Editing Samudragupta

{{Short description|4th-century ruler of the Gupta Empire}}
{{redirect|Samudra Gupta|the Bangladeshi poet and journalist|Samudra Gupta (poet)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2015}}
{{Infobox royalty
| title        = [[Maharajadhiraja|Mahārājādhirāja]]<br/>Sarvarāja-ochheta<br/> Conqueror of the Four Seas<br/>[[Devarāja]]<br/>[[Kaviraja|Kavirāja]]<br/>[[Vaishnav|Paramabhāgavata]]<br/>Paramabhaṭṭāraka<br/>[[Purusha|Puruṣa]]
| image        = SamudraguptaCoin.png
| caption      = Coin of Samudragupta, with [[Garuda]] pillar, emblem of [[Gupta Empire]]. The name [[File:Gupta_ashoka_s.svg|12px]][[File:Gupta ashoka mu.jpg|10px]][[File:Gupta ashoka ddrr.jpg|10px]] ''Sa-mu-dra'' in an early version of the Gupta [[Brahmi script]], appears vertically under the left arm of the emperor.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Allen |first1=John |title=Catalogue of the coins of the Gupta dynasties |date=1914 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.47214/page/n123 1]-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.47214}}</ref>
| succession   = [[List of Gupta emperors|Emperor of the Gupta dynasty]]
| birth_date   = {{Circa|318 CE}}
| birth_place  = [[Gupta Empire]]
| death_date   = {{Circa|375 CE}} (aged 57)
| death_place  = [[Gupta Empire]]
| reign        = {{circa}} 335–375 CE (40 years)
| coronation   = {{Circa|335 CE}}
| predecessor  = [[Chandragupta I]], possibly [[Kacha (king)|Kacha]]
| successor    = [[Chandragupta II]], or possibly [[Ramagupta]]
| spouse       = [[Dattadevi]]
| issue        = [[Chandragupta II]], and possibly [[Ramagupta]]
| house        = [[Gupta Dynasty]]
| father       = [[Chandragupta I]]
| mother       = [[Kumaradevi]]
| religion     = [[Hinduism]] 
{{Infobox military person
                       
| embed        = yes
                       
| allegiance   = [[Gupta Empire]]
                       
| branch       =  [[Gupta Empire#Military|Gupta Army]]
                       
| rank         = [[Commander-in-chief|Supreme commander]]
                       
| battles     =  {{collapsible list|title = {{nobold|''See list''}}|{{tree list}}  
Wars of Samudragupta  
**Northern Campaigns  
***Conquest of Aryavarta  
***Defeat of Naga rulers  
***Defeat of Arjunayanas  
***Defeat of Vanga  
**Western and Central Campaigns  
***[[Gupta–Saka Wars]] (Defeat of Western Kshatrapas)  
***War with the Abhiras  
***[[Gupta–Vakataka Conflicts]] 
***Conquest of Forest Kingdoms  
**Southern Campaigns  
***Siege of Kanchi (Defeat of Pallavas)  
***Subjugation of Kadambas  
***Subjugation of Kalinga  
**Eastern Campaigns  
***Subjugation of Kamarupa, Devaka, and Nepala  
**Northwestern Campaigns  
***Subjugation of Gandhara  
***Subjugation of Kushano-Sassanians
{{tree list/end}}
}}
}}
}}
[[File:Maharajadhiraja Sri Samudragupta inscription on the Allahabad pillar Samudragupta inscription.jpg|thumb|270px|{{center|Inscription:<br />[[File:Gupta allahabad m.svg|11px]][[File:Gupta allahabad haa.jpg|11px]][[File:Gupta allahabad raa.jpg|11px]][[File:Gupta allahabad j.svg|12px]][[File:Gupta allahabad dhi.jpg|10px]][[File:Gupta allahabad raa.jpg|11px]][[File:Gupta allahabad j.svg|12px]][[File:Gupta allahabad shrii.jpg|12px]][[File:Gupta_ashoka_s.svg|14px]][[File:Gupta allahabad mu.jpg|11px]][[File:Gupta allahabad dr.jpg|12px]][[File:Gupta allahabad gu.jpg|14px]]<sub>[[File:Gupta allahabad pt.jpg|12px]]</sub><br />''Mahārājadhirāja Shrī Samudragupta''<br />"Great King of Kings, Lord Samudragupta"<br />in the [[Gupta script]], on the [[Allahabad pillar]] Samudragupta inscription.<ref>[[:File:Allahabad stone pillar inscription of Samudragupta.jpg|Full inscription]], {{cite book |last1=Fleet |first1=John Faithfull |title=Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Vol. 3 |date=1888 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.49403/page/n197 1]-17 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.49403}}</ref>}}]]
{{Gupta Empire}}
'''Samudragupta''' ([[Gupta script]]: [[File:Gupta_ashoka_s.svg|14px]][[File:Gupta allahabad mu.jpg|11px]][[File:Gupta allahabad dr.jpg|12px]][[File:Gupta allahabad gu.jpg|14px]]<sub>[[File:Gupta allahabad pt.jpg|12px]]</sub> ''Sa-mu-dra-gu-pta'', ({{circa}} 335–375 CE) was the second emperor of the [[Gupta Empire]] of ancient [[India]]. A military genius and a patron of arts, he is regarded among the greatest rulers in Indian history. As a son of the Gupta emperor [[Chandragupta I]] and the [[Licchavis of Nepal|Licchavi]] princess Kumaradevi, he inherited a kingdom and transformed it into a vast empire through his military campaigns. His reign was marked by political expansion, administrative efficiency, and cultural patronage, particularly of [[Sanskrit]] literature and [[Hindu]] rituals. Samudragupta’s legacy as a warrior, administrator, and benefactor of scholars contributed to the golden age of the [[Gupta Empire]].

The [[Allahabad Pillar#Samudragupta inscription|Allahabad Pillar inscription]], a ''[[prashasti]]'' (eulogy) composed by his courtier [[Harisena]], credits him with extensive military conquests. It suggests that he defeated several kings of northern India, and annexed their territories into his empire. He also marched along the south-eastern coast of India, advancing as far south as [[Kanchipuram]] in the [[Pallava dynasty|Pallava]] kingdom. In addition, he subjugated several frontier kingdoms and tribal oligarchies. At the height of his power, his empire under his direct control extended from [[Ravi River]] in the west (present-day [[Punjab]]) to the [[Brahmaputra River]] in the east (present-day [[Assam]]), and from the Himalayan foothills in the north to central India in the south-west; several rulers along the south-eastern coast were also his tributaries. The inscription also states that many neighbouring rulers tried to please him, which probably refers to his friendly relations with them.

He performed the [[Ashvamedha]] sacrifice to prove his imperial sovereignty and remained undefeated in battle. His gold coins and inscriptions suggest that he was an accomplished poet, and also played musical instruments such as the [[veena]]. His expansionist policy was continued by his son and successor [[Chandragupta II]].

== Period ==

Modern scholars variously assign the start of Samudragupta's reign from c. 319 CE to c. 350 CE.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|pp=50–52}}

The inscriptions of the Gupta kings are dated in the [[Gupta era|Gupta calendar era]], whose [[epoch (reference date)|epoch]] is generally dated to c. 319 CE. However, the identity of the era's founder is a matter of debate, and scholars variously attribute its establishment to Chandragupta I or Samudragupta.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=50}}{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=35}} Chandragupta I probably had a long reign, as the Prayag Pillar inscription suggests that he appointed his son as his successor, presumably after reaching an old age. However, the exact period of his reign is uncertain. For these reasons, the beginning of Samudragupta's reign is also uncertain.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|pp=50–52}}

If Samudragupta is regarded as the founder of the Gupta era, his ascension can be dated to c. 319–320 CE.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=36}} On the other hand, if his father Chandragupta I is regarded as the founder of the Gupta era, Samudragupta's ascension must be dated to a later date. Samudragupta was a contemporary of King [[Sirimeghavanna of Anuradhapura|Meghavarna]] of [[Anuradhapura Kingdom]], but the regnal period of this king is also uncertain. According to the [[List of Sri Lankan monarchs#Note on chronology|traditional reckoning]] adopted in [[Sri Lanka]] for [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]]'s death, he ruled during 304–332 CE; but the modified chronology adopted by modern scholars such as [[Wilhelm Geiger]] assigns his reign to 352–379 CE. Accepting the former date would place Samudragupta's ascension to c. 320 CE; accepting the latter date would place it around c. 350 CE.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=35}}

The end of Samudragupta's reign is also uncertain.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=35}} Samudragupta's granddaughter [[Prabhavatigupta]] is known to have married during the reign of his son Chandragupta II, in c. 380 CE (assuming c. 319 CE as the epoch of the Gupta era). Therefore, the end of Samudragupta's reign can be placed before this year.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|pp=51–52}}

Various estimates of Samudragupta's regnal period include:

* [[A. S. Altekar]]: c. 330–370 CE{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=50}}
* [[A. L. Basham]]: c. 335–376 CE{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=50}}
* [[S. R. Goyal]]: c. 350–375 CE{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=50}}
* Tej Ram Sharma: c. 353–373 CE{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=67}}

== Ascension ==

Samudragupta was a son of the Gupta emperor Chandragupta I and Queen Kumaradevi, who came from the [[Licchavi (tribe)|Licchavi]] clan.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=11}} His fragmentary [[Eran]] stone inscription states that his father selected him as the successor because of his "devotion, righteous conduct, and valour". His [[Allahabad Pillar]] inscription similarly describes how Chandragupta I called him a noble person in front of the courtiers, and appointed him to "protect the earth". These descriptions suggest that Chandragupta I renounced the throne in his old age, and appointed his son as the next emperor.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=103}}

According to the Allahabad Pillar inscription, when Chandragupta I appointed him as the next emperor, the faces of other people of "equal birth" bore a "melancholy look".{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=18}} One interpretation suggests that these other people were neighbouring kings, and Samudagupta's ascension to the throne was uncontested.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|pp=104–105}} Another theory is that these other people were Gupta princes with a rival claim to the throne.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=18}} If Emperor Chandragputa I indeed had multiple sons, it is likely that Samudragupta's background as the son of a Lichchhavi princess worked in his favour.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=73}}

The coins of a Gupta ruler named [[Kacha (king)|Kacha]], whose identity is debated by modern scholars, describe him as "the exterminator of all kings".{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=105}} These coins closely resemble the coins issued by Samudragupta.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=20}} According to one theory, Kacha was an earlier name of Samudragupta and the emperor later adopted the regnal name Samudra ("Ocean"), after extending his empire's dominion as far as the ocean.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=71}} An alternative theory is that Kacha was a distinct king (possibly a rival claimant to the throne{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=105}}{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=71}}) who opposed Samudragupta's ascension to the throne.

