Editing Samhain

{{Short description|Gaelic festival marking the start of winter}}
{{about|the Gaelic holiday|other uses}}
{{for|the period of Korean history|Samhan}}
{{EngvarB|date=November 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2025}}
{{Infobox holiday
| holiday_name  = Samhain
| type          = Pagan
| longtype      = {{cslist
|Cultural
|Pagan ({{hlist|class=inline|[[Celtic polytheism]]|[[Celtic neopaganism]]|[[Druidry (modern)|Druidry]]|[[Wicca]]|[[modern paganism|Neopaganism]]}})
}}
| image         =
| image_size    = 
| caption       = A [[modern paganism|Neopagan]] celebration of Samhain
| nickname      = 
| observedby    = Historically: [[Gaels]]<br />Today: {{cslist|Irish people|Scottish people|[[Manx people]]|[[Modern paganism|Modern Pagans]]}}
| significance  = Reverence of the dead, end of the harvest season
| date          = 31 October-1 November<br /><small>(or 1 May for Neopagans in the [[Southern Hemisphere]])</small>
| celebrations  = {{cslist
|[[Bonfire]]s
|[[Guising]] or [[Mummers' play|Mumming]]
|[[Divination]]
|[[Saining]]
|[[Veneration of the dead]]
|[[Banquet|Feasting]]
|[[Incantation|Spells]] (by [[Neopagan witchcraft|witches]])
}}
| relatedto     = {{cslist
|[[Allantide]]
|[[All Saints' Day]]
|[[All Souls' Day]]
|[[Calan Gaeaf]]
|[[Day of the Dead]]
|[[Dziady]]
|[[Halloween]]
|[[Hop-tu-Naa]]
|[[Kekri (festival)|Kekri]]
|[[Winter Nights]]
}}
| frequency     = Annual
| duration      = 1 day and night
| alt           = 
}}
'''Samhain''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|ɑː|w|ɪ|n}} {{respell|SAH|win}}, {{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|aʊ|ɪ|n}} {{respell|SOW|in}}, {{IPA|ga|ˈsˠəunʲ|lang}}, {{IPA|gd|ˈs̪ãũ.ɪɲ|lang}}) or '''{{lang|gv|Sauin|i=no}}''' ({{IPA|gv|ˈsoːɪnʲ|lang}}) is a [[Gaels|Gaelic]] festival on 1 November marking the end of the [[harvest]] season and beginning of winter or the "[[Celtic calendar#Medieval Irish and Welsh calendars|darker half]]" of the year.<ref name="ohogain 402">[[Dáithí Ó hÓgáin|Ó hÓgáin, Dáithí]]. ''Myth Legend and Romance: An Encyclopaedia of the Irish Folk Tradition''. Prentice Hall Press, 1991. p. 402. Quote: "The basic Irish division of the year was into two parts, the summer half beginning at Bealtaine (May 1st) and the winter half at Samhain (November 1st) ... The festivals properly began at sunset on the day before the actual date, evincing the Celtic tendency to regard the night as preceding the day".</ref> It is also the Irish and [[Scottish Gaelic]] name for [[November]]. Celebrations begin on the evening of 31 October, since the [[Celtic calendar#Medieval Irish and Welsh calendars|Celtic day]] began and ended at sunset.<ref name="ohogain 402"/> This is about halfway between the [[September equinox|autumnal equinox]] and [[winter solstice]]. It is one of [[Quarter days|the four]] Gaelic seasonal festivals along with [[Imbolc]], [[Bealtaine]], and [[Lughnasa]]. Historically it was widely observed throughout Ireland, Scotland, and the [[Isle of Man]]. Its [[Brittonic languages|Brittonic]] [[Celtic Britons|Celtic]] equivalent is called ''[[Calan Gaeaf]]'' in Wales.

Samhain is believed to have [[Ancient Celtic religion|Celtic pagan]] origins, and some [[prehistoric Ireland#Neolithic (4000–2500 BC)|Neolithic]] [[passage tomb]]s in Great Britain and Ireland are aligned with the sunrise at the time of Samhain.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Meehan |first1=Pádraig |date=September 2012 |title=A Possible Astronomical Alignment marking Seasonal Transitions at Listoghil, Sligo, Ireland |url=https://intarch.ac.uk/journal/issue32/meehan_index.html |journal=Internet Archaeology |volume=32 |issue=32 |doi=10.11141/ia.32.3|url-access=subscription }}</ref> As a festival for communing with the ancestors, however, it may predate the Celtic era. A number of stone circles and dolmens, including for example, Avebury, exhibit a west-south-west alignment, the azimuth angle of the setting sun on 31 October.

Samhain is mentioned in the [[early Irish literature|earliest Irish literature]], from the 9th century, and is associated with many important events in [[Irish mythology]]. The early literature says Samhain was marked by great gatherings and feasts and was when the ancient burial mounds were open, which were seen as portals to the [[Celtic Otherworld|Otherworld]]. Some of the literature also associates Samhain with bonfires and sacrifices.

The festival was not recorded in detail until the [[early modern era]]. It was when cattle were brought down from the [[transhumance|summer pastures]] and livestock were slaughtered. Special [[bonfire]]s were lit, which were deemed to have protective and cleansing powers.<ref name="O">O'Driscoll, Robert (ed.) (1981) ''The Celtic Consciousness'' New York: Braziller {{ISBN|0-8076-1136-0}} pp. 197–216: Ross, Anne "Material Culture, Myth and Folk Memory" (on modern survivals); pp. 217–42: Danaher, Kevin "Irish Folk Tradition and the Celtic Calendar" (on specific customs and rituals)</ref> Like [[Bealtaine]], Samhain was a [[liminality|liminal]] or threshold festival, when the boundary between this world and the Otherworld blurred, making contact with the ''[[aos sí]]'' (the 'spirits' or '[[fairy|fairies]]') more likely. Most scholars see them as remnants of pagan gods. At Samhain, they were [[propitiation|appeased]] with offerings of food and drink to ensure the people and livestock survived the winter. The souls of dead kin were also thought to revisit their homes seeking hospitality, and a place was set at the table for them during a meal. [[Mummers' play|Mumming]] and [[guising]] were part of the festival from at least the early modern era, whereby people went door-to-door in costume, reciting verses in exchange for food. The costumes may have been a way of imitating and disguising oneself from the ''aos sí''. [[Divination]] was also a big part of the festival and often involved nuts and apples. In the late 19th century, [[John Rhys]] and [[James George Frazer|James Frazer]] suggested it had been the "Celtic New Year", but that is disputed.<ref name="Stations363">Hutton, Ronald (1996) ''Stations of the Sun: A History of the Ritual Year in Britain''. Oxford: Oxford University Press {{ISBN|0-19-288045-4}}, p. 363.</ref>

In the 9th century, the [[Western Christianity|Western Church]] endorsed 1 November as the date of [[All Saints' Day]], possibly due to the influence of [[Alcuin]] or [[Hiberno-Scottish mission|Irish missionaries]], and 2 November later became [[All Souls' Day]]. It is believed that Samhain and All Saints'/All Souls'  [[Religious syncretism|influenced each other]] and the modern [[Halloween]].<ref name="OED">{{cite book |last1=Simpson |first1=John |title=Oxford English Dictionary |last2=Weiner, Edmund |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1989 |isbn=0-19-861186-2 |edition=second |location=London |oclc=17648714}}</ref> Most American Halloween traditions were inherited from [[Irish diaspora|Irish]] and [[Scottish diaspora|Scottish]] immigrants.<ref name="Brunvand p749">Brunvand, Jan (editor). ''American Folklore: An Encyclopedia''. Routledge, 2006. p.749</ref> Folklorists have used the name 'Samhain' to refer to Gaelic 'Halloween' customs until the 19th century.<ref name="hutton365-369">[[Ronald Hutton|Hutton, Ronald]]. ''The Stations of the Sun: A History of the Ritual Year in Britain''. Oxford University Press, 1996. pp. 365–69</ref>

Since the later 20th century [[Celtic neopaganism|Celtic neopagans]] and [[Wicca]]ns have observed Samhain, or something based on it, as a religious holiday.<ref name="Hutton">{{cite book |last=Hutton |first=Ronald |title=The Pagan Religions of the Ancient British Isles: Their Nature and Legacy |url-access=limited |publisher=Oxford: Blackwell |isbn=0-631-18946-7 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/paganreligionsan00hutt/page/n351 327]–41 |author-link=Ronald Hutton |date=1993 |url=https://archive.org/details/paganreligionsan00hutt}}</ref>

