1=Gouranga |last2=Kumar |first2=Ashwani |last3=Martha |first3=M. |title=Water use efficiency and crop coefficients of dry season oilseed crops |journal=Agricultural Water Management |date=January 2007 |volume=87 |issue=1 |pages=73–82 |doi=10.1016/j.agwat.2006.06.002 |bibcode=2007AgWM...87...73K }}</ref> Shortly before and during maximum flowering water requirements are the highest.<ref name=":4" /> Beside drought tolerance, all parts of the plant are sensitive to moisture in terms of diseases.<ref name=":4" /> In the case of excessive water supply, it is susceptible to root rot.<ref name=":4" /> Therefore, many varieties are not suitable in irrigated agriculture especially on soils with danger of waterlogging.<ref name=":5" />

Safflower tolerates wind and hail better than cereals.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|title=Raising the Bar With Better Safflower Agronomy|url=https://grdc.com.au/resources-and-publications/all-publications/publications/2011/01/raising-the-bar-with-better-safflower-agronomy|access-date=2020-11-08|website=Grains Research and Development Corporation|language=en-AU}}</ref> It stays erect and can retain the seeds in the head.<ref name=":4" />

===Soil===
Safflower prefers well-drained, neutral, fertile and deep soils.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":3" /> It can adapt well to soil pH (pH 5–8) and tolerates salinity.<ref name=":3" /> Safflower can be well grown on different soil types, with water supply as its main driving factor for suitability, depending on climate and irrigation, and the resulting different water regimes of the different soil types.<ref name=":4" /> Therefore, cultivation on shallow soils and especially on soils with danger of waterlogging is not suitable.<ref name=":5" /> The deep rooting promotes water and air movement and improves the [[soil quality]] for subsequent crops in a rotation.<ref name=":6" />

Nutrient requirements can be compared to wheat and barley, except nitrogen amendment should be increased by 20%.<ref name=":4" /> Therefore, soils with an adequate nitrogen supply are favorable.<ref name=":5" />

===Agricultural practice===
====Crop rotation and sowing====
Safflower is frequently grown in [[crop rotation]] with small [[grains]], [[fallow]] and annual [[legumes]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=Safflower Production — Publications|url=https://www.ag.ndsu.edu/publications/crops/safflower-production#:~:text=Safflower%20(Carthamus%20tinctorious%20L.),western%20part%20of%20the%20state|access-date=2020-11-06|website=www.ag.ndsu.edu| date=21 August 2019 }}</ref> Close rotation with crops susceptible to ''[[Sclerotinia sclerotiorum]]'' (e.g. [[sunflower]], [[canola]], [[mustard plant]] and [[pea]]) should be avoided. A four-year rotation is recommended to reduce disease pressure.<ref name=:2/>

Seeds should be sown in spring as early as {{cvt|4.5|°C}} soil temperature is exceeded, to take advantage of the full growing season. If wireworms were a problem in the field in previous seasons, a respective [[seed treatment]] is recommended. A planting depth between {{cvt|2.5|and|3.5|cm}} is optimal. Shallow seeding promotes uniform emergence resulting in a better stand.

Seeding rate recommendations are around {{cvt|17|-|33.5|kg/ha}} of live seed.<ref name=:2/> Where lower seeding rates promote branching, a longer flowering period and later maturity and higher rates promote thicker stands with a higher disease incidence. Sufficient moisture is necessary for germination. Usually, row spacing between {{cvt|15|and|25|cm}} are chosen using similar drill settings as recommended for [[barley]].<ref name=:2/>

====Management====
The total N recommendation is {{cvt|90|kg/ha}}. This should include credits based on previous crops and soil available N. For the latter, deeper positioned nutrients need to be taken into account as safflower will root deeper than small grains and therefore access nutrients unavailable to them.<ref name=:2/> Safflower growing in soils low in phosphorus need to be fertilized. Up to {{cvt|39|kg/ha}} of phosphate can be drill-applied safely.

A weed control program is essential when growing safflower as it is a poor competitor with weeds during the rosette stage.<ref name=:2/> Cultivation on fields with heavy infestation of perennial weeds is not recommended.

====Harvest====
Safflower is mature when most leaves have turned brown approximately 30 days after flowering.<ref name=:2/> Seeds should fall from the head when rubbed. Rain and high humidity after maturity may cause the seeds to sprout on the head.<ref name=:2/>

Harvesting is usually done using a small-grain [[combine harvester]].<ref name=:2/> Moisture in seeds should not exceed 8% to allow for a safe, long-term storage. Drying can be done similar to sunflower. Temperatures must not exceed {{convert|43|°C}} to prevent damage to the seed and ensure quality.

