Editing Seitan

{{Short description|Food made from gluten, the main protein of wheat}}
{{More citations needed|date=November 2011}}
{{Infobox food
| name             = Seitan
| image            = Seitan Platter (4139727246).jpg
| image_size       = 
| caption          = Slices of roasted seitan
| alternate_name   = 
| place_of_origin          = [[China]]
| region           = 
| associated_cuisine = {{Flatlist|
* [[East Asian cuisine]] and [[Southeast Asian cuisine]]
** [[Chinese cuisine|Chinese]]
** [[Japanese cuisine|Japanese]]
** [[Thai cuisine|Thai]]
** [[Vietnamese cuisine|Vietnamese]]
}}
| creator          = 
| course           = 
| served           = 
| main_ingredient  = Wheat gluten
| variations       = 
| calories         = 
| other            = 
}}
[[Image:Packaged Seitan.JPG|thumb|Commercially packaged seitan]]

'''Seitan''' ({{IPAc-en|UK|ˈ|s|eɪ|t|æ|n}}, {{IPAc-en|US|-|t|ɑː|n}};<ref>{{citation|last=Wells|first=John C.|title=Longman Pronunciation Dictionary|year=2008|edition=3rd|publisher=Longman|isbn=9781405881180}}</ref> {{Langx|ja|セイタン}}) is a food made from [[gluten]], the main [[protein]] of [[wheat]].<ref name="OED">{{cite web |title=seitan, n. |url=https://www.oed.com/dictionary/seitan_n?tab=meaning_and_use |website=[[Oxford English Dictionary]] |url-access=subscription |access-date=2024-10-15 |archive-date=2017-08-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170814094645/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/seitan |url-status=dead }}</ref>
It is also known as '''miànjīn''' ({{lang-zh|links=no|t=麵筋}}), '''fu''' ({{Langx|ja|麩}}), '''milgogi''' ({{Langx|ko|밀고기}}), '''wheat meat''', '''gluten meat''', or simply '''gluten'''.

Wheat gluten is an alternative to [[soybean]]-based foods, such as [[tofu]], which are sometimes used as a [[meat alternative]]. Some types of wheat gluten have a chewy or stringy texture that resembles meat more than other substitutes. Wheat gluten is often used instead of meat in [[Asian cuisine|Asian]], [[Vegetarian cuisine|vegetarian]], [[Vegan cuisine|vegan]], [[Buddhist cuisine|Buddhist]], and [[Macrobiotic diet|macrobiotic cuisines]]. [[Mock duck]] is a common use.<ref name="Shewry2009">{{cite journal |first=Peter R |last=Shewry |year=2009 |title=Wheat |journal=[[Journal of Experimental Botany]] |volume=60 |issue=6 |pages=1537–1553 |doi=10.1093/jxb/erp058 |pmid=19386614 |url=https://academic.oup.com/jxb/article/60/6/1537/517393 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203151101/https://academic.oup.com/jxb/article/60/6/1537/517393 |url-status=live |archive-date=2024-02-03 |type=Review |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=FAO2013>{{cite book|url= http://www.fao.org/ag/humannutrition/35978-02317b979a686a57aa4593304ffc17f06.pdf|title= Dietary protein quality evaluation in human nutrition. Report of an FAO Expert Consultation|author = Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|date= 2013|publisher= Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|isbn= 978-92-5-107417-6}}</ref>

Wheat gluten first appeared during the 6th century as an ingredient for Chinese noodles.<ref name="sah"/> It has historically been popular in the cuisines of China, Japan and other [[East Asia|East]] and [[Southeast Asia]]n nations. In Asia, it is commonly found on the menus of restaurants catering primarily to [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] customers who do not eat meat.

==Production==

Gluten is traditionally extracted from wheat flour. A [[dough]] is washed in water until most of the [[starch]] granules have been removed, leaving behind the sticky, insoluble gluten as an elastic mass. This mass is cooked in a variety of ways and eaten.<ref>{{cite AV media | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5H2qzA50jZQ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/5H2qzA50jZQ| archive-date=2021-12-12 |url-status=live| title=How to make your Gluten at home| date=2 January 2007| work=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
There are several industrial methods for separating gluten from starch.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Modern methods of separation the components of wheat |date=2000|volume=2|issue=23S|journal=Polish Society of Food Technologists |url=https://journal.pttz.org/magazine-archive/modern-methods-of-separation-the-components-of-wheat/}}</ref>