== Military campaigns & territorial expansion ==
[[File:South Asia historical AD375 EN.svg|thumb|300px|Possible extent of the Gupta Empire, near the end of Samudragupta's reign, c. 375 CE]]
The Gupta inscriptions suggest that Samudragupta had a remarkable military career. The Eran stone inscription of Samudragupta states that he had brought "the whole tribe of kings" under his suzerainty, and that his enemies were terrified when they thought of him in their dreams.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|pp=67–68}} The inscription does not name any of the defeated kings (presumably because its primary objective was to record the installation of a [[Vishnu]] idol in a temple), but it suggests that Samudragupta had subdued several kings by this time.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=68}} The later [[Allahabad Pillar]] inscription, a [[panegyric]] written by Samudragupta's minister and military officer [[Harisena|Harishena]], credits him with extensive conquests.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|pp=106–107}} It gives the most detailed account of Samudragupta's military conquests, listing them in mainly geographical and partly chronological order.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|pp=76–77}} It states that Samudragupta fought a hundred battles, acquired a hundred wounds that looked like marks of glory, and earned the title ''Prakrama'' (valourous).{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=75}} The Mathura stone inscription of Chandragupta II describes Samudragupta as an "exterminator of all kings", as someone who had no equally powerful enemy, and as a person whose "fame was tasted by the waters of the four oceans".{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=68}} 

Modern scholars offer various opinions regarding Samudragupta's possible motivations behind his extensive military campaigns. The Allahabad Pillar inscription suggests that Samudragupta's aim was the unification of the earth (''dharani-bandha''), which suggests that he may have aspired to become a [[Chakravartin]] (a universal ruler).{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=75}} The [[Ashvamedha]] performances by the [[Nagas of Padmavati|Nagas]], whom he defeated, may have influenced him as well. His southern expedition may have been motivated by economic considerations of controlling the trade between India and South-East Asia.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=74}}

=== Early victories ===

The early portion of the [[Allahabad Pillar]] inscription mentions that Samudragupta "uprooted" [[Achyuta of Panchala|Achyuta]], [[Nagas of Padmavati|Nagasena]], and a ruler whose name is lost in the damaged portion of the inscription. The third name ends in "-ga", and is generally restored as Ganapati-naga,{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=73}} because Achyuta-nandin (presumably same as Achyuta), Nagasena, and Ganapati-naga are once again mentioned in the later part of the inscription, among the kings of [[Aryavarta]] (northern India) defeated by Samudragupta.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1978|p=53}}{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|pp=20–21}} These kings are identified as the rulers of present-day western [[Uttar Pradesh]] ([[#Northern conquests|see below]]).{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=74}} According to the inscription, Samudragupta reinstated these rulers after they sought his forgiveness.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=106}}

It is not clear why the names of these three kings is repeated later in the inscription. According to one theory, these three kings were vassal rulers who rebelled against Samudragupta after the death of his father. Samudragupta crushed the rebellion, and reinstated them after they sought his forgiveness. Later, these rulers rebelled once more, and Samudragupta defeated them again.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=106}} Another possibility is that the author of the inscription thought it necessary to repeat these names while describing Samudragupta's later conquests in Aryavarta, simply because these kings belonged to that region.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=76}}

Samudragupta dispatched an army to capture the scion of the Kota family, whose identity is uncertain. The Kotas may have been the rulers of present-day [[Punjab (India)|Punjab]], where coins bearing the legend "Kota", and featuring a symbol of [[Shiva]] and his [[Nandi (bull)|bull]], have been discovered.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=106}}

The inscription states that the Gupta army captured the Kota ruler, while Samudragupta himself "played" (or pleased himself) in a city called Pushpa{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=21}} (the name Pushpa-pura referred to [[Pataliputra]] at Samudragupta's time, although it came to be used for [[Kanyakubja]] in the later period).{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1978|p=136}} Modern scholars have interpreted the word "played" in various ways: According to one theory, this portion describes Samudragupta's achievements as a prince.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=73}} An alternative interpretation is that Samudragupta dispatched his army on these campaigns, while he himself stayed at the capital.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=106}} It is also possible that the poet intended to convey that these campaigns were minor affairs that did not require the king's direct involvement at the battlefront.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=21}}

=== Southern conquests ===

According to the Allahabad Pillar inscription, Samudragupta captured (and later released) the following kings of [[Dakshinapatha]], the southern region:{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|pp=106–107}}

{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|
# [[Mahendra of Dakshina Kosala|Mahendra of Kosala]]
# Vyaghra-raja of Mahakantara
# Mantaraja of Kurala
# Mahendragiri of Pishtapura
# Svamidatta of Kottura
# Damana of Erandapalla
# [[Vishnugopa]] of Kanchi
# Nilaraja of Avamukta
# Hastivarman of Vengi
# Ugrasena of Palakka
# Kubera of Devarashtra
# Dhananjaya of Kusthalapura
}}

The exact identification of several of these kings is debated among modern scholars,{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=107}} but it is clear that these kings ruled areas located on the eastern coast of India.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=112}} Samudragupta most probably passed through the forest tract of central India, reached the eastern coast in present-day [[Odisha]], and then marched south along the coast of [[Bay of Bengal]].{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|pp=80–81}}

[[File:Allahabad stone pillar inscription of Samudragupta.jpg|thumb|280px|Text of the [[Allahabad pillar|Allahabad stone pillar inscription]] of Samudragupta, in the [[Brahmi script]].]]
[[File:Allahabad inscription of Samudragupta.jpg|thumb|280px|Translation of the Allahabad inscription of Samudragupta]]
The inscription states that Samudragupta later released these kings, and favoured (''anugraha'') them. Most modern scholars theorize that Samudragupta reinstated these rulers as his [[tribute|tributaries]]. [[M. G. S. Narayanan]] interprets the word ''anugraha'' differently based on its occurrence in the ''[[Arthashastra]]''; he theorizes that Samudragupta gave "protection and aid" to these kingdoms in order to secure their alliances.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=78}}

Some scholars, such as [[Gabriel Jouveau-Dubreuil|J. Dubreuil]] and B. V. Krishnarao, theorized that Samudragupta only advanced up to the [[Krishna River]], and was forced to retreat without fighting a battle, when the southern kings formed a strong confederacy to oppose him. According to these scholars, the claim that Samudragupta released these kings is an attempt by Samudragupta's courtier to cover up the emperor's failure.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=113}} However, there is no evidence of the southern kings forming a confederacy against Samudragupta. Historian Ashvini Agrawal notes that setting free a captured king is inline with the ancient Indian political ideals. For example, Kautilya defines three types of conquerors: the righteous conqueror (''dharma-vijayi''), who restores the defeated king in exchange for his acknowledgment of the conqueror's suzerainty; the covetous conqueror (''lobha-vijayi''), who takes away the possessions of the defeated king but spares his life; and the demoniac conqueror (''asura-vijayi''), who annexes the territory of the defeated king and kills him.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=113}} Such political ideals existed in the Gupta period too, as evident from [[Kalidasa]]'s statement in ''[[Raghuvamsha]]'' that "the righteous victorious monarch ([[Raghu]]) only took away the royal glory of the lord of Mahendra who had been captured and released, but not his kingdom." Therefore, it is likely that Samudragupta acted like a righteous conqueror, and restored the defeated kings as his vassals.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=114}}{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=78}}

; [[Mahendra of Dakshina Kosala|Mahendra of Kosala]]
: Kosala here refers to [[Dakshina Kosala]], which includes parts of present-day [[Chhattisgarh]] and [[Odisha]].{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=107}} One theory identifies [[Mahendra of Dakshina Kosala|Mahendra of Kosala]] with a [[Nala dynasty|Nala]] king named Mahendraditya.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=38}}

; Vyaghra-raja of Mahakantara
: Historian [[K. P. Jayaswal]] identifies Mahakantara (literally "great wilderness") as the [[Bastar district|Bastar]]-[[Kanker district|Kanker]] area in present-day [[Chhattisgarh]].{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=107}} According to another theory, Mahakantara is same as Mahavana, a synonym used as the name for the forest region around present-day [[Jeypore]] of Odisha.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=39}}
: Earlier historians identified Mahakantara as a region in central India, and identified Vyaghra-raja with the [[Vakataka]] feudatory Vyaghra-deva, whose inscriptions have been found at [[Nachna Hindu temples|Nachna]]. However, this identification is now considered incorrect, as Samudragupta is not known to have fought against the Vakatakas.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=107}}

; Mantaraja of Kurala
: The Rawan inscription of the [[Sharabhapuriya dynasty|Sharabhapuriya]] king Narendra, who ruled in the [[Dakshina Kosala]] region, mentions an area called Mantaraja-bhukti ("the province of Mantaraja"). Therefore, some historians such as K. D. Bajpai theorize that Mantaraja was a king who ruled in the Dakshina Kosala region.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=108}} Historian [[A. M. Shastri]] disputes this theory, arguing that the ruler of Kosala (that is, Dakshina Kosala) has been mentioned separately in the Allahabad Pillar inscription.{{sfn|Ajay Mitra Shastri|1995|p=12–13}}
: [[Lorenz Franz Kielhorn]] speculated that Kurala was same as Kaurala (or Kunala) mentioned in the [[Aihole]] inscription of the 7th century king [[Pulakeshin II]], and identified it as the area around the [[Kolleru Lake]] in present-day [[Andhra Pradesh]]. [[Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri|H. C. Raychaudhuri]] disputes this identification, pointing out that this region was a part of Hastivarman's Vengi kingdom, which has been mentioned separately in the Allahabad Pillar inscription.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=108}}
: Other proposed identifications of Kurala include Kolada near [[Bhanjanagar]] (former Russelkonda) in Odisha;{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=79}} and Kulula, a region mentioned in the [[Mahendragiri, Odisha|Mahendragiri]] inscription of the 11th century king [[Rajendra Chola]], and identified with Cherla in present-day Telangana.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=108}}

