Editing Scarification

{{Short description|Cutting designs into the skin as a form of body modification}}
{{other uses}}
{{Geographical imbalance|[[Indigenous peoples]]|date=October 2023}}
[[File:African scarification in the early 1940s (detailed).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Detailed facial scarification]]

'''Scarification''' involves scratching, [[etching]], burning/[[Human branding|branding]], or superficially cutting designs, pictures, or words into the skin as a permanent [[body modification]] or [[body art]]. The body modification can take roughly 6–12 months to heal. In the process of body scarification, [[scar]]s are purposely formed by cutting or branding the skin by various methods (sometimes using further sequential aggravating wound-healing methods at timed intervals, like irritation). Scarification is sometimes called ''[[Wound healing|cicatrization]]''.<ref name=randart>{{cite web|title=Scarification and Cicatrisation Among African Cultures|url=http://www.randafricanart.com/Scarification_and_Cicatrisation_among_African_cultures.html|publisher=Rand African Art|access-date=2012-10-17}}</ref>

==History==
[[File:A LUZON NEGRITO WITH SPEAR.jpg|thumb|180px|[[Aeta]] man from the island of [[Luzon]] with a scarified form of [[Batok|indigenous Philippine tattoo]], c. 1890s]]
[[File:Hastings Gilford 64.jpg|thumb|[[Aboriginal Australian]] with scarification of the back, 1911]]
Scarification has been traditionally practiced by darker skinned cultures, possibly because it is usually more visible on darker skinned people than tattoos.<ref name="ezakwantu">{{cite web |title=African Scarification to Decorate and Beautify the Body |url=http://www.ezakwantu.com/Gallery%20Scarification.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020002029/http://www.ezakwantu.com/Gallery%20Scarification.htm |archive-date=2012-10-20 |access-date=2012-10-17 |publisher=Gallery Ezakwantu}}</ref> It was common in indigenous cultures of Africa (especially in the west), [[Melanesia]], and Australia.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Roland |first1=Garve |last2=Garve |first2=Miriam |last3=Türp |first3=Jens |last4=Fobil |first4=Julius |last5=Meyer |first5=Christian |date=2017-04-05 |title=Scarification in sub-Saharan Africa: Social skin, remedy and medical import |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315800896 |journal=Tropical Medicine & International Health |volume=22 |issue=6 |pages=708–715 |doi=10.1111/tmi.12878 |pmid=28380287 |s2cid=8164849 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Some indigenous cultures in North America also practiced scarification, including the ancient Maya.<ref name=":46">{{cite magazine |last=Pyne |first=Lydia |date=July 2020 |title=Mayan Body Art |url=https://www.archaeology.org/issues/386-2007/features/8761-body-art |magazine=Archaeology |location= |publisher=Archaeological Institute of America |access-date=2023-01-17}}</ref>

===Africa===
{{Main|Scarification in Africa}}
In Africa, [[Scramble for Africa#Colonization prior to World War I|European colonial governments]] and [[Christianity and colonialism#Africa|European Christian missionaries]] criminalized and stigmatized the cultural practices of tattooing and scarification; consequently, the practices underwent decline, ended, or continued to be performed as acts of [[Resistance movement|resistance]].<ref name="Schildkrout">{{cite journal |last1=Schildkrout |first1=Enid |date=June 11, 2004 |title=Inscribing the Body |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev.anthro.33.070203.143947 |journal=Annual Review of Anthropology |volume=33 |pages=323,331 |doi=10.1146/annurev.anthro.33.070203.143947 |jstor=25064856 |s2cid=5531519|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Among the ethnic groups in sub-Saharan Africa that traditionally practice scarification are the [[Gonja people|Gonja]], [[Dagomba people|Dagomba]], [[Frafra people|Frafra]], [[Mamprusi people|Mamprusi]], [[Nanumba people|Nanumba]], [[Bali people (Nigeria)|Bali]], [[Tofin language|Tɔfin]], [[Bobo people|Bobo]], [[Montol language|Montol]], [[Kofyar people|Kofyar]], [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]], and [[Tiv people]] of West Africa, and the [[Dinka people|Dinka]], [[Nuer people|Nuer]], [[Surma people|Surma]], [[Shilluk people|Shilluk]], [[Toposa people|Toposa]], [[Moru people|Moru]], [[Bondei people|Bondei]], [[Shambaa people|Shambaa]], [[Barabaig people|Barabaig]], and [[Maasai people]] of East Africa.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal |last1=Garve |first1=Roland |last2=Garve |first2=Miriam |last3=Türp |first3=Jens |last4=Fobil |first4=Julius |last5=Meyer |first5=Christian |date=2017 |title=Scarification in Sub-Saharan Africa: Social Skin, Remedy and Medical Import |journal=Tropical Medicine & International Health |volume=22 |issue=6 |pages=708–715 |doi=10.1111/tmi.12878 |pmid=28380287 |s2cid=8164849 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