Powdered forms of wheat gluten are also industrially produced and sold as an alternative way to make seitan. Their production involves hydrating hard wheat flour to activate the gluten, and then processing the hydrated mass to remove the starch. This leaves only the gluten, which is then dried and ground back into a powder, and can be used by consumers to make a seitan-like product.<ref name="thekitchn.com">[http://www.thekitchn.com/vital-wheat-gluten-what-is-it-84612 Thekitchn.com ''Vital Wheat Gluten'']; The Kitchen; website; accessed October 2016</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Asbell |first1=Robin |title=What Is Seitan and How Do You Cook with It? |url=https://www.thekitchn.com/what-is-seitan-22983660 |website=Kitchn |language=en}}</ref> 

When prepared to eat, seitan is generally marinated with a variety of ingredients.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-11-01|title=Easy Homemade Seitan Recipe - Vegans 247|url=https://vegans247.com/easy-homemade-seitan-recipe/,%20https://vegans247.com/easy-homemade-seitan-recipe/|access-date=2021-11-11|language=en-US}}</ref>

==History==
Called ''miànjīn'' ({{lang|zh|麵筋}}), this way of preparing wheat gluten has been documented in China since the 6th century.<ref name="sah">{{cite book | last1=Shurtleff| first1=William|author-link=William Shurtleff | last2=Aoyagi| first2=Akiko|author-link2=Akiko Aoyagi| last3=Huang| first3=H.T.| title=History of Soybeans and Soyfoods in China and Taiwan, and in Chinese Cookbooks, Restaurants, and Chinese Work with Soyfoods Outside China (1024 BCE to 2014)| year=2014| publisher=Soyinfo Center| isbn=978-1-928914-68-6|pages=2478–2479|url=https://www.soyinfocenter.com/pdf/176/Chin.pdf}}</ref> It is widely consumed by the Chinese as a substitute for meat, especially among monastic and lay adherents of [[Chinese Buddhist canon|Chinese Buddhism.]]<ref name=ftp>{{cite book | last=Anderson| first=E. N.| title=Food in Time and Place| year=2014| publisher=University of California Press| chapter=China| isbn=978-0-520-95934-7| page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=YSyDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA44 44]}}</ref> The oldest reference to wheat gluten appears in the ''[[Qimin Yaoshu]]'', a Chinese agricultural encyclopedia written by Jia Sixie in 535. The encyclopedia mentions noodles prepared from wheat gluten called ''bótuō'' ({{lang|zh|餺飥}}).<ref name="sah"/> Wheat gluten was known as ''miànjīn'' ({{lang|zh|麵筋}}) by the [[Song dynasty]] (960–1279).

Traditionally food is perceived as kitchen medicine within Chinese culture, gluten is part of traditional Chinese food therapy called [[Chinese food therapy|shí liáo]] (食療), and was prescribed by [[Traditional Chinese medicine|traditional Chinese medicinal]] physicians to treat a wide range of illnesses and disease.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Flaws |first=Bob |title=The tao of healthy eating: dietary wisdom according to Chinese medicine |date=2007 |publisher=Blue Poppy Press |isbn=978-0-936185-92-7 |edition=8th pr |location=Boulder, CO}}</ref>

Wheat gluten arrived in the West by the 18th century. ''De Frumento'', an Italian treatise on wheat written in Latin by [[Jacopo Bartolomeo Beccari|Bartolomeo Beccari]] in 1728 and published in Bologna in 1745, describes the process of washing wheat flour dough to extract the gluten. [[John Imison]] wrote an English-language definition of wheat gluten in his ''Elements of Science and Art'' published in 1803. By the 1830s, Western doctors were recommending wheat gluten in diets for diabetics. In the United States, the [[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Seventh-day Adventists]] promoted the consumption of wheat gluten<ref>{{cite web |title=This Facebook Group Takes Seitan Worship To The Next Level |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/seitan-appreciation-society_l_60637596c5b6d34efbc619b8 |website=HuffPost |language=en |date=9 April 2021}}</ref> from the late 19th century.{{Citation needed|date=October 2024}} Sanitarium Foods, a company affiliated with [[John Harvey Kellogg]]'s [[Battle Creek Sanitarium]], advertised wheat gluten in 1882.<ref name="sah"/>