; Mahendragiri of Pishtapura
: Pishtapura is modern [[Pithapuram]] in Andhra Pradesh. The word ''giri'' mentions hill in Sanskrit, and therefore, [[J. F. Fleet]] speculated that "Mahendragiri" could not have been a person's name: he suggested that the verse (''Mahendragiri-Kautturaka-Svamidatta'') referred to a king called "Mahendra", and a place called "Kottura on the hill" which was ruled by Svamidatta. However, Fleet's translation is incorrect: the verse clearly mentions Mahendragiri of Pishtapura and Svamidatta of Kottura as two distinct persons.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|pp=108–109}} G. Ramdas interpreted the verse to mean Svamidatta was the ruler of Pishtapura and "Kottura near Mahendragiri", while [[Bhau Daji]] translated it as "Svamidatta of Pishtapura, Mahendragiri and Kottura". However, these translations are also incorrect.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1978|p=316}} The concern about the king's name is invalid: several historical records mention names ending in the word ''giri'' or its synonym ''adri''.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|pp=108–109}}{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1978|pp=316–317}}

; Svamidatta of Kottura
: Svamidatta was probably one of the chiefs who resisted Samudragupta's passage through the [[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]] region.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1978|p=258}} Kottura has been identified with modern Kotturu (or Kothur) in [[Srikakulam district]], Andhra Pradesh (near [[Paralakhemundi]], Odisha).{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=109}} Alternative proposals identify it with other similarly named places in present-day Andhra Pradesh.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=39}}

; Damana of Erandapalla
: Proposed identifications of Erandapalla include Errandapali near [[Srikakulam]], a town near [[Mukhalingam]], Yendipalli in [[Visakhapatnam district]], and Endipalli in [[West Godavari district]].{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|pp=109–110}}

; [[Vishnugopa]] of Kanchi
: [[Vishnugopa]] is identified as the [[Pallava dynasty|Pallava]] ruler of [[Kanchipuram]]: Samudragupta's invasion probably occurred when he acted as a regent for his nephew Skandavarman III.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=110}}

; Nilaraja of Avamukta
: The identity of Avamukta is uncertain.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1978|p=253}} The ''Brahmanda Purana'' mentions an area called "Avimukta-kshetra", located on the banks of the Gautami river (that is, [[Godavari River|Godavari]]), which may be identified with Avamukta of Samudragupta's inscription.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=80}} Some historical texts use the name Avamukta-kshetra for the region around [[Varanasi]],{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=110}} but Varanasi is not located in Dakshinapatha, and therefore, was certainly not the Avamukta mentioned in the inscription.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1978|p=253}}

; Hastivarman of Vengi
: Hastivarman was the [[Shalankayana]] king of [[Vengi]] (modern [[Pedavegi]]) in Andhra Pradesh.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|pp=110–111}}

; Ugrasena of Palakka
: [[Gabriel Jouveau-Dubreuil|J. Dubreuil]] identified Palakka with the place referred to as Palakkada in several [[Pallava dynasty|Pallava]] inscriptions; this location was probably the headquarters of a Pallava viceroyalty. For example, the Uruvapalli grant inscription of ''Yuva-maharaja'' (Prince) Vishnugopa-varman was issued from Palakkada.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=111}}
: G. Ramdas identified it with Pakkai located between [[Udayagiri, Nellore district|Udayagiri]] and [[Venkatagiri]] in the Nellore district, and theorized that it was same as the place referred to as Paka-nadu, Panka-nadu, or Pakai-nadu in the inscriptions of the 10th century Chola king [[Rajaraja I]].{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=111}}

; Kubera of Devarashtra
: According to one theory, Deva-rashtra was located in the historical Kalinga region of present-day northern [[Andhra Pradesh]]. The [[Srungavarapukota]] inscription of the [[Vasishtha dynasty|Vasishtha]] king Anantavarman, issued from [[Pishtapura]] in this area, describes his grandfather Gunavarman as ''Deva-rashtradhipati'' ("Lord of Deva-rashtra"). The [[Kasimkota]] inscription of the 10th century [[Chalukyas of Vengi|Vengi Chalukya]] king Bhima I mentions a ''[[vishaya]]'' (district) called Deva-rashtra in Kalinga. Based on this, [[Gabriel Jouveau-Dubreuil|J. Dubreuil]] identified Devarashtra as a location in the present-day [[Yelamanchili]] [[taluka]] of Andhra Pradesh.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=111}} During Samudragupta's period, the Kalinga region appears to have been divided among several small kingdoms, which may have included Kottura, Pishtapura, and Devarashtra.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|pp=111–112}}

; Dhananjaya of Kusthalapura
: B. V. Krishnarao speculated that Dhananjaya of Samudragupta's inscription may be same as the Dhananjaya from whom the chieftains of [[Dharanikota|Dhanyakataka]] (modern Dharanikota in Andhra Pradesh) claimed descent. He identified Kusthalapura with modern Kolanupaka (or Kollipak) located on the banks of the Aleru River in present-day [[Telangana]].{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=112}} Another theory identifies Kusthalapura with a tract around the Kushasthali River near [[Dakshina Kosala]].{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=80}}

=== Northern conquests ===
{{See also|Gupta conquests of Bengal}}
According to the [[Allahabad Pillar]] inscription, Samudragupta "forcibly uprooted" the following kings of [[Aryavarta]], the northern region:{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=114}}

{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|
# Rudradeva
# Matila
# Nagadatta
# Chandravarman
# Ganapatinaga
# Nagasena
# Achyuta-nandin
# Balavarman
}}

Unlike the southern kings, the inscription does not mention the territories ruled by these kings, which suggests that their kingdoms were annexed to the Gupta empire.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=22}} The inscription also mentions that Samudragupta defeated some other kings, but does not mention their names, presumably because the poet saw them as unimportant.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=114}}

; Rudradeva
: Rudradeva may be same as a king named Rudra, whose coin has been found at [[Kosambi|Kaushambi]].{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=81}} Another theory identifies Rudradeva with a [[Western Kshatrapa]] (Shaka) king of [[Ujjain]], either Rudradaman II or Rudrasena III.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=115}}
: Some earlier scholars, such as [[Kashinath Narayan Dikshit|K. N. Dikshit]] and [[K. P. Jayaswal]], identified Rudradeva with the [[Vakataka]] king [[Rudrasena I (Vakataka king)|Rudrasena I]]. However, this identification seems to be inaccurate, because Samudragupta's inscription explicitly mentions Rudradeva as a king of the northern region (Aryavarta), while the Vakatakas ruled in the southern region (Dakshinapatha). An argument cited in support of this identification is that Rudrasena bore the title ''[[Maharaja]]'' ("great king") as opposed to ''samrat'' ("emperor"), signifying his subordinate status to Samudragupta. However, multiple sovereign Vakataka kings bore the title ''Maharaja'': only [[Pravarasena I]] assumed the title ''samrat'' after performing a ''vajapeya'' ritual sacrifice. An inscription of Rudrasena's descendant Prithvishena II mentions that the Vakataka kingdom had been prospering for a hundred years, suggesting that the Vakataka rule remained uninterrupted during Rudrasena's reign.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=115}}

; Matila
: The identity of Matila is not certain.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=116}}{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=81}} Earlier, Matila was identified with Mattila, who is known from a [[terracotta]] seal discovered at [[Bulandshahr]].{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=115}} However, there is no evidence that this Mattila was a ruler, and epigraphist Jagannath Agrawal has dated the seal to the 6th century on [[palaeographic]] basis.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|pp=115–116}}

; Nagadatta
: Nagadatta is not known from any other inscriptions or coins, but his name has led to suggestions that he may have been the ruler of a [[Nagas of Padmavati|Naga]] branch.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=116}} D. C. Sircar theorized that he was an ancestor of a family of Gupta viceroys, whose names ended in -datta. Tej Ram Sharma speculates that he may have been a Naga ruler, whose successors were sent as Gupta viceroys in Bengal after the family accepted the Gupta suzerainty.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=82}}

; Chandravarman
: Chandravarman of Samudragupta's inscription has been identified with [[Chandravarman]], the ruler of Pushkarana (modern [[Pakhanna]]) in present-day [[West Bengal]].{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=116}} P. L. Gupta and some earlier scholars have identified this ruler with another Chandravarman, who has been mentioned in an inscription discovered at [[Mandsaur]] in present-day [[Madhya Pradesh]].{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2008|p=477}}{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=81}} Tej Ram Sharma disputes this identification, arguing that Samudragupta "exterminated" all kings of Aryavarta and annexed their territories, as suggested by the Allahabad Pillar inscription; however, Naravarman – a brother of Chandravarman of Mandsaur – is known to have been ruling as a feudatory in 404 CE.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=82}}

; Ganapatinaga
: Ganapati-naga is identified as a [[Nagas of Padmavati|Naga]] king. Several coins bearing the legend Ganapati have been discovered at [[Padmavati (Pawaya)|Padmavati]], [[Vidisha]], and [[Mathura]]. Although these coins do not bear the suffix "naga", they are similar to the ones issued by the other Naga kings such as Skanda-naga, Brihaspati-naga, and Deva-naga. Since hundreds of Ganapati's coins have been found at Mathura, it appears that he was the ruler of a Naga branch headquartered at Mathura.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=116}}