===Pests===
* Gram pod borer/capsule borer: ''[[Helicoverpa armigera]]''
* Safflower caterpillar: ''[[Condica capensis|Perigaea capensis]]''
* Safflower aphid: ''[[Uroleucon]] carthami''
* Capsule fly/safflower bud fly: ''[[Acanthiophilus]] helianthi''

===Diseases===
[[Alternaria carthami|''Alternaria'']] spp. present one of the most prevalent diseases causing losses as high as 50% in India.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-1-4614-0356-2 |title=Technological Innovations in Major World Oil Crops, Volume 1 |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-4614-0355-5 |s2cid=38884275 |editor1-last=Gupta |editor1-first=S.K }}</ref> In a field trial in Switzerland, ''[[Botrytis cinerea]]'' was the most prevalent disease.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2005-04-01|title=Distelöl aus Schweizer Saflor?|url=https://www.agrarforschungschweiz.ch/2005/04/disteloel-aus-schweizer-saflor/|access-date=2020-11-08|website=Agrarforschung Schweiz|language=de-DE}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+
Summary of plant diseases occurring on safflower without consideration of the geographical distribution and importance<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-1-4757-5221-2 |title=Field Crop Diseases Handbook |year=1989 |last1=Nyvall |first1=Robert F. |isbn=978-1-4757-5223-6 |s2cid=38851230 }}</ref>{{additional citation needed|date=October 2021}}
!Disease
!Cause
!Symptoms
!Control
|-
! colspan="4" |Bacterial diseases
|-
|Bacterial blight
|''[[Pseudomonas syringae]]''
|Dark, water soaked lesions on stems, leaf petioles and leaves. Red-brown necrotic spots on leaves. Severely infected plants die.
|No control reported.
|-
|Stem soft rot
|''[[Pectobacterium carotovorum|Erwinia carotovora]]''
|Wilting. Stems have a soft internal rot.
|No control reported.
|-
! colspan="4" |Fungal diseases
|-
|Alternia leaf spot
|''[[Alternaria carthami]]''
|Seeds may rot or seedlings damp off. Brown spots on the cotyldedones. If stem is infected plant collapses.
|Disease free seeds, fungicide treatment of seeds, resistant cultivar, hot water treatment of the seeds.
|-
|Botrytis head rot
|''[[Botrytis cinerea]]''
|Seed heads change color from a dark to light green followed by complete browning. Infected floral parts will be covered with a gray mold.
|No control reported.
|-
|Cercospora leaf spot
|''Cercospora carthami''
|At any stage of growth. Commonly round spots on lower leaves.
|No control necessary.
|-
|Colletrichum stem rot
|''Colletrichum orbiculare''
|Brown lesions, which can become necrotic occurring on the base of stems. Plant may die.
|No control necessary.
|-
|Fusarium wilt
|''[[Fusarium oxysporum]]''
|Yellowing leaves at one side of the plant beginning on the lower leaves followed by wilting. Young plants may die.
|Don't plant seeds from affected plants, fungicide treatment of seeds, rotation, resistant cultivar
|-
|Phytophtora root rot
|''[[Phytophthora cryptogea|Phytophtora cryptogea]], [[Phytophthora drechsleri|P. drechsleri]], [[Phytophthora cactorum|P. cactorum]]''
|At any stage of growth. Lower stems of seedlings collapse. On older plants leaves turn light green or yellow, then wild and die.
|Resistant cultivar, provide good drainage, avoid ponding of water
|-
|Powdery mildew
|''[[Erysiphe cichoracearum]]''
|Gray powdery mass of conidia on leaf surfaces
|No control reported.
|-
|Pythium root rot
|''[[Pythium splendens|Pythium spp.]]''
|Hypocotyl and first internode become water-soaked and soft with light brown discoloration. Later plant collapses
|Fungicide treatment of seeds, avoid irrigation
|-
|Ramularia leaf spot
|''Ramularia carthani''
|Round and regular spots in both sides of leaves. Yield and seed quality is affected.
|Rotation
|-
|Rhizocotina blight
|''Rhizocotina solani''
|Dark cortical lesions in the seedling stem. In advanced stages disease lesions extend up the stem. Root development is reduced
|Resistant cultivar
|-
|Rust
|''[[Puccinia carthami]]''
|Can occur at seedling phase or at foliage phase.
|Fungicide treatment of seeds, rotation, plow under residue, resistant cultivar
|-
|Sclerotinia stem rot
|''[[Sclerotinia sclerotiorum]]''
|Leaves turn yellow, wilt, turn brown and shrivel. White cottony growth on the stem. Can also affect heads. Plant may die.
|Don't plant safflower with other plants susceptible to ''S. sclerotiorum.''
|-
|Verticillum wilt
|''[[Verticillium wilt|Verticillum wilt]]''
|At any stage of growth. Leaves turn darker green than those of healthy plants. In older plants on lower leaves first. Unilateral leaf growth. Chlorotic areas on leaves.
|Normally minor disease. Do not rotate with cotton, peanuts and other susceptible crops.
|-
! colspan="4" |Mycoplasmal diseases
|-
|Safflower phyllody
|Safflower phyllody mycoplasma
|Abnormal axillary budding.
|Keep safflower fields free of the weed Carthamus tenuis L. because the leafhopper (vector) breeds in this weed
|-
! colspan="4" |Viral diseases
|-
|Chilli mosaic
|Chilli mosaic virus CMV
|Light and dark green patches are scattered over leaves
|No control reported.
|-
|Cucumber mosaic
|
|Light and dark green mosaic pattern primarily on upper leaves
|No control reported.
|-
|Severe mosaic
|[[Turnip mosaic virus]] (TuMV)
|Stunted plants with reduced leaf and seed head size. Seed ovules rot.
|No control reported.
|-
|Tobacco mosaic
|[[Tobacco mosaic virus]] (TMV)
|Blotchy light and dark green mosaic patterns on leaves.
|No control reported.
|}