==Name==
In Modern Irish and [[Scottish Gaelic]] the name is {{lang|ga|Samhain}}, while the traditional [[Manx language|Manx Gaelic]] name is {{lang|gv|Sauin}}.<ref>Rhys, John (1901). ''Celtic Folklore: Welsh and Manx''. Cambridge University Press, 2016. pp. 315–16</ref> It is usually written with the definite article {{lang|ga|An tSamhain}} (Irish), {{lang|gd|An t-Samhain}} (Scottish Gaelic), and {{lang|gv|Yn Tauin}} (Manx). Older forms of the word include the Scottish Gaelic spellings {{lang|gd|Samhainn}} and {{lang|gd|Samhuinn}}.<ref>[[Alexander Macbain|Macbain, Alexander]] (1911). [http://www.ceantar.org/Dicts/MB2/mb32.html ''An Etymological Dictionary of the Gaelic Language''].</ref><ref>[https://www.edinburghnews.scotsman.com/arts-and-culture/samhuinn-halloween-festival-to-be-staged-on-edinburghs-calton-hill-572335 "Samhuinn Halloween festival to be staged on Edinburgh's Calton Hill"]. ''[[The Scotsman]]'', 26 September 2018.</ref><ref>[https://www.faclair.com/ViewDictionaryEntry.aspx?ID=58CC31EB610DF1537DEDAF39B763D976 "Samhainn"]. [[Scottish Gaelic dictionaries|Am Faclair Beag]].</ref> The Gaelic names for the month of [[November]] are derived from ''Samhain''.<ref>Koch, ''Celtic Culture'', p. 331</ref> The Irish name for Samhain night is {{lang|ga|Oíche Shamhna}} ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|iː|h|ə|_|ˈ|h|aʊ|n|ə|}} {{respell|EE|hə HOW|nə}}).

The name of the superficially similar [[Galicia (Spain)|Galician]] festival of ''Samaín'' from the [[Cedeira]] [[comarca]] is etymologically unrelated, being derived from Latin {{lang|la|sambucum}} '[[elderberry]]'.<ref>{{cite book |year=2009|editor-last=Carballeira Annlo |editor-first=Xosé Mᵃ |title=Gran Dicionario Xerais da Lingua|publisher=Edicións Xerais de Galicia |isbn=978-84-9914-070-4 |page=864}} "SAMAÍN [sama'iŋ] ''s.m.'' Festa orixinaria da comarca cedeiresa que se celebra pola época de defuntos. ETIM. lat. ''sambucu(m)'' 'salguerio'" [Translation: A festival from the Cedeira region celebrated around [[All Souls' Day]]. Etym. lat. ''sambucu(m)'' 'elderberry'].</ref>

===Etymology===
These names all come from the [[Old Irish|Old]] and [[Middle Irish]] ''Samain'' or ''Samuin'' {{IPA|sga|ˈsaṽɨnʲ|}}, the name for the festival held on 1 November in medieval Ireland. Traditionally, it is derived from [[Proto-Indo-European language|proto-Indo-European]] ''*semo'' ('summer').<ref>Pokorny, Julius. ''[[IEW]]'' (1959), s.v. "sem-3", p.&nbsp;905.</ref><ref>Rogers, Nicholas (2002). "Samhain and the Celtic Origins of Halloween". ''Halloween: From Pagan Ritual to Party Night'', pp. 11–21. New York: [[Oxford University Press]]. {{ISBN|0-19-516896-8}}.</ref> But as [[John T. Koch]] points out, it is unclear why a festival marking the beginning of winter would include the word for 'summer'.<ref>Koch, ''Celtic Culture'', p.&nbsp;1558</ref> Linguist [[Joseph Vendryes]] contends that it is unrelated, saying that the Celtic summer ended in August.<ref>Vendryes, ''Lexique Étymologique de l'Irlandais Ancien'' (1959). {{Page needed|date=September 2010}}</ref> More recently, linguists [[Xavier Delamarre]] and [[Ranko Matasović]] have proposed that it derives from [[proto-Celtic]] *''samoni'' ('reunion, assembly'), [[cognate]] with [[Old Norse]] ''saman'', [[Gothic language|Gothic]] ''samana'' and [[Sanskrit]] ''samāná'' (all meaning 'together'), as well as the Old Irish term ''bech-samain'' ('bee swarm').{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=322}} Delamarre further suggests it could refer to an "assembly of the living and the dead".{{sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=267}}

[[File:Coligny-closeup.jpg|thumb|''Samonios'' on the [[Coligny calendar]]]]
The word ''Samain'' is believed to be related to the month name <small>''SAMON''</small> on the [[Gaulish language|Gaulish]] [[Coligny calendar]] from the 2nd century CE.<ref>Stüber, Karin. ''The Historical Morphology of N-Stems in Celtic''. National University of Ireland, Maynooth, 1998, p. 111.</ref> The 17th day of <small>''SAMON''</small> is marked as <small>''TRINOX SAMONI''</small> ("the three nights of ''Samon''"), indicating a possible festival.<ref name="Lambert">{{cite book|author1=[[Pierre-Yves Lambert]]|date=2003|isbn=2-87772-224-4|location=Paris|page=110|publisher=Errance|series=Hespérides|title=La langue gauloise: Description linguistique, commentaire d'inscription choisies}}</ref> This festival could represent the early November festival of Samain, or possibly the [[summer solstice]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=McCluskey |first1=Stephen |title=Astronomies and Cultures in Early Medieval Europe |date=2000 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=58}}</ref> Six months later is the month <small>''GIAMON''</small>, which appears to contain the word for "winter".<ref>Koch, ''Celtic Culture'', p. 464</ref> An early Irish glossary, ''[[Sanas Cormaic]]'', gives ''Gamain'' as "November, the winter month after the festival of ''Samain''".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Arbuthnot |first1=Sharon |title=From Glosses to Dictionaries: The Beginnings of Lexicography |date=2019 |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |page=132 |chapter=The Irish Tradition}}</ref>

==Origins==
''Samain'' or ''Samuin'' was the name of the festival (''feis'') marking the beginning of winter in [[Gaelic Ireland]]. It is attested in the earliest [[Old Irish language|Old Irish]] literature, which dates from the 9th century onward. Samhain was one of four [[Gaelic seasonal festivals]]: Samhain (~1 November), [[Imbolc]] (~1 February), [[Bealtaine]] (~1 May), and [[Lughnasa]] (~1 August). Of these, Samhain and Bealtaine, marking the transitions into winter and summer respectively, are thought to have been the most significant. [[James George Frazer|Sir James George Frazer]], in his 1890 book, ''[[The Golden Bough|The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion]]'', theorized that these festivals, particularly 1 May and 1 November, were significant to herding communities practicing seasonal [[transhumance]]. Cattle were driven to summer pastures in May and returned to lowlands in November, suggesting the festival's [[pastoralism|pastoral]] origins.<ref>[[James George Frazer|Frazer, Sir James George]]. ''[[The Golden Bough]]: A Study in Magic and Religion''. Forgotten Books, 2008. p. 644</ref>

Some [[Prehistoric Ireland#Neolithic (4000–2500 BC)|Neolithic]] passage tombs in Ireland are aligned with the sunrise around the times of Samhain and Imbolc. These include the [[Mound of the Hostages]] (''Dumha na nGiall'') at the [[Hill of Tara]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Murphy |first1=Anthony |title=Island of the Setting Sun: In Search of Ireland's Ancient Astronomers |last2=Moore |first2=Richard |date=2006 |publisher=Liffey Press |location=Bentonville, Arkansas |page=81 |asin=B01HCARQ1G}}</ref> and [[Loughcrew|Cairn L]] at [[Slieve na Calliagh]].<ref>Brennan, Martin. ''The Stones of Time: Calendars, Sundials, and Stone Chambers of Ancient Ireland''. Inner Traditions, 1994. pp. 110–11</ref>

==In Irish mythology==
[[File:Heroes of the dawn (1914) (14750481494).jpg|thumb|upright|The hero [[Fionn mac Cumhaill|Fionn]] fighting [[Aillen]], who is said to have burned [[Hill of Tara|Tara]] each Samhain]]
While Irish mythology was originally a spoken tradition, much of it was eventually written down in the Middle Ages by Christian [[monk]]s.<ref>{{cite book |last=Harpur |first=James |title=Celtic Myth: A Treasury of Legends, Art, and History |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1317475286 |location=London |date=2016 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3ZwGDAAAQBAJ&q=irish+mythology+was+written+down+by+christian+monks&pg=PA9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Leeming |first=David |title=From Olympus to Camelot: The World of European Mythology |publisher=OUP US |isbn=978-0195143614 |date=2003 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aijoCwAAQBAJ&q=samhain&pg=PA78}}</ref> The tenth-century tale ''[[Tochmarc Emire]]'' ('The Wooing of Emer') lists Samhain as the first of [[Quarter days|the four]] seasonal festivals of the year.<ref name="Stations361">Hutton, Ronald (1996) ''Stations of the Sun: A History of the Ritual Year in Britain''. Oxford: Oxford University Press {{ISBN|0-19-288045-4}}, p. 361.</ref> The literature says a peace would be declared, and there were great gatherings where they held meetings, feasted, drank alcohol,<ref name="monaghan407">Monaghan, p. 407</ref> and held contests.<ref name="Stations361"/> These gatherings are a popular setting for early Irish tales.<ref name="Stations361"/> The tale ''[[Echtra Cormaic]]'' ('Cormac's Adventure') says that the Feast of [[Hill of Tara|Tara]] was held every seventh Samhain, hosted by the [[High King of Ireland]], during which new laws and duties were ordained; anyone who broke the laws established during this time would be banished.<ref>{{cite web |title=''Cormac's adventure in the Land of Promise, and the decision as to Cormac's sword'' Section 55 |url=https://celt.ucc.ie//published/T302000/text056.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=''Cormac's adventure in the Land of Promise, and the decision as to Cormac's sword'' Section 56 |url=https://celt.ucc.ie//published/T302000/text057.html}}</ref>