==Reasons==
Within anthropology, the study of the body as a boundary has been long debated.<ref name="inscribing the body">{{cite journal |last=Schildkrout |first=Enid |date=2004-06-11 |title=Inscribing the Body |journal=Annual Review of Anthropology |volume=33 |page=320 |doi=10.1146/annurev.anthro.33.070203.143947}}</ref> In 1909, [[Arnold van Gennep|Van Gennep]] described bodily transformations, including tattooing, scarification, and painting, as rites of passage.<ref>{{cite book|last=Van Gennep|first=A|title=Les Rites De Passage|date=1909|publisher=E. Nourry|location=Paris}}</ref> In 1963, [[Claude Lévi-Strauss|Lévi-Strauss]] described the body as a surface waiting for the imprintation of culture.<ref>{{cite book|last=Levi-Strauss|first=C|title=Structural Anthropology|url=https://archive.org/details/structuralanthro00lv|url-access=registration|date=1963|publisher=Basic Books|location=New York}}</ref> Turner (1980) first used the term "social skin" in his detailed discussion of how [[Kayapo]] culture was constructed and expressed through individual bodies.<ref>{{cite book|last=Turner|first=TS|author-link=Terence Turner (Anthropologist)|title=Not Work Alone: A Cross-Cultural View of Activities Superfluous to Survival|date=1980|publisher=Sage|location=Beverly Hills, CA|pages=112–140}}</ref> Inscribed skin highlights an issue that has been central to anthropology since its inception: the question of boundaries between the individual and society, between societies, and between representation and experiences.<ref name="inscribing the body" />

=== Rites of passage and belonging ===
Traditionally, the most common reason for scarification has been as a [[rite of passage]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ludvico|author2=Kurland |title=Symbolic or Not-so-Symbolic Wounds: The Behavioral Ecology of Human Scarification|journal=Ethology and Sociobiology|date=1995|volume=16|issue=2|pages=155–172|doi=10.1016/0162-3095(94)00075-i}}</ref>

Scarification has been widely used by many West African tribes to mark milestone stages in both men and women's lives, such as puberty and marriage. In many tribes, members unwilling to participate in scarification were generally not included in the group's activities, and are often shunned from their society.<ref name="nat geo">{{cite magazine |last=Guynup |first=Sharon |title=Scarification: Ancient Body Art Leaving New Marks |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/07/0728_040728_tvtabooscars.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040805205749/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/07/0728_040728_tvtabooscars.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=August 5, 2004 |magazine=National Geographic}}</ref> According to anthropologist Grace Harris, group members lacking the normal characteristics consistent with the group are not considered as having acquired the full standing as agents in their society; they would also lack the capacity for meaningful behavior, such as greeting, commanding, and {{clarify|date=July 2024|text=stating.}}<ref name="Harris 1989 599–612">{{cite journal |last=Harris |first=Grace Gredys |date=1989 |title=Concepts of Individual, Self, and Person in Description Analysis |journal=American Anthropologist |volume=91 |issue=3 |pages=599–612 |doi=10.1525/aa.1989.91.3.02a00040}}</ref> Therefore, scarification can transform partial tribe members into "normal" members entirely accepted by the group. Scarification is a form of language not readily expressed, except through extensive and intricate greetings, and gives the ability to communicate fully, which is a key element for being considered as a normal member of the group.<ref name="Harris 1989 599–612" />