==Etymology==
The word ''seitan'' is of Japanese origin and was coined in 1961 by [[George Ohsawa]], a Japanese advocate of the [[macrobiotic diet]], having been shown it by one of his students, Kiyoshi Mokutani. In 1962, wheat gluten was sold as seitan in Japan by Marushima Shoyu K.K. It was imported to the West under that name in 1969 by the American company [[Erewhon Market|Erewhon]].<ref name="sah"/> The etymology of ''seitan'' is uncertain, but it is believed to come from combining the characters 生 (sei, "fresh, raw") and 蛋 (tan, from 蛋白 (tanpaku, "protein")).<ref name="OED" />

The meaning of the word "seitan" has undergone a gradual evolution. One early commercial product, imported from Japan in 1969, was a salty condiment, the color of soy sauce, sold in a small glass jar or plastic pouch, which was used as a seasoning for brown rice. The name gradually came to refer to any wheat gluten seasoned with soy sauce. The people most responsible for this change in the USA were Nik and Joanne Amartseff, who introduced Tan Pups in 1972, and John Weissman, who in 1974 introduced Wheatmeat (first meatballs then cutlets made of seitan) in Boston. All worked for years to popularize these products at the Erewhon retail store, and developed a trademark on the Wheatmeat name.<ref>{{cite book | first1=William |last1=Shurtleff |first2=Akiko |last2=Aoyagi |author-link1=William Shurtleff |author-link2=Akiko Aoyagi |url=https://www.soyinfocenter.com/pdf/142/Erewhon2.pdf |title=History of Erewhon – Natural Foods Pioneer In The United States (1966-2011): Extensively Annotated Bibliography and Sourcebook |publisher=Soyinfo Center |location=Lafayette, CA |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-928914-33-4 |oclc=724094994}}</ref>{{rp|191–194}}

==Preparation==
While wheat gluten itself is rather flavorless, it holds a marinade very well and is usually simmered in a ''[[dashi]]'' ([[broth]]) made from [[soy sauce]], [[kombu]], [[ginger]], and sometimes also [[sesame oil]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jacobs |first1=Barbara |title=Cooking with Seitan: Delicious Natural Foods from Whole Grains |last2=Jacobs |first2=Leonard |date=1987 |publisher=Japan Publications |isbn=9780870406379 |location=New York, NY}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bates |first1=Dorothy |title=Cooking with Gluten and Seitan |last2=Wingate |first2=Colby |date=1993 |publisher=The Book Publishing Company |isbn=0913990957 |location=Summertown, Tennessee}}</ref>

===Chinese===
[[File:Frying seitan (4962744128).jpg|thumb|Fried seitan]]
[[File:Koufu (Wheat Gluten) Dish.jpg|thumb|A ''kaofu'' (baked spongy gluten) dish in a restaurant in Shanghai]]

Wheat gluten, called ''miànjīn'' in [[Chinese language|Chinese]] ([[Traditional Chinese character|traditional]]: {{lang|zh-Hant|[[wiktionary:麵|麵]][[wiktionary:筋|筋]]}}, [[Simplified Chinese character|simplified]]: {{lang|zh-Hans|[[wiktionary:面|面]][[wiktionary:筋|筋]]}}, literally "dough tendon"; also spelled ''mien chin'' in [[Latin script]]) is believed to have originated in [[ancient China]], as a [[meat analogue|meat substitute]] for adherents of [[Buddhism]], particularly some [[Mahayana]] Buddhist monks, who are strict vegetarians (see [[Buddhist cuisine]]). One story attributes the invention of imitation meat to chefs who made it for Chinese emperors who traditionally observed a week of vegetarianism each year. ''Miànjīn'' is often [[Deep frying|deep fried]] before being further cooked in [[Chinese cuisine]], which confers a crispy rind that enhances the texture of the gluten. There are three primary Chinese forms of wheat gluten.

Oil-fried gluten ({{lang|zh-Hant|[[wikt:油|油]][[wikt:麵筋|麵筋]]}}, ''yóumiànjīn'') is raw gluten that has been torn into small bits, and then deep-fried into puffy balls of {{Cvt|3|to|5|cm|0}} in diameter and sold as "imitation abalone". They are golden brown, and cooked by [[braising]] or boiling in a savory soup or stew. They are frequently paired with ''[[Shiitake mushroom|xiānggū]]'' (black mushrooms). Larger fried balls of gluten, called ''miànjīnqiú'' ({{lang|zh-Hans|麵筋球}}) or ''miànjīnpào'' (麵筋泡), which may be up to {{convert|5|in|cm|order=flip|abbr=on}} in diameter, are sometimes seen in [[Asian supermarket]]s, often stuffed with meat or tofu mixtures and served as a dish called "gluten [[meatball]]s" ({{lang|zh-Hans|麵筋肉丸}}, ''Miànjīn roùwán'') or "gluten stuffed with meat" ({{lang|zh-Hans|麵筋塞肉}}, ''miànjīn saī roù'').