According to Irish mythology, Samhain (like [[Bealtaine]]) was a time when the 'doorways' to the [[Celtic Otherworld|Otherworld]] opened, allowing supernatural beings and the souls of the dead to come into our world; while Bealtaine was a summer festival for the living, Samhain "was essentially a festival for the dead".<ref>{{cite book |last=Monaghan |first=Patricia |title=The Encyclopedia of Celtic Mythology and Folklore |date=2004 |publisher=[[Infobase Publishing]] |isbn=978-0816075560 |location=New York City |page=41}}</ref> ''[[The Boyhood Deeds of Fionn]]'' says that the ''[[aos sí|sídhe]]'' (fairy mounds or portals to the Otherworld) "were always open at Samhain".<ref>{{cite book |last=Koch |first=John T. |title=Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia |url-access=limited |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |isbn=978-1851094400 |location=Santa Barbara, California |page=[https://archive.org/details/celticculturehis00koch_128/page/n415 388] |date=2006 |url=https://archive.org/details/celticculturehis00koch_128}}</ref> Each year the fire-breather [[Aillen]] emerges from the Otherworld and burns down the palace of Tara during the Samhain festival after lulling everyone to sleep with his music.
One Samhain, the young [[Fionn mac Cumhaill]], stays awake and slays Aillen with a magical spear, for which he is made leader of the [[fianna]]. In a similar tale, one Samhain, the Otherworld being Cúldubh emerges from the burial mound on [[Slievenamon]] and snatches a roast pig. Fionn kills Cúldubh with a spear throw as he re-enters the mound. Fionn's thumb is caught between the door and the post as it shuts, and he puts it in his mouth to ease the pain. As his thumb had been inside the Otherworld, Fionn is bestowed with great wisdom. This may refer to gaining knowledge from the ancestors.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ó hÓgáin |first=Dáithí |title=Myth Legend and Romance: An Encyclopaedia of the Irish Folk Tradition |date=1991 |publisher=[[Prentice Hall Press]] |isbn=978-0132759595 |location=Upper Saddle River, New Jersey |page=214}}</ref> ''[[Acallam na Senórach]]'' ('Colloquy of the Elders') tells how three female [[werewolf|werewolves]] emerge from the cave of [[Rathcroghan|Cruachan]] (an Otherworld portal) each Samhain and kill livestock. When [[Cas Corach]] plays his harp, they take on human form, and the [[fianna]] warrior [[Caílte mac Rónáin|Caílte]] then slays them with a spear.<ref>{{cite book |title=Tales of the Elders of Ireland: A new translation of Acallam na Senórach |date=2005 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0199549856 |editor-last=Dooley |editor-first=Ann |location=Oxford, England |page=212 |editor-last2=Roe |editor-first2=Harry}}</ref>

Some tales suggest that offerings or sacrifices were made at Samhain. In the ''[[Lebor Gabála Érenn]]'' (or 'Book of Invasions'), each Samhain the people of [[Nemed]] had to give two-thirds of their children, their corn, and their milk to the monstrous [[Fomorians]]. The Fomorians seem to represent the harmful or destructive powers of nature; personifications of chaos, darkness, death, blight, and drought.<ref name="macculloch2009">{{cite book |last=MacCulloch |first=John Arnott |title=The Religion of the Ancient Celts |date=2009 |publisher=The Floating Press |isbn=978-1475164480 |location=Portland, Oregon |pages=80, 89, 91}}</ref><ref>Smyth, Daragh. ''A Guide to Irish Mythology''. Irish Academic Press, 1996. p. 74</ref> This [[tribute]] paid by Nemed's people may represent a "sacrifice offered at the beginning of winter, when the powers of darkness and blight are in the ascendant".<ref>MacCulloch (2009), p. 80</ref> According to the later ''[[Dindsenchas]]'' and the ''[[Annals of the Four Masters]]''—which were written by Christian monks—Samhain in ancient Ireland was associated with a god or idol called [[Crom Cruach]]. The texts claim that a firstborn child would be sacrificed at the stone idol of Crom Cruach in [[Magh Slécht]]. They say that King [[Tigernmas]], and three-fourths of his people, died while worshiping Crom Cruach there one Samhain.<ref>[https://celt.ucc.ie/published/T100005A/text006.html ''Annals of the Four Masters: Part 6''] at Corpus of Electronic Texts.</ref>

The legendary kings [[Diarmait mac Cerbaill]] and [[Muirchertach mac Muiredaig (Mac Ercae)|Muirchertach mac Ercae]] each die a [[threefold death]] on Samhain, which involves wounding, burning, and drowning, and of which they are forewarned. In the tale ''[[Togail Bruidne Dá Derga]]'' ('The Destruction of Dá Derga's Hostel'), king [[Conaire Mór]] also meets his death on Samhain after breaking his ''[[geis|geasa]]'' (prohibitions or taboos). He is warned of his impending doom by three undead horsemen who are messengers of [[Donn]], the god of the dead.<ref>[[Dáithí Ó hÓgáin|Ó hÓgáin, Dáithí]]. ''Myth, Legend & Romance: An encyclopaedia of the Irish folk tradition''. Prentice Hall Press, 1991. pp. 165–66</ref> ''The Boyhood Deeds of Fionn'' tells how each Samhain the men of Ireland went to woo a beautiful maiden who lives in the fairy mound on [[Croghan Hill|Brí Éile]] (Croghan Hill). It says that each year someone would be killed "to mark the occasion", by persons unknown.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cross, Tom P., & Clark Harris Slover, ed. & trans |title=The Boyhood Deeds of Fionn – Ancient Irish Tales |date=1936 |publisher=Henry Holt |location=New York |pages=360–69}}</ref> Some academics suggest that these tales recall human sacrifice,<ref name="koch690">{{cite book |last1=Koch |first1=John T. |title=The Celts: History, Life, and Culture |url-access=limited |last2=Minard |first2=Antone |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |isbn=978-1598849646 |location=Santa Barbara, California |page=[https://archive.org/details/celtshistorylife00koch/page/n751 690] |date=2012 |url=https://archive.org/details/celtshistorylife00koch}}</ref> and argue that several ancient Irish [[bog body|bog bodies]] (such as [[Old Croghan Man]]) appear to have been kings who were ritually killed,<ref>{{cite book |last=Kelly |first=Eamonn |title=The Archaeology of Violence |date=2013 |publisher=[[SUNY Press]] |isbn=978-1438444420 |editor-last=Ralph |editor-first=Sarah |location=Albany, New York |pages=232–40 |chapter=An Archaeological Interpretation of Irish Iron Age Bog Bodies |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/3209307}}</ref> some of them around the time of Samhain.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bentley |first=Diana |title=The Dark Secrets of the Bog Bodies |journal=[[Minerva (archaeology magazine)|Minerva: The International Review of Ancient Art & Archaeology]] |date=March–April 2015 |publisher=Clear Media |location=Nashville, Tennessee |pages=34–37 |url=https://www.academia.edu/11790293}}</ref>

In the ''[[Nera (mythology)|Echtra Neraí]]'' ('The Adventure of Nera'), King [[Ailill mac Máta|Ailill]] of [[Connacht]] sets his [[retinue]] a test of bravery on Samhain night. He offers a prize to whoever can make it to a [[gallows]] and tie a band around a hanged man's ankle. Demons thwart each challenger, who runs back to the king's hall in fear. However, Nera succeeds, and the dead man asks for a drink. Nera carries him on his back, and they stop at three houses. They enter the third, where the dead man drinks and spits it on the householders, killing them. Returning, Nera sees a [[Wild Hunt|fairy host]] burning the king's hall and slaughtering those inside. He follows the host through a portal into the Otherworld. Nera learns that what he saw was only a vision of what will happen the next Samhain unless something is done. He returns to the hall and warns the king.<ref>Monaghan, p. 107</ref><ref>Ó hÓgáin, Dáithí. ''Myth Legend and Romance: An Encyclopaedia of the Irish Folk Tradition''. Prentice Hall Press, 1991. p. 317</ref>