==Production==
In 2020, global production of safflower seeds was 653,030 [[tonne]]s, led by [[Kazakhstan]] with 35% of the world total (table). Other significant producers were Russia and Mexico, with 28% of world production combined.
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; clear:left; width:17em; text-align:center;"
|-
|+Safflower production, 2020<ref>{{Cite web|date=2022|title=World production of safflower seeds in 2020; World Regions/Crops/Production from pick lists|url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC|access-date=16 May 2022|publisher=[[United Nations]] [[Food and Agriculture Organization]], Statistics Division (FAOSTAT)}}</ref>
!Country
!Seeds in [[tonne]]s
|-
|{{KAZ}}
|226,739
|-
|{{RUS}}
|96,636
|-
|{{MEX}}
|86,793
|-
|{{USA}}
|67,040
|-
|{{IND}}
|44,000
|-
|'''Total'''
|'''653,030'''
|}

==Uses==
Traditionally, the crop was grown for its seeds. It was also used for coloring and flavoring foods, in medicines, and making red ([[carthamin]]) and yellow dyes, especially before cheaper [[aniline]] [[dye]]s became available.<ref name=Zohary-211>{{Google books|1hHSYoqY-AwC|page=168}} in {{cite book |doi=10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199549061.003.0009 |chapter=Dye crops |title=Domestication of Plants in the Old World |year=2012 |last1=Zohary |first1=Daniel |last2=Weiss |first2=Ehud |last3=Hopf |first3=Maria |pages=166–168 |isbn=978-0-19-954906-1 }}</ref>

===Safflower oil===
For the last 50 years or so,{{citation needed|date=October 2021}} the plant has been cultivated mainly for the [[vegetable oil]] extracted from its seeds. Safflower seed oil is flavorless and colorless. It is used mainly in cosmetics and as a [[cooking oil]], in [[salad dressing]], and for the production of [[margarine]].{{citation needed|date=October 2021}} [[INCI]] nomenclature is ''Carthamus tinctorius''.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}}

There are two types of safflower that produce different kinds of oil: one high in [[monounsaturated]] fatty acid ([[oleic acid]]) and the other high in [[polyunsaturated]] fatty acid ([[linoleic acid]]). Currently the predominant edible oil market is for the former, which is lower in [[saturated fat]]s than olive oil. The latter is used in [[paint]]ing in the place of [[linseed oil]], particularly with white paints, as it does not have the yellow tint which linseed oil possesses.{{citation needed|date=May 2018}}