; Nagasena
: The 7th century text ''[[Harshacharita]]'' refers to the [[Nagas of Padmavati|Naga]] king Nagasena, who "met with his doom in Padmavati, as his secret plan was divulged by a ''[[Common myna|sarika]]'' bird". Assuming this describes a historical person, it appears that Nagasena was the ruler of a Naga branch headquartered at Padmavati in present-day [[Madhya Pradesh]].{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=116}}

; Achyuta-nandin
: Achyuta-nandin seems to be same as Achyuta, who is mentioned earlier in the inscription; his name may have been shortened in the earlier verses for [[metre (poetry)|metrical]] purposes.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=81}} An alternatively theory identifies Achyuta and Nandin as two distinct kings.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=42}}
: Achyuta was the ruler of [[Ahichchhatra]] in present-day Uttar Pradesh, where coins attributed to him have been discovered.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=106}} These coins bear the legend "Achyu", and are similar to the coins issued by the Naga rulers. This has led to suggestions that the Achyuta-nandin defeated by Samudragupta was the ruler of a Naga branch headquartered at Ahichhatra.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=116}}

; Balavarman
: V. V. Mirashi identified Bala-varman (or Balavarma) as a ruler of the Magha dynasty of [[Kosambi]].{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=117}} U. N. Roy suggested that Bala-varman may have been an ancestor of the [[Maukhari]] kings, who initially served as Gupta vassals, and whose names ended in -varman.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=83}} Another theory identifies him with the successor of Shridhara-varman, the [[Western Kshatrapa|Shaka]] ruler of [[Eran]]. Samudragupta may have ended the dynasty of Eran, as suggested by the discovery of his inscription at Eran.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=117}}
: K. N. Dikshit identified Balavarman with [[Balavarman]], a ruler of the [[Varman dynasty]] of [[Kamarupa]]; however, Balavarman was not a contemporary of Samudragupta.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=116-117}} Moreover, Kamarupa has been mentioned as a distinct frontier kingdom later on in the Allahabad Pillar inscription.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=83}}

=== Conquests in the forest region ===

According to the Allahabad Pillar inscription, Samudragupta reduced all the kings of the forest region (''atavika'') to subservience.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=84}} This forest region may have been located in central India: the inscriptions of the [[Parivrajaka dynasty]], which ruled in this area, state that their ancestral kingdom was located within the 18 forest kingdoms.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=117}}

=== Frontier kings and tribes ===

[[File:Samudra Gandhara coin, Punjabi mint Circa CE 350-375.jpg|thumb|350px|Coin minted in the [[Punjab]] area with the name "Samudra" ([[File:Gupta_ashoka_s.svg|13px]][[File:Gupta allahabad mu.jpg|11px]][[File:Gupta allahabad dr.jpg|12px]] ''Sa-mu-dra''), derived from the style of late [[Kushan Empire]] coinage, and [[tamgha]] [[File:Samudra tamgha.jpg|15px|Samudra tamgha]]. These atypical coins follow the fall of the last Kushan ruler [[Kipunada]], and just precede the coinage of the first [[Kidarites|Kidarite Huns]] in northwestern India. Circa CE 350–375.<ref>"In the Punjab the stylistic progression of the gold series from Kushan to Kidarite is clear: imitation staters were issued first in the name of Samudragupta, then by Kirada, 'Peroz' and finally Kidara" in {{cite book |last1=Errington |first1=Elizabeth |last2=Curtis |first2=Vesta Sarkhosh |title=From Persepolis to the Punjab: Exploring Ancient Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan |date=2007 |publisher=British Museum Press |isbn=9780714111650 |page=88 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x2cuAQAAIAAJ |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Cribb101">{{cite journal |last1=Cribb |first1=Joe |title=The Kidarites, the numismatic evidence.pdf |journal=Coins, Art and Chronology II, Edited by M. Alram et Al. |date=January 2010 |url=https://www.academia.edu/38112559 |language=en|page=101}}</ref>]]
The [[Allahabad Pillar inscription]] mentions that rulers of several frontier kingdoms and tribal [[oligarchy|oligarchies]] paid Samudragupta tributes, obeyed his orders, and performed obeisance before him.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=84}}{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2017|p=343}} The inscription explicitly describes the five kingdoms as frontier territories: the areas controlled by the tribes were also probably located at the frontier of Samudrgupta's kingdom.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=22}}

{{blockquote|"Samudragupta, whose formidable rule was propitiated with the payment of all tributes, execution of orders and visits (to his court) for obeisance by such frontier rulers as those of [[Samataṭa]], [[Ḍavāka]], [[Kamarupa|Kāmarūpa]], [[Nepala|Nēpāla]], and [[Kartṛipura]], and, by the [[Malavas|Mālavas]], [[Arjunayanas|Ārjunāyanas]], [[Yaudheyas|Yaudhēyas]], [[Mādrakas]], [[Abhiras|Ābhīras]], Prārjunas, Sanakānīkas, Kākas, Kharaparikas and other nations."|Lines 22–23 of the [[Allahabad Pillar|Allahabad pillar inscription]] of Samudragupta  (r.c.350–375 CE).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fleet |first1=John Faithfull |title=Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Vol. 3 |date=1888 |pages=6–10 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.49403/page/n213/mode/2up}}</ref>}}

Historian [[Upinder Singh]] theorizes that the relationship of these frontier rulers to the Gupta emperor had "certain elements of a feudatory relationship".{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2017|p=343}} According to historian R. C. Majumdar, it is likely that Samudragupta's conquests in Aryavarta and Dakshinapatha increased his reputation to such an extent that the frontier rulers and tribes submitted him without a fight.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=25}}

The frontier kingdoms included:{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2017|p=343}}
[[File:Davaka in the Allahabad Pillar inscription.jpg|thumb|right|upright|"[[Davaka Kingdom|Davaka]]" ([[Brahmi script]]: [[File:Gupta_allahabad_dd.svg|15px]][[File:Gupta_allahabad_v.svg|15px]][[File:Gupta_allahabad_k.svg|15px]]) in the Allahabad Pillar inscription]]
# [[Samatata]], located in the present-day Bengal.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=118}}
# [[Davaka]], located in present-day Assam.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=118}}
# [[Kamarupa]], located in present-day Assam.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=118}}
# [[Nepala]], located in present-day Nepal.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=118}} According to one theory, Nepala here refers to the [[Licchavi (kingdom)|Licchavi kingdom]], whose rulers may have been the maternal relatives of Samudragupta.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=85}}
# Karttripura, probably located in the present-day [[Uttarakhand]]: the inscription appears to name frontier kingdoms in  geographical order proceeding from Bengal to Assam to Nepal; Uttarakhand would be next in the sequence.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=118}} A now-obsolete theory identified Karttripura with [[Kartarpur, India|Kartarpur]] in present-day Punjab, but Kartarpur was established much later, in the 16th century, by [[Guru Arjan]].{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=118}}

The tribal oligarchies included:{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2017|p=343}}
{{Location map+
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{{Annotation|230|5|text-align=center|South Asia<br/>{{Circa|420 CE}}|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=10|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|85|80|[[Yaudheya|<span style="color:#4F311CFF">YAUDHEYAS</span>]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
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{{Annotation|text-align=center|160|3|[[Tocharians|<span style="color:#006400FF">TOCHARIANS</span>]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
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{{Annotation|115|215|text-align=center|[[Kalabhra dynasty|<span style="color:#4F311CFF">KALABHRAS</span>]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}{{Annotation|120|195|text-align=center|[[Western Ganga dynasty|<span style="color:#4F311CFF">WESTERN<br/>GANGAS</span>]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=5|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|43|65|text-align=center|[[Hind (Sasanian province)|<span style="color:#006400FF">SASANIAN<br/>HIND</span>]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|145|50|[[Zhangzhung|<span style="color:#4F311CFF">ZHANGZHUNG</span>]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
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{{Annotation|100|165|text-align=center|[[Vakatakas|<span style="color:#4F311CFF">VAKATAKAS</span>]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}}
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{{Annotation|247|90|text-align=center|[[Varman dynasty|<span style="color:#4F311CFF">KAMARUPAS</span>]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
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{{Annotation|262|250|[[Template:South Asia in 350 CE|<span style="color:#4F311CFF"> ◁  </span>]] [[Template:South Asia in 500 CE|<span style="color:#4F311CFF"> ▷ </span>]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=12|color=#000000}}
|caption={{center|1=Map of the Gupta Empire {{Circa|420 CE}}, according to [[Joseph E. Schwartzberg]], with contemporary polities<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |date=1978 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |page=[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=182 145, map XIV.1 (j)]; [https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=062 p.25] |isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=182 |access-date=12 February 2022 |archive-date=24 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224162023/https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=182 |url-status=live }}</ref>}}}}
# [[Malavas]]: During Samudragupta's period, they were probably headquartered at Karkota-nagara (present-day Nagar Fort in Rajasthan), where several thousands of their coins have been discovered.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=119}}
# [[Arjunayanas]]: Their coins have been found in the [[Mathura district|Mathura region]].{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=86}} According to numismatist [[John Allan (numismatist)|John Allan]], the Arjunayanas resided in the triangle connecting the present-day Delhi, Jaipur and Agra.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=119}}
# [[Yaudheyas]]: They ruled the area between the Sutlej and the Yamuna rivers after the Kushans. They seem to have become Samudragupta's tributaries.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=120}}
# [[Madra Kingdom|Madrakas]]: They are generally placed between the Ravi and the Chenab rivers.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=120}}
# [[Abhira tribe|Abhiras]]: Epigraphic and literary evidence suggests that they ruled in western India during Samudragupta's period.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|pp=120–121}}
# Sanakanikas: They appear to have ruled the region around [[Udayagiri Caves|Udayagiri]] in present-day Madhya Pradesh. An inscription found at Udayagiri refers to a Sanakanika chief as a feudatory of Chandragupta II: this chief and his two predecessors are described as "Maharajas", which suggests that Samudragupta allowed the Sanakanika chiefs to rule as his governors after conquering their territory.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=44}}
# Kakas: They may have been the rulers of the area around the [[Sanchi]] hill, which has been mentioned as Kakanada in ancient inscriptions.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=44}}
# Prarjunas They may be identified as the Prarjunakas mentioned in the ''[[Arthashastra]]'', but their location is uncertain. Various theories place them in central India, including around the present-day [[Narsinghpur]] or [[Narsinghgarh, Rajgarh|Narsinghgarh]] in Madhya Pradesh.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=121}}{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|pp=87–88}}
# Kharaparikas: They may be same as the "Kharaparas" (literally "thief" or "rogue"{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=88}}) mentioned in a 14th-century stone inscription found at Batiyagarh (or Battisgarh) in [[Damoh district]]. These Kharaparas are variously identified as an indigenous tribe or freebooters of this region.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=121}}
#* Some later sources suggest that the Kharaparas were a foreign tribe (possibly [[Mongol invasions of India|Mongols]]), and the [[Dingal]]-language texts use the word "Kharapara" as a synonym for "Muslim", but such an identification is not applicable to Samudragupta's period.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=121}}
#* There is also some speculation about the Kharaparikas being same as the Gardabhilas mentioned in the ''[[Puranas]]'', as the words "Khara" and "Gardabha" both mean "donkey" in Sanskrit. However, very little is known about the Gardabhilas from historical sources.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|pp=121–122}}