The tale ''Aided Chrimthainn maic Fidaig'' ('The Killing of Crimthann mac Fidaig') tells how [[Mongfind]] kills her brother, King [[Crimthann mac Fidaig|Crimthann]] of Munster, so that one of her sons might become king. Mongfind offers Crimthann a poisoned drink at a feast, but he asks her to drink from it first. Having no other choice but to drink the poison, she dies on Samhain eve. The [[Middle Irish]] writer notes that Samhain is also called ''Féile Moingfhinne'' (the Festival of Mongfind or Mongfhionn) and that "women and the rabble make petitions to her" at Samhain.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stokes |first=Whitley |year=1903 |title=Revue Celtique |journal=Revue Celtique |volume=24 |page=179 |url=https://archive.org/details/revueceltiqu24pari}}</ref><ref>Byrne, Francis John. ''Irish King and High Kings''. Four Courts Press, 2001. p. 75</ref>

Many other events in Irish mythology happen or begin on Samhain. The invasion of [[Ulster]] that makes up the main action of the ''[[Táin Bó Cúailnge]]'' ('Cattle Raid of Cooley') begins on Samhain. As cattle-raiding typically was a summer activity, the invasion during this off-season surprised the Ulstermen.<ref>Monaghan, p. 438</ref> The ''[[Cath Maige Tuired|Second Battle of Magh Tuireadh]]'' also begins on Samhain.<ref>Monaghan, p. 345</ref> [[The Morrígan]] and [[The Dagda]] meet and have sex before the battle against the Fomorians; in this way, the Morrígan acts as a [[sovereignty]] figure and gives the victory to the Dagda's people, the [[Tuatha Dé Danann]]. In ''Aislinge Óengusa'' ('The Dream of Óengus') it is when he and his bride-to-be switch from bird to human form, and in ''[[Tochmarc Étaíne]]'' ('The Wooing of Étaín') it is the day on which Óengus claims the kingship of [[Brú na Bóinne]].<ref name=koch690/>

[[File:Owenagcat.jpg|thumb|The '[[Rathcroghan#Oweynagat|Cave of Cruachan]]', one of the many 'gateways to the Otherworld' whence beings and spirits were said to have emerged on Samhain.]]
Several sites in Ireland are especially linked to Samhain. Each Samhain, a host of otherworldly beings was said to emerge from the [[Rathcroghan#Oweynagat|Cave of Cruachan]] in [[County Roscommon]].<ref>O'Halpin, Andy. ''Ireland: An Oxford Archaeological Guide.'' Oxford University Press, 2006. p. 236</ref> The [[Hill of Ward]] (or Tlachtga) in [[County Meath]] is thought to have been the site of a great Samhain gathering and bonfire;<ref name=monaghan407/> the [[Iron Age]] [[ringfort]] is said to have been where the goddess or druid [[Tlachtga]] gave birth to triplets and where she later died.<ref>Monaghan, p. 449</ref>

In ''The Stations of the Sun: A History of the Ritual Year in Britain'' (1996), [[Ronald Hutton]] writes: "No doubt there were [pagan] religious observances as well, but none of the tales ever portrays any". The only historical reference to pagan religious rites is in the work of [[Geoffrey Keating]] (died 1644), but his source is unknown. Hutton says it may be that no religious rites are mentioned because, centuries after Christianization, the writers had no record of them.<ref name="Stations361"/> Hutton suggests Samhain may not have been ''particularly'' associated with the supernatural. He says that the gatherings of royalty and warriors on Samhain may have been an ideal setting for such tales, in the same way, that many [[list of books about King Arthur|Arthurian]] tales are set at courtly gatherings at Christmas or Pentecost.<ref name="Stations362">Hutton, Ronald (1996) ''Stations of the Sun: A History of the Ritual Year in Britain.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press {{ISBN|0-19-288045-4}}, p. 362.</ref>

==Historic customs==
Samhain was one of the four main festivals of the Gaelic calendar, marking the end of the [[harvest]] and the beginning of winter.<ref name=monaghan407/> Samhain customs are mentioned in several medieval texts. In ''[[Serglige Con Culainn]]'' ('Cúchulainn's Sickbed'), it is said that the festival of the [[Ulaid]] at Samhain lasted a week: Samhain itself, and the three days before and after. It involved great gatherings where they held meetings, feasted, drank alcohol, and held contests.<ref name="Stations361"/> The ''Togail Bruidne Dá Derga'' notes that bonfires were lit at Samhain and stones cast into the fires.<ref name="da derga">[http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/dddh/dddh.htm The Destruction of Dá Derga's Hostel – Translated by Whitley Stokes].</ref> It is mentioned in [[Geoffrey Keating]]'s ''[[Foras Feasa ar Éirinn]]'', which was written in the early 1600s but drew on earlier medieval sources, some of which are unknown. He claims that the ''[[feis]]'' of Tara was held for a week every third Samhain when the nobles and [[ollam]]s of Ireland met to lay down and renew [[early Irish law|the laws]], and to feast.<ref>[[Geoffrey Keating|Keating, Geoffrey]]. ''[[Foras Feasa ar Éirinn]]'', [https://celt.ucc.ie/published/T100054/text036.html Section 26]. [[Corpus of Electronic Texts]].</ref> He also claims that the [[druid]]s lit a sacred bonfire at Tlachtga and made sacrifices to the gods, sometimes by burning their sacrifices. He adds that all other fires were doused and re-lit from this bonfire.<ref>[[Geoffrey Keating|Keating, Geoffrey]]. ''[[Foras Feasa ar Éirinn]]'', [https://celt.ucc.ie/published/T100054/text049.html Section 39]. [[Corpus of Electronic Texts]].</ref>

===Ritual bonfires===
Like Bealtaine, bonfires were lit on hilltops at Samhain, and there were rituals involving them.<ref name=monaghan407/> By the early modern era, they were most common in parts of the [[Scottish Highlands]], on the Isle of Man, in north and mid-Wales, and in parts of [[Ulster]].<ref name="hutton369">Hutton, p. 369</ref> [[F. Marian McNeill]] says that they were formerly [[need-fire]]s, but that this custom died out.<ref name="McNeill"/> Likewise, only certain kinds of wood were traditionally used, but later records show that many kinds of flammable material were burnt.<ref name="Campbell">[[John Gregorson Campbell|Campbell, John Gregorson]] (1900, 1902, 2005) ''The Gaelic Otherworld''. Edited by Ronald Black. Edinburgh: Birlinn Ltd. {{ISBN|1-84158-207-7}} pp. 559–62</ref> It is suggested that the fires were a kind of [[sympathetic magic|imitative or sympathetic magic]]; mimicking the Sun, helping the "powers of growth" and holding back the decay and darkness of winter.<ref name="McNeill"/><ref name=macculloch/><ref name="frazer63">Frazer, James George (1922). ''[[The Golden Bough|The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion]]''. [http://www.sacred-texts.com/pag/frazer/gb06301.htm Chapter 63, Part 1: On the Fire-festivals in general].</ref> They may also have served to symbolically "burn up and destroy all harmful influences".<ref name=frazer63/> Accounts from the 18th and 19th centuries suggest that the fires, smoke, and ashes were deemed to have protective and cleansing powers.<ref name="hutton365-368">Hutton, pp. 365–68</ref>

In 19th-century [[Moray]], boys asked for bonfire fuel from each house in the village. When the fire was lit, "one after another of the youths laid himself down on the ground as near to the fire as possible so as not to be burned and in such a position as to let the smoke roll over him. The others ran through the smoke and jumped over him". When the bonfire burnt, they scattered the ashes, vying for who should scatter them most.<ref name=hutton365-368/> In some areas, two bonfires would be built side by side, and the people—sometimes with their livestock—would walk between them as a cleansing ritual. The bones of slaughtered cattle were said to have been cast upon bonfires.<ref>{{cite book |last=Nicholls |first=Kenneth W. |title=A New History of Ireland, Volume II, Medieval Ireland 1169–1534 |chapter=Gaelic society and economy |editor-last=Cosgrove |editor-first=Art |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8vSht2aNHR4C&pg=PA397 |year=2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-953970-3 |pages=397–438 |orig-year=1987 |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199539703.003.0015}}</ref>

People also took the flames from the bonfire back to their homes. During the 19th century, in parts of Scotland, torches of burning [[Scots pine|fir]] or turf were carried [[sunwise]] around homes and fields to protect them.<ref name=hutton369/> In some places, people doused their hearth fires on Samhain night. Each family then solemnly re-lit its hearth from the communal bonfire, thus bonding the community.<ref name="O"/><ref name="McNeill"/> The 17th-century writer Geoffrey Keating claimed that this was an ancient tradition instituted by the druids.<ref name="Stations361"/> Dousing the old fire and bringing in the new may have been a way of banishing evil, which was part of New Year festivals in many countries.<ref name=macculloch/>