In one review of small [[clinical trial]]s, safflower oil consumption reduced blood [[low-density lipoprotein]] levels &ndash; a [[risk factor]] for [[cardiovascular disease]]s &ndash; more than those seen from [[butter]] or [[lard]] consumption.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schwingshackl |first1=Lukas |last2=Bogensberger |first2=Berit |last3=Benčič |first3=Aleksander |last4=Knüppel |first4=Sven |last5=Boeing |first5=Heiner |last6=Hoffmann |first6=Georg |title=Effects of oils and solid fats on blood lipids: a systematic review and network meta-analysis |journal=Journal of Lipid Research |date=September 2018 |volume=59 |issue=9 |pages=1771–1782 |doi=10.1194/jlr.P085522  |doi-access=free |pmid=30006369 |pmc=6121943 }}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+Nutrient value per 100g<br />of high-linoleic safflower seed oil<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.36019/9780813549194-009 |chapter=Appendix B. Fatty Acid Composition of Dietary Fats and Oils |title=The Fats of Life |year=2019 |pages=219–221 |isbn=9780813549194 |s2cid=241747841 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sabzalian |first1=Mohammad R. |last2=Saeidi |first2=Ghodratollah |last3=Mirlohi |first3=Aghafakhr |title=Oil Content and Fatty Acid Composition in Seeds of Three Safflower Species |journal=Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society |date=August 2008 |volume=85 |issue=8 |pages=717–721 |doi=10.1007/s11746-008-1254-6 |s2cid=85260715 }}</ref><ref>Mailer, R., Potter, T., Redden, R., & Ayton, J. (2008). Quality evaluation of safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) cultivars. In Paper presented at the 7th international safflower conference (Wagga Wagga, NSW) {{s2cid|25100084}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ben Moumen |first1=Abdessamad |last2=Mansouri |first2=Farid |last3=Richard |first3=Gaetan |last4=Abid |first4=Malika |last5=Fauconnier |first5=Marie-Laure |last6=Sindic |first6=Marianne |last7=El Amrani |first7=Ahmed |last8=Serghini Caid |first8=Hana |title=Biochemical characterisation of the seed oils of four safflower ( Carthamus tinctorius ) varieties grown in north-eastern of Morocco |journal=International Journal of Food Science & Technology |date=March 2015 |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=804–810 |doi=10.1111/ijfs.12714 |hdl=2268/175051 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Coşge |first1=Belgin |last2=Gürbüz |first2=Bilal |last3=Kiralan |first3=Mustafa |title=Oil Content and Fatty Acid Composition of Some Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) Varieties Sown in Spring and Winter |journal=International Journal of Natural and Engineering Sciences |date=2007 |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=11–15 |url=http://ijnes.org/index.php/ijnes/article/view/374 }}</ref>
!
!
!Min
!Max
|-
| rowspan="3" |Saturated fatty acids
|Myristic C14:0
|0
|0.5
|-
|Palmitic C16:0
|4
|8.6
|-
|Stearic C18:0
|1.7
|2.6
|-
| rowspan="2" |Monounsaturated fatty acids
|Oleic C18:1
|8.1
|18.4
|-
|Eicosenoic C20:1
|0
|0.2
|-
| rowspan="3" |Polyunsaturated fatty acids
|Linoleic C18:2
|71.6
|83.7
|-
|[[Arachidonic]] C20:4
|0
|0.4
|-
|Linolenic C18:3
|0
|0.1
|}

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+Fatty acid composition of high-oleic safflower seed oil
<ref>Salaberría, F., Constenla, D., Carelli, A.A. et al. Chemical Composition and Physical Properties of High Oleic Safflower Oils (Carthamus tinctorius, Var. CW88-OL and CW99-OL). J Am Oil Chem Soc 93, 1383–1391 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11746-016-2886-6
|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11746-016-2886-6</ref>
!
!
!%
|-
| rowspan="2" |Saturated fatty acids
|Palmitic C16:0
|~5
|-
|Stearic C18:0
|~2
|-
| rowspan="1" |Monounsaturated fatty acids
|Oleic C18:1
|~78
|-
| rowspan="1" |Polyunsaturated fatty acids
|Linoleic C18:2
|~13
|-
|}

===Flowers for human consumption===
[[File:Tuerkischer safran.jpg|thumb|left|Safflower at a market]]
Safflower flowers are occasionally used in cooking as a cheaper substitute for [[saffron]], sometimes referred to as "bastard saffron".<ref>E.g. "safflower" in [http://machaut.uchicago.edu/?resource=Webster%27s&word=safflower&use1828=on ''Webster's Dictionary'', year 1828] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508100436/http://machaut.uchicago.edu/?resource=Webster%27s&word=safflower&use1828=on |date=2013-05-08 }}. E.g. "bastard saffron" in [https://archive.org/stream/mobot31753000817749#page/1006/mode/1up ''The Herball, or General Historie of Plantes''], by John Gerarde, year 1597, pages 1006–1007.</ref>

The dried safflower petals are also used as a [[herbal tea]] variety.