=== Relations with other rulers ===

Samudragupta's inscription mentions that several kings tried to please him by attending on him personally; offering him their daughters in marriage (or, according to another interpretation, gifting him maidens{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=125}}); and seeking the use of the [[Garuda]]-depicting Gupta seal for administering their own territories.{{sfn|Shankar Goyal|2001|p=168}} These kings included "Daivaputra-Shahi-Shahanushahi, Shaka-Murundas, and the rulers of the island countries such as Simhala".{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2017|p=343}}{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=77–78}}

==== Daivaputra-Shahi-Shahanushahi ====
[[File:Daivaputra Shaahi Shaahaanu Shaahi.jpg|thumb|{{center|<sup>[[File:Gupta allahabad de.svg|22px]]</sup>[[File:Gupta allahabad v.svg|13px]]<sub>[[File:Gupta allahabad pu.jpg|13px]][[File:Gupta ashoka tr.jpg|15px]]</sub>[[File:Gupta allahabad ssa.jpg|13px]][[File:Gupta allahabad hi.jpg|15px]][[File:Gupta allahabad ssa.jpg|13px]][[File:Gupta allahabad haa.jpg|13px]][[File:Gupta allahabad nu.jpg|17px]][[File:Gupta allahabad ssa.jpg|13px]][[File:Gupta allahabad hi.jpg|15px]]}}The expression ''Devaputra Shāhi Shāhānu Shāhi'' in Middle [[Brahmi]] in the [[Allahabad pillar]] (Line 23).<ref name="AE">{{cite book |last1=Eraly |first1=Abraham |title=The First Spring: The Golden Age of India |date=2011 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=9780670084784 |page=38 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=te1sqTzTxD8C&pg=PA38 |language=en}}</ref>]]

Numismatist [[John Allan (numismatist)|John Allan]] theorized that Daivaputra, Shahi, and Shahanushahi were three different states; or alternatively, Shahi-Shahanushahi was a single state. Historian [[D. R. Bhandarkar]] argued that Daivaputra ("a descendant of Devaputra") cannot be a stand-alone name, and identified Daivaputra-Shahi-Shahanushahi as a single ruler, possibly [[Kidara I]], who had established a new kingdom [[Gandhara]] (present-day Afghanistan).{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=122}}

According to historian Tej Ram Sharma, Daivaputra refers to a [[Kushan Empire|Kushan]] king (Devaputra being a Kushan title); Shahi refers to a sub-branch of the Kushans; and Shahanushahi refers to the [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanians]]. These kings controlled parts of present-day Punjab and Afghanistan.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=89}}

Historian Ashvini Agrwal theorizes that Kidara, who initially ruled as a vassal of the Sasanian king [[Shapur II]], may have formed an alliance with Samudragupta to overthrow his Sasanian overlord. In ''[[Raghuvamsha]]'', the Gupta court poet [[Kalidasa]] states his hero Raghu defeated the Parasikas (Persians): Agrwal speculates that this description may be inspired from the Kidraite-Gupta victory over the Sasanians.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=122}}

According to [[Abraham Eraly]] and others, the expression ''Devaputra Shāhi Shāhānu Shāhi'' evidently designates the Kushan princes, being a deformation of the Kushan regnal titles ''Devaputra, Shao and Shaonanoshao'': "Son of God, King, King of Kings".<ref name="AE"/><ref name="CC165">This expression obviously refers to the last rulers of the Kushan Empire, in {{cite book |last1=Dani |first1=Ahmad Hasan |last2=Litvinovskiĭ |first2=Boris Abramovich |title=History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750 |date=1999 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |isbn=9788120815407 |pages=165–166 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FcKtIPVQ6REC&pg=PA165 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cribb |first1=Joe |title=TWO CURIOUS KIDARITE COIN TYPES FROM 5 TH CENTURY KASHMIR by Joe Cribb and Karan Singh |journal=Jons |date=January 2017 |page=3 |url=https://www.academia.edu/36983254 |language=en}}</ref> This suggests that by the time of the Allahabad inscription the Kushans still ruled in [[Punjab]], but under the suzerainty of the Gupta Emperor.<ref name="HCCA166">{{cite book |last1=Dani |first1=Ahmad Hasan |last2=Litvinsky |first2=B. A. |title=History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The crossroads of civilizations, A.D. 250 to 750 |date=1996 |publisher=UNESCO |isbn=9789231032110 |pages=165–166 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=883OZBe2sMYC&pg=PA166 |language=en}}</ref>

According to Hans T. Bakker, candidates for the Daivaputrasāhi are the late Kushan kings of [[Gandhara|Gandhāra]]: Vasudeva II or [[Kipunada|Kipunadha]], and regarding the śaka-murunda I follow Konow and Lüders, who argue that this 'passage in the Allahabad inscription of Samudragupta leaves no doubt that murunda (i.e. 'commander'), originally was a title used by Saka princes'. The șāhānuṣāhi refers to the 'king of kings' [[Shapur II]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bakker |first=Hans T. |date=2020-01-01 |title=The Sasanian and Gupta empires and their struggle against the Huns |url=https://www.academia.edu/106550687 |journal=Masters of the Steppe, Archaeopress Publishing}}</ref> 

According to [[S.R. Goyal]], Samudragupta was determined to ensure the safety of the empire's frontiers and secure the western trade routes. To address these concerns, he formed an alliance with Kidara, a strategic move aimed at countering the threats posed by [[Shapur II]] of the [[Sasanian Empire|Sassanian]] [[Empire]]. As the more powerful partner in this alliance, Samudragupta provided significant support to [[Kidara I|Kidara]]. This collaboration proved to be highly effective; [[Kidara I|Kidara]] achieved victories over the [[Sasanian Empire|Sassanians]] in 367-368 AD. However, these victories did not necessarily result in [[Shapur II]] becoming a vassal of either [[Kidara I|Kidara]] or Samudragupta.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/goyal-1967/page/186/mode/1up |title=History Of The Imperial Guptas |pages=178 |language=English}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Agrawal |first=Ashvini |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hRjC5IaJ2zcC&pg=PA315 |title=Rise and Fall of the Imperial Guptas |date=1989 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |isbn=978-81-208-0592-7 |pages=177 |language=en}}</ref>

==== Shaka-Murundas ====

{{See also|Gupta-Saka Wars}}

Some scholars believe that the term "Shaka-Murundas" refers to a single entity. For example, scholars such as [[Sten Konow]] assert that "Murunda" is a [[Shakas|Shaka]] title meaning "lord"; the Kushans also used similar titles (for example, Kanishka is titled a "muroda" in his Zeda inscription).{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=123}}

Other scholars, such as [[K. P. Jayaswal]], believe that Shakas and Murundas are two different groups of people.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=123}} According to this theory, Shakas here most probably refers to the [[Western Kshatrapa]] rulers of [[Ujjain]].{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=89}} Jayaswal notes that the ''[[Puranas]]'' mention the rule of 13 Murunda kings, and [[Hemachandra]]'s ''Abhidhana-Chintamani'' describes Murunda as people of [[Lampaka]] (in present-day Afghanistan). However, Agrwal points out that these sources are of relatively late origin, and it is possible that a branch of the Shakas had come to be known as "Murundas".{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=123}}

[[File:Allahabad pillar Samudragupta inscription Shaka word in Line 23.jpg|thumb|The vanquished "Śaka" ([[File:Gupta_allahabad_sh.svg|15px]][[File:Gupta_allahabad_k.svg|15px]]) mentioned by Samudragupta in the [[Allahabad pillar]] (Line 23) probably refer to the [[Saka]] ruler [[Sridharavarman]] in Central India.<ref name="CII4">{{cite book |last1=Mirashi |first1=Vasudev Vishnu |title=Corpus inscriptionum indicarum vol.4 pt.2 Inscriptions of the Kalachuri Chedi Era |date=1955 |publisher=Archaeological Society of India |pages=605–611 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.3725/page/n321}}</ref>]]The exact location of the Shakas mentioned in Samudragupta's inscription is not certain. [[Vincent Arthur Smith|V. A. Smith]] identified them with the [[Western Kshatrapas]], who controlled the western [[Malwa]] and [[Saurashtra (region)|Saurashtra]] regions. [[D. R. Bhandarkar]] alternatively identified the Shaka-Murunda ruler with [[Shridhara-varman]], a Shaka ruler whose inscriptions have been discovered at [[Sanchi]] ([[Kanakerha inscription]]) and [[Eran]].<ref name="CII4" /> Eran then came under the direct control of Samudragupta, as attested by his Eran inscription.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=123}}<ref name="CII4" />