===Divination===
[[File:Snap-Apple Night globalphilosophy.PNG|thumb|left|''Snap-Apple Night'' (1833), painted by [[Daniel Maclise]], shows people playing divination games on 31 October in Ireland]]
The bonfires were used in [[divination]]. In 18th-century [[Ochtertyre]], a ring of stones—one for each person—was laid around the fire, perhaps on a layer of ash. Everyone then ran around it with a torch, "exulting". In the morning, the stones were examined, and if any were mislaid, it was said that the person it represented would not live out the year. A similar custom was observed in north Wales<ref name=hutton365-368/> and in [[Brittany]].<ref>Frazer, p. 647</ref> James Frazer suggests this may come from "an older custom of actually burning them" (i.e. [[human sacrifice]]) or it may have always been symbolic.<ref>Frazer, pp. 663–64</ref> Divination has likely been a part of the festival since ancient times,<ref name=monaghan407/> and it has survived in some rural areas.<ref>Danaher (1972), pp. 218–27</ref>

At household festivities throughout the Gaelic regions and Wales, many rituals were intended to divine the future of those gathered, especially concerning death and marriage.<ref name=monaghan407/><ref>Hutton, p. 380</ref> Apples and hazelnuts were often used in these divination rituals and games. In [[Celtic mythology]], [[apple (symbolism)|apples]] were strongly associated with the [[Celtic Otherworld|Otherworld]] and immortality, while [[hazel#Mythology and folklore|hazelnuts]] were associated with divine wisdom.<ref>MacLeod, Sharon. ''Celtic Myth and Religion''. McFarland, 2011. pp. 61, 107</ref> One of the most common games was [[apple bobbing]]. Another involved hanging a small wooden rod from the ceiling at head height, with a lit candle on one end and an apple hanging from the other. The rod was spun round, and everyone took turns to try to catch the apple with their teeth.<ref>Danaher (1972), pp. 202–05</ref> Apples were peeled in one long strip, the peel tossed over the shoulder, and its shape was said to form the first letter of the future spouse's name.<ref>Danaher (1972), p. 223</ref>

Two hazelnuts were roasted near a fire; one named for the person roasting them and the other for the person they desired. If the nuts jumped away from the heat, it was a bad sign, but if the nuts roasted quietly, it foretold an excellent match.<ref>McNeill (1961), ''The Silver Bough Volume III'', pp. 33–34</ref><ref>Danaher (1972), p. 219</ref> Items were hidden in food—usually a cake, [[barmbrack]], [[cranachan]], [[champ (food)|champ]] or [[sowans]] – and portions of it served out at random. A person's future was foretold by the item they happened to find; for example, a ring meant marriage, and a coin meant wealth.<ref name=McNeill1961>McNeill (1961), ''The Silver Bough Volume III'', p. 34</ref> A salty oatmeal bannock was baked; the person ate it in three bites and then went to bed in silence without anything to drink. This was said to result in a dream in which their future spouse offers them a drink to quench their thirst.<ref name=McNeill1961/> Egg whites were dropped in water, and the shapes foretold the number of future children. Young people would also chase crows and divine some of these things from the number of birds or the direction they flew.<ref name="O"/><ref name=McNeill1961/><ref name="Campbell"/>

===Spirits and souls===
Samhain was seen as a liminal time when the boundary between this world and the [[Celtic Otherworld|Otherworld]] could more easily be crossed.<ref>Koch, John T. ''Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia''. 2006. p. 1557</ref> This meant the ''[[aos sí]]'', the 'spirits' or 'fairies', could more easily come into our world. Many scholars see the ''aos sí'' as remnants of pagan gods and nature spirits.<ref>Monaghan, p. 167</ref><ref>Santino, Jack. ''The Hallowed Eve: Dimensions of Culture in a Calendar Festival of Northern Ireland''. University Press of Kentucky, 1998. p. 105</ref> At Samhain, it was believed that the ''aos sí'' needed to be [[propitiation|propitiated]] to ensure that the people and their livestock survived the winter. Offerings of food and drink would be left outside for the ''aos sí'',<ref>[[Walter Evans-Wentz|Evans-Wentz, Walter]] (1911). ''The Fairy-Faith in Celtic Countries''. p. 44.</ref><ref>[[F. Marian McNeill|McNeill, F. Marian]] (1961). ''The Silver Bough, Volume 3''. p. 34.</ref> and portions of the crops might be left in the ground for them.<ref>Danaher (1972), p. 200</ref>

One custom—described as a "blatant example" of a "pagan rite surviving into the Christian epoch"—was recorded in the [[Outer Hebrides]] and [[Iona]] in the 17th century. On the night of 31 October, fishermen and their families would go down to the shore. One man would wade into the water up to his waist, where he would pour out a cup of ale and ask '[[Seonaidh]]' ('Shoney'), whom he called "god of the sea", to bestow on them a good catch. The custom was ended in the 1670s after a campaign by [[Minister (Christianity)|ministers]], but the ceremony shifted to the springtime and survived until the early 19th century.<ref name=hutton369/>

People also took special care not to offend the ''aos sí'' and sought to ward off anyone out to cause mischief. They stayed near to home or, if forced to walk in the darkness, turned their clothing inside-out or carried iron or salt to keep them at bay.<ref name="monaghan407"/> In southern Ireland, it was customary on Samhain to weave a small cross of sticks and straw called a 'parshell' or 'parshall', which was similar to the [[Brigid's cross]] and [[God's eye]]. It was fixed over the doorway to [[Apotropaic magic|ward-off]] bad luck, sickness, and [[witchcraft]] and would be replaced each Samhain.<ref>Danaher, Kevin. ''The Year in Ireland: Irish Calendar Customs''. Mercier Press, 1972. pp.&nbsp;207–208</ref>

The dead were also honoured at Samhain. The beginning of winter may have been seen as the most fitting time to do so, as it was a time of 'dying' in nature.<ref name="macculloch10">MacCulloch, John Arnott (1911). ''The Religion of the Ancient Celts''. [http://sacred-texts.com/neu/celt/rac/rac13.htm Chapter 10: The Cult of the Dead].</ref> The souls of the dead were thought to revisit their homes, seeking hospitality. Places were set at the dinner table and by the fire to welcome them.<ref name="O"/><ref name="mcneill1">McNeill, ''The Silver Bough, Volume 3'', pp. 11–46</ref> The belief that the souls of the dead return home on one night of the year and must be appeased seems to have ancient origins and is found in many cultures throughout the world.<ref name="miles">Miles, Clement A. (1912). ''Christmas in Ritual and Tradition''. [http://www.sacred-texts.com/time/crt/crt11.htm Chapter 7: All Hallow Tide to Martinmas].</ref> James Frazer suggests, "It was perhaps a natural thought that the approach of winter should drive the poor, shivering, hungry ghosts from the bare fields and the leafless woodlands to the shelter of the cottage".<ref name="frazer62">Frazer, James George (1922). ''[[The Golden Bough|The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion]]''. [http://www.sacred-texts.com/pag/frazer/gb06206.htm Chapter 62, Part 6: The Hallowe'en Fires].</ref> However, the souls of thankful kin could return to bestow blessings just as easily as that of a wronged person could [[vengeful ghost|return to wreak revenge]].<ref>Monaghan, p. 120</ref>

===Mumming and guising===
[[File:Mari Lwyd (wiki).jpg|thumb|A [[Mari Lwyd]], the Welsh equivalent of the Láir Bhán]]
In some areas, [[Mummers' play|mumming]] and [[guising]] were part of Samhain. It was first recorded in 16th century Scotland<ref>[[F. Marian McNeill|McNeill, F. Marian]]. ''Hallowe'en: its origin, rites and ceremonies in the Scottish tradition''. Albyn Press, 1970. pp. 29–31</ref> and later in parts of Ireland, Mann, and Wales.<ref name="hutton380-382">Hutton, pp. 380–82</ref> People went from house to house in costume or disguise, usually reciting songs or verses in exchange for food.<ref name=hutton380-382/> It may have evolved from a tradition whereby people impersonated the ''aos sí'', or the souls of the dead, and received offerings on their behalf.<ref name=hutton380-382/> Impersonating these spirits or souls was also believed to protect oneself from them.<ref>Hole, Christina. ''British Folk Customs''. Hutchinson, 1976. p. 91</ref> S. V. Peddle suggests the guisers "personify the old spirits of the winter, who demanded reward in exchange for good fortune".<ref>Peddle, S.V. (2007). ''Pagan Channel Islands: Europe's Hidden Heritage''. p. 54</ref> McNeill suggests that the ancient festival included people in masks or costumes representing these spirits and that the modern custom came from this.<ref name="mcneill2">McNeill, F. Marian. ''Hallowe'en: its origin, rites and ceremonies in the Scottish tradition''. Albyn Press, 1970. pp. 29–31</ref> In Ireland, costumes were sometimes worn by those who went about before nightfall collecting for a Samhain feast.<ref name=hutton380-382/>