One reason why scarification is used as confirmation of adulthood is how it shows the ability to endure pain. With young men, the endurance of the pain of scarring exhibits strength and discipline, especially in tribes where males have roles as hunters and warriors. A young man who has already experienced the feeling of torn or cut flesh is considered less likely to fear the teeth of a wild animal or the tip of an enemy's spear.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Roman |first=Jorge |date=2016-12-01 |title=African Scarification |url=https://doi.org/10.1001/jamadermatol.2016.0086 |journal=JAMA Dermatology |volume=152 |issue=12 |pages=1353 |doi=10.1001/jamadermatol.2016.0086 |pmid=27973657 |issn=2168-6068|url-access=subscription }}</ref> In Ethiopia and Zambia, elaborate scarification is often done on women at puberty, used to denote a willingness to be a mother. The markings show that she can stand the pain of childbirth,<ref>{{Cite book |last=DeMello |first=Margo |title=Encyclopedia of Body Adornment |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0313336959 |location=United States of America |language=en}}</ref> as well as being an indication of her emotional maturity.<ref name="ezakwantu" />

[[File:Tribal crocodile scarification, Sepik River, Papua New Guinea.jpg|thumb|Tribal crocodile scarification done near the [[Sepik River]] in Papua New Guinea]]
Some of these rites of passage have spiritual or religious roots, such young boys in the [[Chambri people|Chambri]] tribe of [[Papua New Guinea]] undergo scarification resembling crocodile scales to mark their transition into manhood, a ritual which stems from the belief that humans evolved from crocodiles.<ref name=":2" />

In [[Ethiopia]], [[Surma people|Suri]] men scar their bodies to show that they have killed someone from an enemy tribe; the [[Mursi people|Mursi]] practice scarification for largely aesthetic reasons in order to attract the opposite sex and enhance the tactile experience of sex.<ref name=":2" /> The [[Ekoi people|Ekoi]] of [[Nigeria]] believe that the scars serve, on their way to the afterlife, as money.<ref name=":2" />

=== Identity ===
[[File:Restauration de scarification 19-d.lau-F3080.D2174.jpg|thumb|180px|Scarifications on this child's face show his clan membership.]] Scarification can be used to transmit complex messages about identity; such permanent body markings may emphasize fixed social, political, and religious roles.<ref name="randart" /> Tattoos, scars, brands, and piercings, when voluntarily acquired, are ways of showing a person's autobiography on the surface of the body to the world.<ref name="inscribing the body" />

Scarification can also help change status from victim to survivor. These individuals pass through various kinds of ritual death and rebirth, and redefine the relationship between self and society through the skin.<ref name="inscribing the body" />

Many people in certain regions of Africa who have "markings" can be identified as belonging to a specific tribe or ethnic group. Some of the tribes in [[Northern Region (Ghana)|Northern Ghana]] who use the markings are the [[Gonja people|Gonjas]], [[Nanumba people|Nanumbas]], [[Dagomba people|Dagombas]], [[Frafra people|Frafras]] and [[Mamprusi people|Mamprusis]].<ref name=":2" />

=== Medicinal ===
For the [[Nuba peoples|Nuba]] tribe of [[Sudan]], scars can serve a medicinal purpose; scars above the eyes are believed to improve eyesight, and scars on the temples are believed to help relieve headaches.<ref name=":2" /> In some cultures, scarification is used in traditional medicine to treat some illness by inserting medicine (usually herbs or powdered root) under the skin to heal a variety of infections and illnesses such as Malaria.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cullivan |first=Lauren |date=1998-04-01 |title=The Meanings Behind the Marks: Scarification and the People of Wa |url=https://digitalcollections.sit.edu/african_diaspora_isp/4 |journal=African Diaspora ISPs}}</ref>

==Methods==
Scarification is not a precise practice; variables, such as skin type, cut depth, and how the wound is treated while healing, can make the outcome unpredictable compared to other forms of body modification. A method that works on one person may not work on another. The scars tend to spread as they heal, so final designs are usually simple, the details being lost during healing.[[File:Scarification.jpg|thumb|Scarification being created]]Some common scarification techniques include:

;Ink rubbing: [[Tattoo]] ink (or similar agent) is rubbed into a fresh cut to add color or extra visibility to the scar. Most of the ink remains in the skin as the cut heals. This was how tattoos were initially done before the use of needles to inject ink.<ref>{{Cite book |last=DeMello |first=Margo |title=The Tattoo Project: Commemorative Tattoos, Visual Culture, and the Digital Archive |publisher=Canadian Scholars |year=2016 |isbn=9781551309453 |editor-last=Davidson |editor-first=Deborah |pages=27 |language=en |chapter=Memories on the skin: A brief cultural history of tattooing}}</ref>
;Skin removal/skinning: Skin removal allows for larger markings than simple cutting. The skin is raised with a hook or edged thorn and removed with a razor blade. This process can take many hours, and often requires repeated removal of scabs for best visibility of the scars.<ref name=":1" /><ref name="m303">{{cite journal | last=Garve | first=Roland | last2=Garve | first2=Miriam | last3=Türp | first3=Jens C. | last4=Fobil | first4=Julius N. | last5=Meyer | first5=Christian G. | title=Scarification in sub‐Saharan Africa: social skin, remedy and medical import | journal=Tropical Medicine & International Health | volume=22 | issue=6 | date=2017 | issn=1360-2276 | doi=10.1111/tmi.12878 | doi-access=free | pages=708–715 | url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdfdirect/10.1111/tmi.12878 | access-date=2025-05-21}}</ref> 
;Packing: An inert material such as clay or ash is packed into the wound; massive [[hypertrophic scar]]s are formed during healing as the wound pushes out the substance that had been inserted into the wound.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Inkle |first=Kay |title=Commemorative Tattoos, Visual Culture, and the Digital Archive |publisher=Canadian Scholars |year=2016 |isbn=9781551309453 |editor-last=Davidson |editor-first=Deborah |pages=118 |language=en |chapter="Physical Words": Scars, tattoos, and embodied mourning}}</ref> Inflammatory substances can be used to improve [[keloid]] formation.<ref name=":0" />

==Dangers==
Scarification produces harm and trauma to the skin. [[Infection]] is common when tools are not sterilised properly.<ref name=":0" /> Scarification has been linked to the spread of [[HIV/AIDS]] and [[Hepatitis C]] when tools are shared between people.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gomo |first1=E |last2=Chibatamoto |first2=P P |last3=Chandiwana |first3=S K |last4=Sabeta |first4=C T |date=1997-12-01 |title=Risk factors for HIV infection in a rural cohort in Zimbabwe: a pilot study |url=https://europepmc.org/article/med/9631112 |journal=The Central African Journal of Medicine |volume=43 |issue=12 |pages=350–354 |issn=0008-9176 |pmid=9631112}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Orubuloye |first1=I.O. |last2=Caldwell |first2=Pat |last3=Caldwell |first3=John C. |date=1995 |title=A note on suspect practices during the AIDS epidemic: vaginal drying and scarification in southwest Nigeria |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40652160 |journal=Health Transition Review |volume=5 |pages=161–165 |jstor=40652160 |issn=1036-4005}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bardia |first1=Aditya |last2=Williamson |first2=Eric E. |last3=Bauer |first3=Brent A. |date=2006-05-27 |title=Scarring moxibustion and religious scarification resulting in hepatitis C and hepatocellular carcinoma |url=https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(06)68775-8/abstract |journal=The Lancet |language=English |volume=367 |issue=9524 |pages=1790 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68775-8 |issn=0140-6736 |pmid=16731275|s2cid=43248476 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Body modification artists may have less experience with scarification, perhaps due to lower demand. When not desired, keloid scars may be an additional complication, although there are emerging treatment strategies for keloid scars.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Breuner |first1=C |last2=Levine |first2=D |last3=The |first3=Aap |last4=Adolescence |first4=On |last5=Grubb |first5=Laura |date=2017-09-18 |title=Adolescent and Young Adult Tattooing, Piercing, and Scarification |journal=Pediatrics |volume=140 |issue=4 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331742591 |pages=20171962|doi=10.1542/peds.2017-1962 |pmid=28924063 |s2cid=40982923 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Body modification]]
*[[Dueling scar]]
*[[Tattoo]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Scarification}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20190509053555/http://scarifications.net/ Pictures of scarification in Africa] – Features by Jean-Michel Clajot, Belgian photographer and Saï Sotima Tchantipo Doctor Anthropology
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140506200753/http://offbeatink.com/scarification/ Extensive Scarification Article] – Features different scarification techniques and advice
* [http://www.bme.com BME Website] – Chronicles the current and historical body modifications world internationally
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120830180804/http://wiki.bmezine.com/index.php/Scarification Scarification] – entry in [https://web.archive.org/web/20080828222751/http://wiki.bmezine.com/ BME Encyclopedia]

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Scarification| ]]
[[Category:Body art]]
[[Category:Body modification]]
[[Category:Tattooing]]