==== Simhala and other islands ====

According to the Chinese sources, [[Sirimeghavanna of Anuradhapura|Meghavarna]], the king of Simhala (present-day [[Sri Lanka]]), sought to build a monastery at Bodh Gaya, for the convenience of the pilgrims from his kingdom. He sent rich presents for this purpose, and Samudragupta sanctioned his request to build the monastery. Using poetic exaggeration, Samudragupta's courtier Harishena appears to have described this act of diplomacy as an act of subservience.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=90}} Similarly, the 7th-century Chinese traveler [[Xuanzang]], who visited this monastery, appears to have regarded the rich presents sent by Meghavarna as tribute: he states that Meghavarna "gave in tribute to the king of India all the jewels of his country".{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=27}}

The "other islands" may be the [[Indianized kingdom]]s of South-East Asia, but there is no evidence that their rulers were subordinate to Samudragupta.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=90}} They probably sent embassies to the Gupta empire, and maintained friendly relations.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=27}} The sea ports of the Gupta Empire, such as Tamralipti, were probably connected to these kingdoms through the marine routes. The widespread use of Sanskrit in these kingdoms may have happened as a result of Gupta influence.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=124}}

== Imperial extent ==

Samudragupta's empire included a core territory, located in northern India, which was directly controlled by the emperor. Besides, it comprised a number of monarchical and tribal tributary states.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=22}} Historian [[R. C. Majumdar]] theorizes that Samudragupta directly controlled an area extending from the [[Ravi River]] ([[Punjab]]) in the west to the [[Brahmaputra River]] ([[Bengal]] and [[Assam]]) in the east, and from the [[Sivalik Hills|Himalayan foothills]] in the north to the [[Vindhya|Vindhya hills]] in the south. The south-western boundary of his territory roughly followed an imaginary line drawn from present-day [[Karnal]] to [[Bhilsa]].{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=23, 27}}

In the south, Samudragupta's empire definitely included [[Eran]] in present-day Madhya Pradesh, where his inscription has been found.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=23}} The Allahabad Pillar inscription suggests that he advanced up to [[Kanchipuram]] in the south.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=112}} However, since the claims in the Allahabad Pillar inscription are from a royal eulogy, they must be treated with caution. The southern kings were not under his direct suzerainty: they only paid him tribute.{{sfn|K. Chakrabarti|1996|p=185}}

According to historian Kunal Chakrabarti, Samudragupta's military campaigns weakened the tribal republics of present-day Punjab and Rajasthan, but even these kingdoms were not under his direct suzerainty: they only paid him tribute. Samudragupta's claim of control over other kings is questionable.{{sfn|K. Chakrabarti|1996|p=185}} Historian Ashvini Agrawal notes that a gold coin of the Gadahara tribe bears the legend Samudra, which suggests that Samudragupta's control extended up to the [[Chenab river]] in the Punjab region.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=128}}

Some earlier scholars, such as [[J. F. Fleet]] believed that Samudragupta had also conquered a part of [[Maharashtra]], based on the identification of Devarashtra with Maharashtra, and Erandapalla with [[Erandol]], where some Gupta-era remains have been found.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=109, 112}} However, this theory is no longer considered correct.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=112}}{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1978|p=245}}

== Coinage ==
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=300| align    = right
| caption_align = center
| direction =vertical
| header=Imitation of Kushan coinage
| image1   = Coin of VasudevaII.jpg
| caption1 = Kushan coin of [[Vasudeva II]], 275–300 CE.
| image2   = Samudragupta_circa_335-380_CE.jpg
| caption2 = Standard type of Samudragupta, 335/350-375 CE
| footer=Samudragupta was the first Gupta ruler to mint coins. These were in imitation of the coinage of the [[Kushan Empire]], adopting its weight standard, techniques and designs, following the conquests of Samudragupta in the northwest.<ref name="RM31">{{cite book |last1=Mookerji |first1=Radhakumud |title=The Gupta Empire |date=1997 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |isbn=9788120804401 |pages=30–31 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uYXDB2gIYbwC&pg=PA30 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Infobase Publishing">{{cite book |last1=Higham |first1=Charles |title=Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations |date=2014 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=9781438109961 |page=82 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H1c1UIEVH9gC&pg=PA82 |language=en}}</ref> The two types of coins are similar, except for the headdress of the ruler (a close-fitting cap instead of the Kushan pointed hat), the Garuda standard instead of the trident, and Samudragupta's jewelry, which is Indian.<ref name="RM31"/><ref name="The Coins of India">{{cite book |last1=Brown |first1=C. J. |title=The Coins of India |date=1987 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=9788120603455 |page=41 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O-d497CKID0C&pg=PA41 |language=en}}</ref>
}}
The coinage of the Gupta Empire was initially derived from the coinage of the [[Kushan Empire]], adopting its weight standard, techniques and designs, following the conquests of Samudragupta in the northwest of the subcontinent.<ref>"It was his conquests which brought to him the gold utilized in his coinage and also the knowledge of its technique acquired from his acquaintance with Kushan (eastern Punjab) coins. His earliest coins began as imitations of these Kushan coins, and of their foreign features which were gradually replaced by Indian features in his later coins." in {{cite book |last1=Mookerji |first1=Radhakumud |title=The Gupta Empire |date=1997 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |isbn=9788120804401 |page=30 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uYXDB2gIYbwC&pg=PA30 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Infobase Publishing">{{cite book |last1=Higham |first1=Charles |title=Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations |date=2014 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=9781438109961 |page=82 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H1c1UIEVH9gC&pg=PA82 |language=en}}</ref> The Guptas even adopted from the Kushans the name of ''[[Dinar]]a'' for their coinage, which ultimately came from the Roman name ''[[Denarius]] [[aureus]]''.<ref>"Known by the term [[Dinar]]s in early Gupta inscriptions, their gold coinage was based on the weight standard of the Kushans i.e. 8 gms/120 grains. It was replaced in the time of [[Skandagupta]] by a standard of 80 ratis or 144 grains" {{cite book |last1=Vanaja |first1=R. |title=Indian Coinage |date=1983 |publisher=National Museum |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DVdmAAAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Mookerji |first1=Radhakumud |title=The Gupta Empire |date=1997 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |isbn=9788120804401 |page=31 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uYXDB2gIYbwC&pg=PA31 |language=en}}</ref><ref>Gupta inscriptions using the term "Dinara" for money: No 5-9, 62, 64 in {{cite book |last1=Fleet |first1=John Faithfull |title=Inscriptions Of The Early Gupta Kings And Their Successors |date=1960 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.463254/page/n229}}</ref> The standard coin type of Samudragupta is highly similar to the coinage of the later Kushan rulers, including the sacrificial scene over an altar, the depiction of a halo, while differences include the headdress of the ruler (a close-fitting cap instead of the Kushan pointed hat), the Garuda standard instead of the trident, and Samudragupta's jewelry, which is Indian.<ref name="RM31"/>

The following types of Samudragupta's coins, inscribed with [[Sanskrit]] language legends, have been discovered:<ref>{{cite book |last1=Allen |first1=John |title=Catalogue of the coins of the Gupta dynasties |date=1914 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.47214/page/n123 1]-20 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.47214}}</ref>

; Standard type
* Obverse legend: ''Samara-shata-vitata-vijayo-jita-ripurajito-divam-jayati''. Translation: "The unconquered one who has conquered his enemies [and] has continuously attained victories in a hundred battles, wins heaven";{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=92}} Alternative translation: "The conqueror of the unconquered fortresses of his enemies, whose victory was spread in hundreds of battles, conquers heaven".{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=94}}
* Reverse legend: ''Prakramah''{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=94}}

; Archer type
* Depicts Samudragupta standing fully dressed with a bow on his left hand and an arrow on his right hand.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=94}}
* Obverse legend: ''Apratiratha vijitya kshitim sucharitair (or avnipatir) divam Jayati''. Translation: "Unopposed by hostile chariots, conquering the earth, he conquers heaven by his good deeds".{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=94}}
* Reverse legend: ''Apratirathah''{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=94}}

; Battle-axe type
* Obverse legend: ''Kritanta-parshur-jayatyajitarajajetaji-tah''. Translation: "Wielding the axe of Kritanta (the god of death), the unconquered conqueror of unconquered kings is victorious"{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=94}}
* Reverse legend: ''Kritanta-parashuh''{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=94}}

; Tiger-slayer type
* Depicts the king wearing turban and waist-cloth, and trampling a tiger{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=94}}
* Legend: ''Vaghra-prakramah''. Translation: "Having the prowess of a tiger".{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=94}}

; Lyrist type
* Depicts Samudragupta wearing waist-cloth and seated cross-legged on a couch, playing a [[ancient veena|veena]] that lies on his knees.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=94}}
* Legend: the king's name{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=94}}

; Ashvamedha type
* Obverse legend: ''Rajadhirajah prithvim avitva divam jayatyahritavaji-medhah'' ("the overlord of kings, who has performed the horse-sacrifice, having protected the earth, conquers the heaven") on the reverse.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=126}}
** Some coins have an alternative legend: ''Rajadhirajah prithvim avitva divam jayatya-prativarya-viryah'' ("the overlord of kings, of irresistible valour, having protected the earth, wins heaven").{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=126}}
* Reverse legend: ''Ashvamedha-prakramah'' ("possessing the valour to perform the horse-sacrifice")

Various scholars, including numismatist [[John Allan (numismatist)|John Allan]], consider that the gold coins bearing the portraits of Chandragupta and Kumaradevi were issued by Samudragupta to commemorate his parents,<ref name="RM">{{cite book |last1=Mookerji |first1=Radhakumud |title=The Gupta Empire |date=1997 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |isbn=9788120804401 |page=30 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uYXDB2gIYbwC&pg=PA30 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Infobase Publishing">{{cite book |last1=Higham |first1=Charles |title=Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations |date=2014 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=9781438109961 |page=82 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H1c1UIEVH9gC&pg=PA82 |language=en}}</ref> while others have attributed the issue of these coins to Chandragupta himself.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=11}}{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|pp=91-92}}

<gallery mode="packed" caption="Coins of Samudragupta">
Samudragupta circa 335-380 CE.jpg | A [[gold coin]] of Samudragupta
Chandragupta I or Samudragupta. Circa 320-335 or 335-380 AD.jpg|Commemorative type of [[Chandragupta I]]: this coin is in the name of Chandragupta I, but since no other coin types of Chandragupta are known, this is thought to be a commemorative issue minted by his son Samudragupta.<ref name="RM"/><ref name="Infobase Publishing">{{cite book |last1=Higham |first1=Charles |title=Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations |date=2014 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=9781438109961 |page=82 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H1c1UIEVH9gC&pg=PA82 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="The Coins of India">{{cite book |last1=Brown |first1=C. J. |title=The Coins of India |date=1987 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=9788120603455 |page=41 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O-d497CKID0C&pg=PA41 |language=en}}</ref>
Samudragupta circa 335-380 CE Ashvameda type.jpg | [[Ashvamedha]] type coin
Samudragupta Circa 335-380 CE Lyrist type.jpg | Lyrist type coin
</gallery>

== Inscriptions ==
[[File:Ashoka Pillar, Allahabad, 1870.jpg|thumb| [[Allahabad Pillar#Samudragupta inscription|Samudragupta inscriptions]] on Allahabad pillar.]]