In Scotland, young men went house-to-house with masked, veiled, painted, or blackened faces,<ref name="Campbell"/><ref name=arnoldb/> often threatening to do mischief if they were not welcomed.<ref name=hutton380-382/> This was common in the 16th century in the Scottish countryside and persisted into the 20th.<ref name="bannatyne">Bannatyne, Lesley Pratt (1998) [https://books.google.com/books?id=rNAXt9jLXWwC&dq=guising+SAMHAIN&pg=PA44 Forerunners to Halloween] Pelican Publishing Company. {{ISBN|1-56554-346-7}} p. 44</ref> It is suggested that the blackened faces come from using the bonfire's ashes for protection.<ref name=mcneill2/> In Ireland in the late 18th century, peasants carrying sticks went house-to-house on Samhain collecting food for the feast. [[Charles Vallancey]] wrote that they demanded this in the name of St [[Colm Cille]], asking people to "lay aside the [[fatted calf]], and to bring forth the [[black sheep]]".<ref>[[James George Frazer|Frazer, Sir James George]] (1913). ''[[The Golden Bough]]: Third Edition''. Cambridge University Press, 2012. p.241</ref> In parts of southern Ireland during the 19th century, the guisers included a [[hobby horse]] known as the ''[[Láir Bhán]]'' (white [[mare]]). A man covered in a white sheet and carrying a decorated horse skull would lead a group of youths, blowing on cow horns, from farm to farm. At each, they recited verses, some of which "savoured strongly of paganism", and the farmer was expected to donate food. By doing so, he could expect good fortune from the 'Muck Olla'; not doing so would bring misfortune.<ref>''Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland, Volume 2''. 1855. pp. 308–09</ref> This is akin to the ''[[Mari Lwyd]]'' (grey mare) procession in Wales, which takes place at [[Midwinter]]. In Wales, the [[white horses in mythology|white horse]] is often seen as an omen of death.<ref>Montserrat Prat, 'Metamorphosis of a Folk Tradition' in Simon Callow, Andrew Green, Rex Harley, Clive Hicks-Jenkins, Kathe Koja, Anita Mills, Montserrat Prat, Jacqueline Thalmann, Damian Walford Davies, and Marly Youmans, ''Clive Hicks-Jenkins'' (Lund Humphries, 2011), pp. 63–79</ref> Elsewhere in Europe, costumes, mumming, and hobby horses were part of other yearly festivals. However, in the Celtic-speaking regions, they were "particularly appropriate to a night upon which supernatural beings were said to be abroad and could be imitated or warded off by human wanderers".<ref name=hutton380-382/>

[[File:Traditional Irish halloween Jack-o'-lantern.jpg|thumb|upright|A plaster cast of an Irish ''Seán na Gealaí'' [[Jack-o'-lantern|turnip lantern]] from the early 20th century at the [[Museum of Country Life]]]]
Hutton writes: "When imitating malignant spirits, it was a very short step from guising to playing pranks". Playing pranks at Samhain is recorded in the Scottish Highlands as far back as 1736 and was also common in Ireland, which led to Samhain being nicknamed "Mischief Night" in some parts.<ref name=hutton380-382/> Wearing costumes at Halloween spread to England in the 20th century, as did the custom of playing pranks, though there had been mumming at other festivals.<ref name=hutton380-382/> At the time of mass transatlantic Irish and Scottish immigration, which popularised Halloween in North America, Halloween in Ireland and Scotland had a strong tradition of guising and pranks.<ref>Rogers, Nicholas. (2002) "Festive Rights: Halloween in the British Isles". Halloween: From Pagan Ritual to Party Night. pp. 43, 48. Oxford University Press.</ref> [[Trick-or-treating]] may have come from the custom of going door-to-door collecting food for Samhain feasts, fuel for Samhain bonfires or offerings for the ''aos sí''. Alternatively, it may have come from the Allhallowtide custom of collecting [[soul cake]]s.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}}

The "traditional illumination for guisers or pranksters abroad on the night in some places was provided by [[turnip]]s or [[mangelwurzel|mangel wurzels]], hollowed out to act as lanterns and often carved with grotesque faces".<ref name=hutton380-382/> They were also set on windowsills. By those who made them, the lanterns were variously said to represent the spirits or supernatural beings,<ref name="hutton382-383">[[Ronald Hutton|Hutton, Ronald]]. ''The Stations of the Sun: A History of the Ritual Year in Britain''. Oxford University Press, 1996. pp. 382–83</ref> or were [[Apotropaic magic|used to ward off]] evil spirits.<ref name="arnoldb">{{cite web |title=Bettina Arnold&nbsp;– Halloween Lecture: Halloween Customs in the Celtic World |last=Arnold |first=Bettina |publisher=Center for Celtic Studies |location=[[University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee]] |date=31 October 2001 |website=Halloween [[Inaugural]] Celebration |url=http://www.uwm.edu/~barnold/lectures/holloween.html |access-date=16 October 2007}}</ref><ref name="palmer87">Palmer, Kingsley. ''Oral folk-tales of Wessex''. David & Charles, 1973. pp. 87–88</ref><ref>Wilson, David Scofield. ''Rooted in America: Foodlore of Popular Fruits and Vegetables''. Univ. of Tennessee Press, 1999. p. 154</ref> These were common in parts of Ireland and the Scottish Highlands in the 19th century.<ref name=hutton380-382/> They were also found in [[Somerset]] (see [[Punkie Night]]). In the 20th century, they spread to other parts of Britain and became generally known as [[jack-o'-lantern]]s.<ref name=hutton380-382/>

===Livestock===
Traditionally, Samhain was a time to take stock of the herds and food supplies. Cattle were brought down to the winter pastures after six months in the higher summer pastures (see [[transhumance]]).<ref name=monaghan407/> It was also the time to choose which animals would be slaughtered. This custom is still observed by many who farm and raise livestock.<ref name="O"/><ref name="McNeill">McNeill, F. Marian (1961, 1990) ''The Silver Bough'', Vol. 3. William MacLellan, Glasgow {{ISBN|0-948474-04-1}} pp. 11–46</ref> It is thought that some of the rituals associated with the slaughter have been transferred to other winter holidays. On [[St. Martin's Day]] (11 November) in Ireland, an animal—usually a [[rooster]], [[domestic goose|goose]], or sheep—would be slaughtered and some of its blood sprinkled on the [[threshold (architecture)|threshold]] of the house. It was offered to [[Martin of Tours|Saint Martin]], who may have taken the place of a god or gods,<ref name="macculloch">MacCulloch, John Arnott (1911). ''The Religion of the Ancient Celts''. [http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/celt/rac/rac21.htm Chapter 18: Festivals].</ref> and it was then eaten as part of a feast. This custom was common in parts of Ireland until the 19th century,<ref>Hutton, ''The Stations of the Sun'', p. 386</ref> and was found in other parts of Europe. At New Year in the [[Hebrides]], a man dressed in a cowhide would circle the township [[sunwise]]. A bit of the hide would be burnt, and everyone would breathe in the smoke.<ref name=macculloch/> These customs were meant to keep away bad luck, and similar customs were found in other Celtic regions.<ref name=macculloch/>

==Celtic Revival==
During the late 19th and early 20th century [[Celtic Revival]], there was an upswell of interest in Samhain and the other Celtic festivals. Sir [[John Rhys]] put forth that it had been the "Celtic New Year". He inferred it from contemporary folklore in Ireland and Wales, which he felt was "full of Hallowe'en customs associated with new beginnings". He visited Mann and found that the Manx sometimes called 31 October "New Year's Night" or ''Hog-unnaa''. The ''[[Tochmarc Emire]]'', written in the Middle Ages, reckoned the year around the four festivals at the beginning of the seasons and put Samhain at the beginning of those. But Hutton says the evidence that it was the Celtic or Gaelic New Year's Day is flimsy.<ref name="hutton363">Hutton, p. 363</ref> Rhys's theory was popularised by Sir [[James George Frazer]], though at times he acknowledged that the evidence is inconclusive. Frazer also said that Samhain had been the pagan Celtic festival of the dead and had been Christianized as All Saints and All Souls.<ref name=hutton363/> Since then, Samhain has been popularly seen as the Celtic New Year and an ancient festival of the dead. The calendar of the [[Celtic League]], for example, begins and ends at Samhain.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Celtic League Calendar |publisher=Celticleague.org |url=http://www.celticleague.org/calendar.html |access-date=5 March 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090508043133/http://www.celticleague.org/calendar.html |archive-date=8 May 2009}}</ref>