Steamed gluten ({{lang|zh-Hans|[[wikt:蒸|蒸]][[wikt:麵筋|麵筋]]}}, ''zhēngmiànjīn''), is raw gluten that has been wrapped around itself to form a long [[sausage]] shape which is then steamed. This type of gluten has a dense texture and ranges from off-white to light greenish grey in color. It is torn open into strips and used as a cooking ingredient. When this sausage-shaped gluten is thickly sliced into medallions, the resulting form is called ''miànlún'' ([[wikt:麵|麵]][[wikt:輪|輪]], "gluten wheels"). Larger blocks of steamed gluten are sometimes colored pink and sold as vegetarian "mock ham." Steamed gluten is also a well-known food in Xi'an. Steamed gluten can be served with bean sprouts and cucumbers as a cold dish, or served with ''liángpí'' ([[wikt:凉|凉]][[wikt:皮|皮]]).

Baked spongy gluten ({{lang-zh|labels=no|c=[[:zh:烤麸|烤麩]]|p=kǎofū}}) is similar in texture to a [[sponge]], ''kaofu'' (sometimes labeled in English as "bran puff") is made by [[Leavening agent|leavening]] raw gluten, and then baking or steaming it. These are sold as small blocks in Chinese markets, and are diced and cooked. This type of gluten absorbs its cooking liquid like a sponge and is enjoyed for its "juicy" character. Chinese ''kaofu'' has a different texture from its Japanese counterpart, ''yaki-fu'', due to the relatively larger air bubbles it contains. ''Kaofu'' is available fresh, frozen, dehydrated, and canned.

''Miànjīn'' is also available in Asian grocery stores in cans and jars, often [[Marination|marinated]] in combination with [[peanut]]s or [[Edible mushroom|mushrooms]]. Such canned and jarred gluten is commonly eaten as an accompaniment to [[congee]] (boiled rice porridge) as part of a traditional Chinese breakfast. Depending on its method of preparation and ingredients used, both fresh and preserved ''miànjīn'' can be used to simulate pork, poultry, beef, or seafood.

''Miànjīn'' can also refer to [[latiao]], a modern Chinese snack food consisting of a strip of ''miànjīn'' (in the gluten sense), generally with a spicy and savory flavoring.

===Japanese===
[[Image:Japanese Wheat gluten Fu.JPG|thumb|Japanese dry baked wheat gluten ''"Yaki-Fu"'' (焼き麩) looks like [[bread]]. ]]

In [[Japanese cuisine]], the traditional type of wheat gluten is called {{interlanguage link|fu (gluten)|ja|麩|lt=''fu''}} ({{lang|ja|[[wiktionary:麩|麩]]}}, "gluten"), deriving from the [[Wu Chinese]] pronunciation of {{lang|zh|麩}}, ''fu''. In Japan, the two main types of ''fu'' are most widely used in Buddhist vegetarian cooking (''Shōjin ryōri'') and tea ceremony cuisine (''[[cha-kaiseki]]''). There are two main forms of ''fu'', the raw ''nama-fu'', and dry-baked ''yaki-fu''.

Raw (''nama-fu'' {{lang|ja|生麩}}) is solid gluten which is mixed with [[glutinous rice]] flour and [[millet]] and steamed in large blocks. It may be shaped and colored in a variety of ways, using ingredients such as [[mugwort]]. Popular shapes include autumn-colored maple leaves and bunnies. Such shapes and colors enhance the attractiveness of the cooked product since steamed gluten has an unappealing grey hue. ''Nama-fu'' is an important ingredient in [[Buddhist cuisine|Shōjin-ryōri]], the Buddhist vegetarian cuisine of Japan. It may also be used as an ingredient in [[wagashi]], Japanese confectionery. Fu-manjū ({{lang|ja|麩まんじゅう}}) is a type of [[manjū]] made from ''nama-fu''. Solid gluten is sweetened and filled with various sweet fillings such as [[red bean paste]]. They are then wrapped in leaves and steamed in a manner similar to that used to prepare Chinese [[zongzi]].