Two inscriptions from Samudragupta's reign have been discovered:{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=67}}

* [[Allahabad Pillar|Allahabad Pillar inscription]]
* Eran stone inscription

Fleet theorized that the Allahabad Pillar inscription was posthumous, and was issued during the reign of Chandragupta II, but modern scholars disagree with this theory.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=69}}

Two other records are attributed to Samudragupta's reign, but the genuineness of these records is disputed:{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=70}}

* Nalanda inscription, dated to the regnal year 5
* Gaya inscription, dated to the regnal year 9

Both these inscriptions state that they were written at the order of the Gupta officer Gopaswamin. Like the Mathura stone inscription of Chandragupta II, these records describe Samudragupta as the "restorer of the Ashvamedha sacrifice". It seems suspicious that records issued so early in Samudragupta's reign mention this claim, which does not appear in the later Allahabad Pillar inscription. One possibility is that these records were issued during Samudragupta's reign, and were damaged after some time, because of which they were restored during the reign of Chandragupta II.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=70}}

=== Eran inscription ===
[[File:Eran inscription of Samudragupta.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Eran inscription of Samudragupta.]]
At [[Eran]], an inscription by Samudragupta seems to succeed that of a local [[Western Satraps|Saka]] ruler named [[Sridharavarman]], already known from the [[Kanakerha inscription]] at [[Sanchi]] and another inscription in Eran. Samudragupta may therefore have ousted Sridharavarman in his campaigns to the West.<ref>"During the course of this expedition, he is believed to have attacked and defeated the Saka Chief Shridhar Varman, ruling over Eran-Vidisha region. He then annexed the area and erected a monument at Eran (modern Sagar District) "for the sake cf augmenting his fame"." in {{cite book |last1=Pradesh (India) |first1=Madhya |last2=Krishnan |first2=V. S. |title=Madhya Pradesh: District Gazetteers |date=1982 |publisher=Government Central Press |page=28 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7CYLAQAAIAAJ |language=en}}</ref> The [[Eran]] Inscription of Samudragupta is presently stored in [[Kolkata]] [[Indian Museum]]. The inscription, in red sandstone, was found not far to the west of the ruined temple of the boar. It reads:

{{blockquote|
(Lines 1 to 6, containing the whole of the first verse and the first half of the second, are entirely broken away and lost.) <br />
(Line 7.)— ....................................in giving gold ...................................... [by whom] Prithu and Râghava and other kings [were outshone.] <br />
(L. 9.)— . . . . . . . . . there was Samudragupta, equal to (the gods) [[Dhanada]] and [[Antaka]] in (respectively) pleasure and anger; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . by policy; (and) [by whom] the whole tribe of kings upon the earth was [overthrown] and reduced to the loss of the wealth of their sovereignty;— <br />
(L. 13.)— [Who], by . . . . . . . . . satisfied by devotion and policy and valour,—by the glories, consisting of the consecration by besprinkling, &c., that belong to the title of
'king,'— (and) by . . . . . . . . . . . combined with supreme satisfaction, — .................. (was) a king whose vigour could not be resisted;— <br />
(L. 17.)— [By whom] there was married a virtuous and faithful wife, whose dower was provided by (his) manliness and prowess; who was possessed of an abundance of [elephants] and horses and money and grain; who delighted in the houses of .............; (and) who went about in the company of many sons and sons' sons;— <br />
(L. 21.)— Whose deeds in battle (are) kindled with prowess; (whose) . . . . . . very mighty fame is always circling round about; and whose enemies are terrified, when they think,
even in the intervals of dreaming, of (his). . . . . . . that are vigorous in war; — <br />
(L. 25.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . in a place in Airikina (Eran), the city of his own enjoyment. . . . . . . . . . . . . has been set up, for the sake of augmenting his own fame. <br />
(L. 27.) — . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . when the king said . . . . . . . <br />
(The rest of the inscription is entirely broken away and lost.)|Eran inscription of Samudragupta<ref>Fleet, John F. Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum: Inscriptions of the Early Guptas. Vol. III. Calcutta: Government of India, Central Publications Branch, 1888, [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.358795 pp20-21]</ref>}}

== Religion ==

Samudragputa's [[Eran]] inscription records the installation of a [[Vishnu]] idol in a temple.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=68}} The Nalanda and Gaya inscriptions attributed to Samudragupta explicitly call him a devotee of Vishnu (''parama-Bhagavata''){{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=32}} He was also tolerant towards [[Buddhism]], and permitted the construction of a Buddhist monastery commissioned by the [[Anuradhapura Kingdom|Anuradhapura]] king [[Sirimeghavanna of Anuradhapura|Meghavarna]] at [[Bodh Gaya]] in his territory.{{sfn|Lallanji Gopal|1969|pp=56–57, 74}}

The [[Allahabad Pillar]] inscription states that Samudragupta was engaged in the performance of the [[Brahmanism|Brahmanical]] ceremonies of Sattra ([[Soma (drink)|Soma]] sacrifices) and Diksha. It describes him as "the giver of many hundreds of [[gosahasra|thousands of cows]]".{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=91}} The Mathura stone inscription of his son [[Chandragupta II]] also describes him as the giver of "millions of cows and gold".{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=68}} It appears that Samudragupta donated these cows to the Brahmins who officiated his Sattra and Diksha ceremonies.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=91}} The Eran inscription states that Samudragupta surpassed [[Prithu]], [[Rama|Raghava]] and other legendary kings in giving gold.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=67}}

The Allahabad Pillar inscription alludes to his [[divine right of kings|divine kingship]], comparing him to the ''Parama Purusha'' (supreme being), and also with deities such as Dhanada ([[Kubera]]), [[Varuna]], [[Indra]], and Antaka ([[Yama (Hinduism)|Yama]]).{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=91}} The Eran inscription states that he was equal to Kubera and Yama in pleasure and anger respectively.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=67}} The Mathura stone inscription similarly describes him as equal to the deities Kubera, Varuna, Indra, and Yama.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=68}}

=== Ashvamedha ===

Samudragupta performed the [[Ashvamedha]] ritual, which was used by the ancient Indian kings to prove their imperial sovereignty, and issued gold coins (see [[#Coinage|Coinage]] section) to mark this performance.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|pp=125–126}} The copper-plate inscriptions of Samudragupta's granddaughter Prabhavati-Gupta, who was a [[Vakataka]] queen, describe him as the performer of multiple horse sacrifices. According to one theory, Samudragupta indeed performed more than one horse sacrifices, as attested by the presence of two different legends on his Ashvamedha coins. Another theory dismisses the claim on Prabhavati-Gupta's inscriptions as an exaggeration or a scribal error since this claim does not appear on the inscriptions of Samudragupta or his successors.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=126}}

The Mathura stone inscription of [[Chandragupta II]] describes Samudragupta as "the restorer of the Ashvamedha sacrifice that had been long in abeyance" ([[Vincent Arthur Smith|Smith]]'s translation). This claim also appears in the inscriptions of the subsequent Gupta kings,{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=68}} as well as the spurious Gaya and Nalanda inscriptions attributed to Samudragupta.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=32}} However, several kings including those from [[Bharashiva]], Vakataka, [[Shalankayana]], and [[Pallava]] dynasties had had performed Ashvamedha in the preceding years.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=126}}{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=93}} Different scholars have attempted to explain this anomaly in different ways: [[Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri|H. C. Raychaudhuri]] suggests that the Gupta court poet did not know about these kings.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=127}} According to [[R. C. Majumdar]], Samudragupta was the first king several centuries to perform the sacrifice in the [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]] region.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=32}} Majumdar also theorizes that the Ashvamedha ceremony performed by Bharashiva, Vakataka, and other near-contemporary kings was "more of a religious nature", while Samudragupta's ceremony actually involved proving his imperial sovereignty.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=33}} Similarly, scholars such as [[S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar|S. K. Aiyangar]] and [[D. R. Bhandarkar]], theorize that unlike the other kings, Samudragupta performed a "full-fledged" Ashvamedha ceremony. Others, such as [[V. S. Pathak]] and Jagannath Agrawal, interpret the verse to mean that Samudragupta performed the horse-ritual that lasted for a long-time.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=127}}

The surviving verses of Samudragupta's own Allahabad Pillar inscription do not mention the Ashvamedha ceremony. According to one theory, this inscription was put up to mark the beginning of the ceremony, as the panegyrics of the sacrificer were an essential part of the Ashvamedha ceremony.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=127}} It is possible that its first four lines, which are now lost, contained a reference to the ceremony. {{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=32}}

== Personality ==

Samudragupta's coins depict him as a man of tall stature and muscular physique.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=95}} The Allahabad Pillar inscription presents him as a compassionate ruler, stating that his "mind was engaged in providing relief to the low, the poor, the helpless, and the afflicted".{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=91, 94}} It also mentions that he reinstated many royal families which had lost their kingdoms, including the kings defeated by him.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=31}} At the same time, it states that he maintained strict administration ("Prachanda shasana").{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=94}}