==Related holidays==
{{Further|Halloween}}
[[File:Samhuinn Wikipedia editathon at University of Edinburgh editathon - 31st October 2016 - 05.jpg|thumb|Samhuinn Wikipedia editathon at the University of Edinburgh, 2016]]
In the [[Brittonic languages|Brittonic branch]] of the Celtic languages, Samhain is known as the "calends of winter". The Brittonic lands of Wales, Cornwall, and [[Brittany]] held festivals on 31 October similar to the Gaelic one. In Wales it is ''[[Calan Gaeaf]]'', in Cornwall it is [[Allantide]] or ''Kalan Gwav'', and in Brittany it is ''Kalan Goañv''.<ref name=koch690/>

The [[Isle of Man|Manx]] celebrate [[Hop-tu-Naa]] on 31 October, which is a celebration of the original New Year's Eve. Traditionally, children carve turnips rather than pumpkins and carry them around the neighbourhood singing traditional songs relating to hop-tu-naa.<ref>{{cite web |title=Hop-Tu-Naa |website=isleofman.com |url=https://www.isleofman.com/visitor-guide/6476/2940/hop-tu-naa |access-date=2019-12-06}}</ref>

===Allhallowtide===
In 609, [[Pope Boniface IV]] endorsed 13 May as a holy day commemorating all Christian martyrs.<ref name="hutton364">Hutton, p. 364</ref> By 800, churches in Gaelic Ireland<ref name="farmer">Farmer, David. ''The Oxford Dictionary of Saints'' (Fifth Edition, Revised). Oxford University Press, 2011. p. 14</ref> and Anglo-Saxon [[Northumbria]] were holding a feast commemorating all saints on 1 November, which became [[All Saints' Day]].<ref name=hutton364/><ref>Pseudo-Bede, ''Homiliae subdititiae''; John Hennig, 'The Meaning of All the Saints', ''Mediaeval Studies'' 10 (1948), 147–61.</ref><ref>"All Saints Day," ''The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church'', 3rd edition, ed. E. A. Livingstone (Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]], 1997), 41–42; ''The New Catholic Encyclopedia'', ''eo.loc''.</ref> There had been much Gaelic influence on Northumbria and its church.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Edmonds |first1=Fiona |title=Gaelic Influence in the Northumbrian Kingdom: The Golden Age and the Viking Age |date=2019 |publisher=Boydell & Brewer |pages=xv-xvii}}</ref> [[James George Frazer|James Frazer]] suggested this date was a Celtic idea (being the date of Samhain), while [[Ronald Hutton]] suggests it was a Germanic idea, writing that the Irish church commemorated all saints on 20 April. Some manuscripts of the Irish ''[[Martyrology of Tallaght]]'' and ''[[Óengus of Tallaght|Martyrology of Óengus]]'', which date to this time, have a commemoration of all saints "''of Europe''" on 20 April, but a commemoration of all saints of the world on 1 November.<ref name="butler">[[Alban Butler|Butler, Alban]]. ''Butler's Lives of the Saints, New Full Edition, Volume 11: November (Revised by Sarah Fawcett Thomas)''. Burns & Oates, 1997. pp. 1–2. Quote: "Some manuscripts of the ninth-century ''Félire'', or martyrology, of St Oengus the Culdee and the ''Martyrology of Tallaght'' (c. 800), which have a commemoration of the martyrs on 17 April, a feast of 'all the saints of the whole of Europe' on 20 April, and a feast of all saints of Africa on 23 December, also refer to a celebration of all the saints on 1 November".</ref> In 835, the [[Frankish Empire]] officially adopted 1 November as the date of All Saints' Day.<ref name=hutton364/> This may have been influenced by [[Alcuin]] of Northumbria, who was a member of [[Charlemagne]]'s court,<ref>{{cite book |last=Smith |first=C |title=New Catholic Encyclopedia |publisher=Thomson Gale |year=2002 |isbn=0-7876-4004-2 |edition=Second |volume=1 |pages=242–243}}</ref> or it may have been promoted by the Irish clerics and scholars who were also members of the Frankish court.<ref name="Dales">Dales, Douglas (2013). ''Alcuin II: Theology and Thought''. James Clarke and Co. pp. 34, 39–40 {{ISBN|9780227900871}}</ref> The new date was eventually adopted by the rest of the Western Church, and in the 11th century, 2 November became established as [[All Souls' Day]]. This created the [[Triduum|three-day observance]] known as [[Allhallowtide]]: All Hallows' Eve (31 October), All Hallows' Day (1 November), and All Souls' Day (2 November).

It is suggested that many of the modern secular customs of All Hallows' Eve ([[Halloween]]) were influenced by the festival of Samhain.<ref>{{cite web |title= Christianity: All Hallows' Eve |year=2010 |publisher=BBC |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/holydays/halloween_1.shtml |access-date=1 November 2011 |quote=It is widely believed that many Hallowe'en traditions have evolved from an ancient Celtic festival called Samhain which was Christianised by the early Church}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Merriam-Webster's Encyclopædia of World Religions |publisher=Merriam-Webster |year=1999 |isbn=978-0877790440 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780877790440/page/408 408] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780877790440 |access-date=31 October 2011 |quote=Halloween, ''also called'' All Hallows' Eve, holy or hallowed evening observed on October 31, the eve of All Saints' Day. The Irish pre-Christian observances influenced the Christian festival of All Hallows' Eve, celebrated on the same date.}}</ref> Other scholars argue that Samhain's influence has been exaggerated and that All Hallows' also influenced Samhain itself.<ref>{{cite book |last1=O'Donnell |first1=Hugh |last2=Foley |first2=Malcolm |title=Treat or Trick? Halloween in a Globalising World |year=2008 |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |isbn=978-1-4438-0265-9 |pages=91–92}}</ref>

Most North American Halloween traditions were brought over by [[Irish diaspora|Irish]] and [[Scottish diaspora|Scottish]] immigrants in the 19th century.<ref name="Brunvand p749"/><ref>Santino, Jack. ''All Around the Year: Holidays and Celebrations in American Life''. University of Illinois Press, 1995. p.153</ref> Then, through American influence, these Halloween traditions spread to many other countries by the late 20th century.<ref name="Colavito, Jason 2007. pp.151">Colavito, Jason. ''Knowing Fear: Science, Knowledge and the Development of the Horror Genre''. McFarland, 2007. pp.151–152</ref>

==Modern paganism==
{{See also|Wheel of the Year}}
Some [[modern paganism|Modern Pagans]] hold Samhain and Samhain-inspired festivals. As there are many kinds of Neopaganism, their Samhain celebrations can be very different. Some try to emulate the historic festival as much as possible. Others base their celebrations on sundry unrelated sources, with Gaelic culture only one of them.<ref name="Hutton"/><ref name="Adler1">Adler, Margot (1979, revised edition 2006) ''Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-Worshippers, and Other Pagans in America Today''. Boston: Beacon Press {{ISBN|0-8070-3237-9}}. pp. 3, 243–99</ref><ref name="McColman">McColman, Carl (2003) ''Complete Idiot's Guide to Celtic Wisdom''. Alpha Press {{ISBN|0-02-864417-4}}. pp. 12, 51</ref> Folklorist Jenny Butler describes how Irish pagans pick some elements of historic Samhain celebrations and meld them with references to the Celtic past, making a new festival of Samhain that is uniquely part of neopagan culture.<ref>Butler, Jenny (2009), "Neo-Pagan Celebrations of Samhain" 67–82 in Foley, M. and O'Donnell, H., ed. ''Treat or Trick? Halloween in a Globalising World'', Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. {{ISBN|1-4438-0153-4}}</ref>

Neopagans usually celebrate Samhain on 31 October–1 November in the Northern Hemisphere and 30 April–1 May in the Southern Hemisphere, beginning and ending at sundown.<ref>{{cite book |last=Nevill Drury |title=Handbook of Contemporary Paganism |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-9004163737 |editor-last=Pizza |editor-first=Murphy |location=[[Leiden]], Netherlands |pages=63–67 |chapter=The Modern Magical Revival: Esbats and Sabbats |editor-last2=Lewis |editor-first2=James R |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rwzttsI9-NwC&q=nevill+drury}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Hume |first=Lynne |title=Witchcraft and Paganism in Australia |publisher=Melbourne University Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0522847826 |location=Melbourne}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Vos |first=Donna |title=Dancing Under an African Moon: Paganism and Wicca in South Africa |publisher=Zebra Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-1868726530 |location=Cape Town |pages=79–86}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Bodsworth |first=Roxanne T |title=Sunwyse: Celebrating the Sacred Wheel of the Year in Australia |publisher=Hihorse Publishing |year=2003 |isbn=978-0909223038 |location=Victoria, Australia}}</ref> Some Neopagans celebrate it at the astronomical midpoint between the autumnal equinox and [[winter solstice]] (or the full moon nearest this point), which is usually around 6 or 7 November in the Northern hemisphere.<ref>{{cite web |title=Chart of 2020 equinox, solstice and cross quarter dates and times, worldwide from |publisher=archaeoastronomy.com |url=https://www.archaeoastronomy.com/2020.html |access-date=24 October 2020 |archive-date=29 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221129220918/https://www.archaeoastronomy.com/2020.html |url-status=usurped }}</ref>