Dry baked (''yaki-fu'' {{lang|ja|焼き麩}} or ''sukiyaki-fu'' {{lang|ja|すき焼き麩}}) is gluten leavened with baking powder and baked into long bread-like sticks. It is often sold in cut form, as hard dry discs resembling [[crouton]]s or bread [[rusk]]. Yaki-fu is typically added to [[miso soup]] and [[sukiyaki]], where it absorbs some of the broth and acquires a fine texture that is lighter and fluffier than its Chinese equivalent. It is the most commonly available type of ''fu'' in Japanese supermarkets.

In Japan, seitan, initially a rather salty macrobiotic seasoning that gradually evolved into a food, is not well known or widely available, despite the macrobiotic diet's Japanese origins. When used, the terms for this food are rendered in [[katakana]] as {{lang|ja|グルテンミート}} (Romanized "gurutenmīto", from the English "gluten meat"), or, rarely, {{lang|ja|セイタン}} ("seitan"). Outside macrobiotic circles, these terms are virtually unknown in Japan, and they do not typically appear in Japanese dictionaries.

Along with [[tofu]] and [[Abura-age]], fu can be used as a substitute for meat in Japanese cuisine.

===Vietnamese===
In Vietnam, wheat gluten is called {{Lang|vi|mì căng}} or ''{{Lang|vi|mì căn}}'', and is prepared in a similar fashion to Chinese ''miàn jīn''. Along with tofu, it is a part of the Buddhist [[cuisine of Vietnam]].

===Western===
[[File:Veganz, Schivelbeiner Straße 34, Berlin, June 2012.jpg|thumb|alt=photograph|upright=1.35|A wide range of [[Meat analogue|mock-meat]] products, based on wheat gluten or [[tofu]], are sold at [[Veganz]] stores in [[Germany]] and in other European countries.]]

Since the mid-20th century, wheat gluten (usually called seitan) has been increasingly adopted by vegetarians in Western nations as a [[meat alternative]]. It is sold in block, strip and shaped forms in [[North America]], where it can be found in some supermarkets, Asian food markets, [[health food store]]s and [[cooperative]]s.

The block form of seitan is often flavored with [[Shiitake mushroom|shiitake]] or [[portobello mushroom]]s, fresh [[coriander]] or onion, or [[barbecue sauce]], or packed in a vegetable-based broth. In strip form, it can be packed to be eaten right out of the package as a high-protein snack. Shaped seitan products, in the form of "ribs" and patties, are frequently flavored with barbecue, [[teriyaki]], or other savory [[sauce]]s.

In North America, several brand-name meat alternatives are used in the restaurant and food service markets.

Wheat gluten is also used in many vegetarian products in various countries, for example by [[The African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem]], a Black vegan religious sect in Israel<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Avieli |first1=Nir |last2=Markowitz |first2=Fran |title=Slavery food, soul food, salvation food: veganism and identity in the African Hebrew Israelite Community |journal=African and Black Diaspora|date=4 May 2018 |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=205–220 |doi=10.1080/17528631.2017.1394612}}</ref> that operates a chain of restaurants, to produce vegetarian sandwiches.

== See also ==
{{portal|Food}}
* [[List of meat substitutes]]
* [[Textured vegetable protein]]
* [[Vegan cuisine]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{sister project links|display=Wheat gluten|commons=category:Seitan|b=Cookbook:Seitan|d=Q943935|n=no|v=no|wikt=seitan|mw=no|m=no|s=no|species=no|q=no}}
* [https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2007/04/why-do-we-need-to-import-wheat-gluten-from-china.html "Un-American Pet Food: Why do we put Chinese wheat gluten in Fido's kibble?", Michelle Tsai, ''Slate.com'', April 2, 2007]{{relevance inline|date=April 2024}}{{POV statement|date=April 2024}}

{{Vegetarianism}}
{{Wheat}}
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[[Category:Buddhist cuisine]]
[[Category:Chinese cuisine]]
[[Category:Chinese inventions]]
[[Category:Gluten]]
[[Category:Japanese cuisine]]
[[Category:Meat substitutes]]
[[Category:Vegan cuisine]]
[[Category:Vegetarian cuisine]]
[[Category:Vegetarian dishes of China]]
[[Category:Vietnamese cuisine]]
[[Category:Wheat]]