===Dye from flowers===
[[File:Safflower oil.jpg|thumb|left|Safflower oil as a medium for [[Oil painting|oil colours]]]]
Safflower petals contain one red and two yellow dyes. In coloring [[textiles]], dried safflower flowers are used as a natural [[dye]] source for the orange-red pigment [[carthamin]]. Carthamin is also known, in the dye industry, as Carthamus Red or Natural Red 26.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/w6355e/w6355e0a.htm |title=Carthamus red; In: Compendium of Food Additive Specifications. Addendum 5. (FAO Food and Nutrition Paper - 52 Add. 5) |year=1997 |publisher=FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives |access-date=September 20, 2016}}</ref> Yellow dye from safflower is known as Carthamus yellow or Natural Yellow 5.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fao.org/3/w6355e/w6355e0b.htm |title=Carthamus yellow; In: Compendium of Food Additive Specifications. (FAO Food and Nutrition Paper - 52 Add. 5) |year=1997 |publisher=FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives |access-date=April 7, 2022}}</ref> One of the yellow pigments is fugitive and will wash away in cold water. The dye is suitable for [[cotton]], which takes up the red dye, and [[silk]], which takes up the yellow and red color yielding orange. No [[mordant]] is required.<ref name="WFCOUK">{{cite web |title=Dyeing with Safflower |url=http://www.wildcolours.co.uk/html/safflower.html |website=wildcolours.co.uk |access-date=26 January 2022 |date=19 April 2021}}</ref>

In [[Japan]], dyers have long utilised a technique of producing a bright red to orange-red dye (known as ''[[carthamin]]'') from the dried florets of safflower (''[[Carthamus tinctorius]]'').{{citation needed|date=June 2020}} Darker shades are achieved by repeating the dyeing process several times, having the fabric dry, and redyed.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}} Due to the expensive nature of the dye, safflower dye was sometimes diluted with other dyestuffs, such as [[turmeric]] and [[Caesalpinia sappan L.|sappan]].<ref name="Beni itajime">{{cite journal |last1=Arai |first1=Masanao |last2=Iwamoto Wada |first2=Yoshiko |date=2010 |title=BENI ITAJIME: CARVED BOARD CLAMP RESIST DYEING IN RED |url=https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1004&context=tsaconf |format=PDF |journal=Textile Society of America Symposium Proceedings |publisher=University of Nebraska - Lincoln |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102105415/https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1004&context=tsaconf |archive-date=2 November 2021}}</ref>{{rp|1}}

===Biodegradable oil===
In Australia in 2005, [[CSIRO]] and [[Grains Research and Development Corporation]]<!-- Not supported by the citation --> launched the Crop Biofactories initiative<!-- Not supported by the citation --> to produce 93% oleic oil for use as a [[biodegradable]] oil for [[lubricant]]s, [[hydraulic fluid]]s, and [[transformer oil]]s, and as a [[feedstock]] for [[biopolymer]]s and [[surfactant]]s.<ref>{{cite news | title=Safflower oil hailed by scientists as possible recyclable, biodegradable replacement for petroleum  | website=ABC News |series=Landline| publisher= Australian Broadcasting Corporation|first=Tim|last=Lee | date=7 June 2020 | url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-06-07/safflower-oil-new-biofuel-to-replace-petroleum/12321028 | access-date=7 June 2020}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Conjugated linoleic acid]]
* [[Suetsumuhana]]
* [[Tsheringma]]

{{clear}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}
* {{Commons category-inline|Carthamus tinctorius}}
* [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/afcm/safflower.html Safflower field crops manual, University of Wisconsin, 1992]
* {{cite book |editor1-last=McGuire |editor1-first=Patrick E. |editor2-last=Damania |editor2-first=Ardeshir B. |editor3-last=Qualset |editor3-first=Calvin O. |year=2012 |title=Safflower in California |url=http://ucanr.org/sites/plantbreeding/files/151269.pdf }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Lewin |first1=Geertje |last2=Joel |first2=Madeleine |last3=Peter |first3=Birgit |last4=Lützow |first4=Manfred |title=Food grade safflower concentrate: No evidence for reproduction and early developmental toxicity |journal=Reproductive Toxicology |date=September 2021 |volume=104 |pages=155–165 |doi=10.1016/j.reprotox.2021.01.009 |pmid=33515695 }}

{{fats and oils}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q156625}}
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[[Category:Plant dyes]]
[[Category:Food colorings]]
[[Category:Cooking oils]]
[[Category:Carthamus|tinctorius]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants]]
[[Category:Vegetable oils]]
[[Category:Plants used in traditional Chinese medicine]]
[[Category:Plants described in 1753]]
[[Category:Oil seeds]]