The inscription states that Samudragupta became famous among the learned people because of his poetical works, and earned the epithet "king of poets".{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=31}} This suggests that he composed some poetical works, but none of these works now survive.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=31}}

The inscription also boasts that Samudragupta put to shame the celestial musician [[Tumburu]] and [[Narada]] by his lovely performances of music. {{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=94}} Samudragupta's musical talents are also corroborated by his gold coins which depict him playing a [[ancient veena|veena]]. {{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=31}}

The inscription praises Samudragupta's wisdom and intellect,{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=31}} stating that he put to shame the preceptor of the Lord of the Gods (that is, [[Brihaspati]]) by his sharp intellect.{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|p=94}}

== Legacy ==
Vincent Smith referred to Samudragupta as the "Indian [[Napoleon]]" due to his remarkable military campaigns and strategic prowess. His achievements included the total defeat of adversaries in [[Āryāvarta|Aryavarta]], extensive expeditions in the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] across long distances and inhospitable terrains, and a notable expedition across the [[Indus River]]. This last expedition, which might have been led by Samudragupta himself or his son [[Chandragupta II]], demonstrated his exceptional military skill and strategic acumen.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/goyal-1967/page/186/mode/1up |title=History Of The Imperial Guptas |pages=18o |language=English}}</ref>

The comparison between Samudragupta and [[Napoleon]] is relevant in several aspects. Both rulers organized their empires in a broadly similar fashion. [[Napoleon|Napoleon’s]] empire, centered around [[France]] and including adjacent [[Dutch East India Company|Dutch]], Belgian, [[Germanic peoples|German]], and [[Italians|Italian]] regions, was surrounded by a network of allied and protected states such as Spain, the [[Confederation of the Rhine]], the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, and the Kingdoms of Italy and [[Naples]]. Similarly, Samudragupta’s empire encompassed nearly all of [[North India|northern India]], excluding regions like [[Sindh]], much of Kashmir and western Rajasthan<ref name=":2" />

Samudragupta's empire was vast and strategically organized. It encompassed nearly the whole of modern [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Bihar]], part of [[Bengal]], and a significant portion of eastern [[Malwa]]. Beyond a ring of tributary states were the [[Indo-Scythians|Saka]] and [[Kushan Empire|Kushaṇ]] principalities in the North-West, twelve states in the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]], [[kerala]] as well as [[Sri Lanka|Simhala]] (Sri Lanka) and several other islands. These regions were either allies or were compelled to show respect towards the empire, forming a second line of defense beyond the primary ring of tributary states.<ref name=":2" />

Samudragupta's imperial structure resembled that of [[Napoleon|Napoleon’s]] organizational strategy, featuring a strong central core surrounded by friendly states and dependencies. Like [[Napoleon]], Samudragupta was influenced by the prevailing ideologies of his time. His Allahabad Prasasti (inscription) reflects his aspiration for *chakravartitva* or universal sovereignty, a [[Hinduism|Hindu]] ideal prevalent during the Gupta era, which sought to establish overlordship over all of [[Names for India|Bharatavarsha]] (India). This ideal can be compared to Napoleon’s vision of a European Commonwealth under French hegemony. Unlike Napoleon, whose ambitions were curtailed after the Battle of Waterloo, Samudragupta successfully realized his vision and celebrated his achievements with the performance of an [[Ashvamedha|Asvamedha]] (horse sacrifice).<ref name=":2" />

The Asvamedha performed by Samudragupta was of an elaborate type, denoted by the term chirotsanna, rather than the abbreviated form that was more common during that period. It is generally believed that this grand celebration occurred sometime after the inscription of the Allahabad Prasasti. However, it is also possible that the Asvamedha was conducted around the same time as the inscription.<ref name=":2" />

It is believed that the Allahabad Prasasti was composed in conjunction with the performance of Samudragupta’s Asvamedha sacrifice. This elaborate type of sacrifice, known as *chirotsanna*, included *prateyya* or hymns praising the sacrificer and long-ago kings, performed by lute-players including a Rajanya who sang three self-composed songs. It is possible that the Asokan pillar, on which the prasasti was engraved, was used as an ornamental post during the sacrifice. Prayaga (modern-day Allahabad) was the original seat of the Gupta dynasty.<ref name=":2" />

Samudragupta's reign marked a significant revival of Brahmanical religion, which had declined since Emperor Ashoka's promotion of Buddhism. Samudragupta represents a Hindu response to [[Ashoka's policy of Dhamma|Ashoka’s]] Buddhist ideals. While Ashoka sought to be a *chakravarti dharmika dharmaraja*—a ruler who conquered through righteousness (dhamma) rather than force—Samudragupta aimed to be a traditional *chakravartin* through military conquest. Both emperors were considered *dharma vijayins* (victors through righteousness), but their concepts of achieving righteousness differed. Ashoka emphasized the moral aspects of religion, while Samudragupta focused on traditional martial and political authority<ref name=":2" />

The question of whether [[Vikramaditya]] existed or is a legend is unresolved. However, it is well established that Samudragupta was the first historical ruler to assume the title of Vikrama. Elements of the Vikramaditya legend can be traced back to both Samudragupta and his son [[Chandragupta II|Chandragupta]] II, reflecting their personalities and achievements.<ref name=":2" />

== Indian Embassy to Rome ==
According to a [[Roman Empire|Roman]] historian, an Indian embassy arrived in Rome in 351 A.D., although it had been dispatched from India earlier. This event holds historical significance when viewed in the context of the political conditions in India during the mid-fourth century AD<ref name=":2" />

Before 361 A.D., Rome was at war with the [[Sasanian Empire|Sassanian]] Empire. During this period, it was plausible that Samudragupta, a prominent Indian ruler, might have sought to support Roman efforts against the [[Sasanian dynasty|Sassanians]] by sending an embassy. By aligning with [[Kidara I|Kidāra]] against [[Shapur II]], Samudragupta would have aimed to keep [[Sasanian Empire|Sassanian]] forces occupied and distracted.<ref name=":0" />

In light of the political dynamics in [[Bactria]] and North-Western India, there is a suggestion that Kalidasa's portrayal of Raghu's conquests in his work, "[[Raghuvaṃśa]]," might be based on the actual historical events of Samudragupta's campaigns. Kalidasa describes Raghu's military expeditions, including the conquest of [[Trikuta|Trikūta]] in the Deccan and subsequent campaigns against the [[Persian Empire|Parasikas]], [[Huns|Hunas]], and Kambojas. 

Kalidasa's epic, therefore, might reflect the real historical interactions and conflicts of the time, providing a literary perspective on the political and military landscape of the era.<ref name=":2" />

== Succession ==

The official records of the Gupta dynasty state that Samudragupta was succeeded by [[Chandragupta II]], who was his son from Dattadevi.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=46}} Based on a reconstruction of the partially-lost Sanskrit play ''[[Devichandraguptam]]'', a section of modern historians believe that Samudragupta was initially succeeded by [[Ramagupta]] (presumably the eldest son), who was then dethroned by Chandragupta II.{{sfn|R. C. Majumdar|1981|p=48}}{{sfn|Tej Ram Sharma|1989|pp=95–96}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

=== Bibliography ===

{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |author=Ajay Mitra Shastri |author-link=Ajay Mitra Shastri |title=Inscriptions of the Śarabhapurīyas, Pāṇḍuvaṁśins and Somavaṁśins |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7cyQ8BxzR4kC&pg=PA12 |year=1995 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0637-5 }}
* {{cite book |author=Ashvini Agrawal |title=Rise and Fall of the Imperial Guptas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hRjC5IaJ2zcC&pg=PA315 |year=1989 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0592-7 }}
* {{cite book |author=K. Chakrabarti |chapter=Origin and political history of the Guptas |editor1=Ahmad Hasan Dani |editor2=B. A. Litvinsky |title=History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The crossroads of civilizations, A.D. 250 to 750 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=883OZBe2sMYC&pg=PA185 |year=1996 |publisher=UNESCO |isbn=978-92-3-103211-0 }}
* {{cite book |author=Lallanji Gopal |title=Samudragupta |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5uW1AAAAIAAJ |year=1969 |publisher=National Book Trust |oclc=583078075 }}
* {{cite book |author=R. C. Majumdar |author-link=R. C. Majumdar |title=A Comprehensive History of India |volume=3, Part I: A.D. 300–985 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mRBuAAAAMAAJ |year=1981 |publisher=Indian History Congress / People's Publishing House |oclc=34008529 }}
* {{cite book |author=Shankar Goyal |title=Problems of Ancient Indian History: New Perspectives and Perceptions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZSVuAAAAMAAJ |year=2001 |publisher=Book Enclave |isbn=978-81-87036-66-1 }}
* {{cite book |author=Upinder Singh |title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PA477 |year=2008 |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-81-317-1120-0 }}
* {{cite book |author=Tej Ram Sharma |title=Personal and Geographical Names in the Gupta Inscriptions |url=https://archive.org/details/personalgeograph00sharuoft |page=[https://archive.org/details/personalgeograph00sharuoft/page/258 258] |year=1978 |publisher=Concept |oclc=249004782 }}
* {{cite book |author=Tej Ram Sharma |title=A Political History of the Imperial Guptas: From Gupta to Skandagupta |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fWVZWjNAcAgC |year=1989 |publisher=Concept |isbn=978-81-7022-251-4 }}
* {{cite book |author=Upinder Singh |author-link=Upinder Singh |title=Political Violence in Ancient India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dYM4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA343 |year=2017 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-98128-7 }}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |author=Dilip Kumar Ganguly |title=The Imperial Guptas and Their Times |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hud2_Ie3T94C&pg=PP1 |year=1987 |publisher=Abhinav |isbn=978-81-7017-222-2 }}

==External links==
* [http://coinindia.com/galleries-samudragupta.html Catalogue of Coins of Samudragupta]

[[Category:4th-century Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:Gupta emperors]]
[[Category:Indian Vaishnavites]]
[[Category:4th-century maharajadhirajas]]