===Celtic Reconstructionism===
Like other [[Polytheistic reconstructionism|Reconstructionist]] traditions, [[Celtic reconstructionism|Celtic Reconstructionist Pagans]] (CRs) emphasize historical accuracy. They base their celebrations and rituals on traditional lore as well as research into the beliefs of the [[Celtic polytheism|polytheistic]] Celts.<ref name="McColman"/><ref name="Bonewits">Bonewits, Isaac (2006) ''Bonewits's Essential Guide to Druidism''. New York: Kensington Publishing Group {{ISBN|0-8065-2710-2}}. pp. 128–40, 179, 183–84</ref>
They celebrate Samhain around 1 November but may adjust the date to suit their regional climate, such as when the first winter frost arrives.<ref name="FAQSamhain">Kathryn NicDhana et al. ''The CR FAQ: An Introduction to Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism''. 2007. pp. 97–98</ref> Their traditions include [[saining]] the home and lighting bonfires.<ref name="FAQSamhain"/> Some follow the old tradition of building two bonfires, which celebrants and animals pass between as a purification ritual.<ref name="O"/><ref name="McNeill"/> For CRs, it is a time when the dead are especially honoured. Though CRs make offerings at all times of the year, Samhain is when more elaborate offerings are made to specific ancestors.<ref name="FAQSamhain"/> This may involve making a small altar or shrine. They often have a meal where a place for the dead is set at the table, and they are invited to join. An untouched portion of food and drink is left outside as an offering. Traditional tales may be told and traditional songs, poems, and dances performed. A western-facing door or window may be opened and a candle left burning on the windowsill to guide the dead home. Divination for the coming year is often done, whether in solemnity or as games. The more mystically inclined may also see this as a time for deeply communing with their deities, especially those particularly linked with this festival.<ref name="O"/><ref name="McNeill"/><ref name="McColman"/><ref name="Bonewits"/><ref name="FAQSamhain"/>

===Wicca===
[[File:Wheel of the Year.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Wheel of the Year]]
[[Wicca]]ns celebrate a variation of Samhain as one of their yearly [[Wheel of the Year|Sabbat]]s of the [[Wheel of the Year]]. Most Wiccans deem it the most important of the four "greater Sabbats". Some see Samhain as a time to celebrate the lives of those who have died, and it often involves paying respect to ancestors, family members, elders of the faith, friends, pets, and other loved ones who have died. In some rituals, the spirits of the dead are invited to attend the festivities. It is seen as a festival of darkness, balanced at the opposite point of the wheel by the spring festival of [[Bealtaine]].<ref name="SpiralDance">Starhawk (1979, 1989) ''The Spiral Dance: A Rebirth of the Ancient Religion of the Great Goddess''. New York: Harper and Row {{ISBN|0-06-250814-8}} pp. 193–96 (revised edition)</ref>

Wiccans believe that at Samhain, the veil between this world and the afterlife is at its thinnest, making it easier to [[Séance|communicate with those who have left this world]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Nevill Drury |title=Handbook of Contemporary Paganism |publisher=Brill |year=2009 |isbn=978-9004163737 |editor-last=Pizza |editor-first=Murphy |location=Leiden |page=65 |chapter=The Modern Magical Revival |editor-last2=Lewis |editor-first2=James R |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rwzttsI9-NwC&q=nevill+drury}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-break}}
'''Holidays'''
* [[Bealtaine]]
* [[Imbolc]]
* [[Lammas]]
* [[Lughnasadh]]
* [[Halloween]]

{{Col-break}}
'''Calendars'''
* [[Celtic calendar]]
* [[Irish calendar]]
* [[Traditional festival days of Wales]]
{{Col-break}}
'''Early Irish literature'''
* ''[[Serglige Con Culainn]]''
* ''[[Togail Bruidne Dá Derga]]''
* ''[[Cath Maige Tuired]]''
* ''[[Mesca Ulad]]''
* ''[[Tochmarc Étaíne]]''
{{col-end}}
* [[Christianization of saints and feasts]]
* [[Irish mythology]]
* [[Lidong|Lìdōng]] (立冬)
*[[Diwali]]
*[[Kali Puja]]
*[[Dziady]]
*[[Winter Nights]]

<!--==In popular culture== All references to "Samhain in popular culture" WERE advised to be put at [[Irish mythology in popular culture#Samhain]]. But in 2022, that page was made a redirect to [[Irish mythology]] (which has no such section). The former contents of [[Irish mythology in popular culture#Samhain]] were NOT distributed here.-->

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Secondary sources==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite web |title=Bettina Arnold&nbsp;– Halloween Lecture: Halloween Customs in the Celtic World |last=Arnold |first=Bettina |publisher=Center for Celtic Studies |location=[[University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee]] |date=31 October 2001 |website=Halloween [[Inaugural]] Celebration |url=https://sites.uwm.edu/barnold/2001/10/31/halloween-customs-in-the-celtic-world/ |access-date=4 January 2018 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20180104023435/https://people.uwm.edu/barnold/2001/10/31/halloween-customs-in-the-celtic-world/ |archive-date=4 January 2018}}
* Campbell, John Gregorson. ''The Gaelic Otherworld'', edited by Ronald Black. (1900, 1902, 2005). Birlinn Ltd. pp.&nbsp;559–62. {{ISBN|1-84158-207-7}}
* Danaher, Kevin. "Irish Folk Tradition and the Celtic Calendar". In ''The Celtic Consciousness'', ed. Robert O'Driscoll. New York: Braziller, 1981. pp.&nbsp;217–42. {{ISBN|0-8076-1136-0}}. On specific customs and rituals.
*{{cite book |last=Delamarre |first=Xavier |title=Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise: Une approche linguistique du vieux-celtique continental |publisher=Errance |year=2003 |isbn=9782877723695 |author-link=Xavier Delamarre}}
*{{cite book |last=Matasović |first=Ranko |title=Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic |publisher=Brill |year=2009 |isbn=9789004173361 |author-link=Ranko Matasović}}
* Ross, Anne "Material Culture, Myth and Folk Memory". In ''The Celtic Consciousness'', ed. Robert O'Driscoll. New York: Braziller, 1981. 197–216. {{ISBN|0-8076-1136-0}}.
* {{cite journal |last=Stokes |first=Whitley |year=1907 |title=Irish etyma |journal=[[Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung]] |volume=40 |pages=243–49 |url=https://archive.org/details/zeitschriftfrve22kuhngoog}}
* Vendryes, J. ''Lexique Étymologique de l'Irlandais Ancien''. 1959.
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin}}
* Carmichael, Alexander (1992). ''[[Carmina Gadelica]]''. Lindisfarne Press {{ISBN|0-940262-50-9}}
* [[Kevin Danaher|Danaher, Kevin]] (1972) ''The Year in Ireland''. Dublin: Mercier {{ISBN|1-85635-093-2}}
* [[W. Y. Evans-Wentz|Evans-Wentz, W. Y.]] (1966, 1990) ''The Fairy-Faith in Celtic Countries''. New York: Citadel {{ISBN|0-8065-1160-5}}
* MacKillop, James (1998). ''Dictionary of Celtic Mythology''. Oxford University Press {{ISBN|0-19-280120-1}}
* {{cite journal |last=McCone |first=Kim R. |author-link=Kim McCone |year=1980 |title=Firinne agus torthúlacht |journal=Léachtaí Cholm Cille |volume=11 |pages=136–73}}
* [[F. Marian McNeill|McNeill, F. Marian]] (1959) ''The Silver Bough'', Vol. 1–4. Glasgow: William MacLellan
{{Refend}}

{{Wheel of the Year|state=expanded}}
{{Halloween}}
{{Celts}}
{{Neopagan witchcraft}}<!--Neopagans in the Southern hemisphere celebrate this on May 1-->
{{Ireland topics}}
{{Ghosts}}

[[Category:Gaelic culture]]
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[[Category:Irish culture]]
[[Category:Manx culture]]
[[Category:Scottish culture]]
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[[Category:Autumn festivals]]
[[Category:Celtic mythology]]
[[Category:Celtic music festivals]]
[[Category:Cross-quarter days]]
[[Category:Halloween]]
[[Category:Holidays in Scotland]]
[[Category:Irish mythology]]
[[Category:May observances]]
[[Category:Modern pagan holidays]]
[[Category:November observances]]
[[Category:Observances honoring the dead]]
[[Category:October observances]]
[[Category:Scottish mythology]]
[[Category:Bonfires]]