Editing Self-proclaimed monarchy

{{Short description|Self-proclaimed role of power}}
[[File:Jacques-Louis David 019.jpg|thumb|Coronation of Emperor [[Napoleon I of France]] at [[Notre-Dame de Paris]]. Napoleon crowned himself as "Emperor of the French" during this ceremony, then crowned his consort [[Joséphine de Beauharnais|Josephine]] as Empress.]]
A '''self-proclaimed monarchy''' is established when a person claims a monarchy without any historical ties to a previous dynasty.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Crisp |first=Wil |date=14 March 2021 |title=The man who declared himself king |work=[[The Independent]] |publisher=Independent Digital News and Media Limited |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/everland-steve-ogier-king-guernsey-b1816768.html |access-date=22 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220323021453/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/everland-steve-ogier-king-guernsey-b1816768.html |archive-date=23 March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Napoleon I |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia Britannica]] |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Napoleon-I |access-date=22 March 2022 |last1=Godechot |first1=Jacques |date=7 March 2022 |orig-date=20 July 1998 |display-authors=1 |last2=Gaur |first2=Aakanksha}}</ref> In many cases, this would make them a [[pretender to the throne]] (when a ruling dynasty is already established). The [[self-proclaimed]] [[monarch]] may be of an established state, such as [[Zog I of Albania]], or of a [[micronation]], such as [[Leonard Casley]] of [[Principality of Hutt River|Hutt River]], Western Australia.

==Past self-proclaimed monarchies==
===Albania===
In 1928, [[Zog I of Albania|Ahmet Zogu]], a president of [[Albanian Republic (1925–1928)|Albania]], proclaimed himself "King Zog I".<ref>[https://www.foxnews.com/world/albania-holds-funeral-for-self-styled-king-leka-i Albania holds funeral for self-styled King Leka] FOX News. Accessed 11 February 2013.</ref> He ruled for 11 years in a nominally constitutional [[Albanian Kingdom (1928–1939)|monarchy]] that was overthrown in the [[Italian invasion of Albania]].<ref name="isbn0-395-41685-X">Keegan, J. and Churchill, W. (1986). [https://books.google.com/books?id=e0_3Nrc8D0wC&pg=PA314 ''The Second World War'']. Boston: Mariner Books. p. 314. {{ISBN|0-395-41685-X}}.</ref>

=== Andorra ===
In 1934, [[Boris Skossyreff]] declared himself "Boris I, King of [[Andorra]]". His pretended reign only lasted a few days. He was expelled when he declared war on [[Justí Guitart i Vilardebó]], Bishop of Urgell and ex officio [[co-prince of Andorra]].<ref name="spainweek">{{cite journal|year=1934|title=Spain week by week|journal=Bulletin of Spanish Studies|volume=11|issue=44|pages=209–216|doi=10.1080/14753825012331364384}}</ref>

=== Australia ===
In 1970, after a dispute over wheat production quotas, [[Leonard Casley]] proclaimed his wheat farm in [[Western Australia]] the "[[Principality of Hutt River]]", styling himself as "HRH Prince Leonard I of Hutt".<ref name="Hutt">{{cite news|title=Secession Success|date=8 June 2008|work=[[The Advertiser (Adelaide)|The Advertiser]]}}</ref> The Australian government did not recognize his claim of independence.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://australia.gov.au/faq/hutt-river-province|title=What is the Hutt River Province?|date=1999-02-22|publisher=Commonwealth of Australia|accessdate=2014-04-30}}</ref> Casley abdicated in 2017, passing the principality to his son, "[[Graeme Casley|Prince Graeme I]]". The principality formally dissolved in 2020.<ref name="www.watoday.com.au">{{cite web|url= https://www.watoday.com.au/national/end-of-an-empire-hutt-river-to-rejoin-australia-after-50-years-20200803-p55i1u.html|last=Hedley|first=Kate|title=End of an empire: Hutt River to rejoin Australia after 50 years|work=WA Today|date=3 August 2020|accessdate=5 August 2020}}</ref>

===Cameroon===
[[Lekeaka Oliver]] was a separatist rebel commander who fought in the [[Anglophone Crisis]]. In 2019, he proclaimed himself "Paramount Ruler"<ref name="voaoct212019">[https://www.voanews.com/a/africa_cameroon-separatist-fighter-names-himself-king-southwest-district/6177926.html Cameroon Separatist Fighter Names Himself 'King' of Southwest District], Voice of America, Oct 21, 2019. Accessed Oct 22, 2019.</ref> or "King" of [[Lebialem]], a [[Departments of Cameroon|department]] of Cameroon.<ref name="Azohnwi">{{cite web |url= https://www.cameroon-info.net/article/cameroon-anglophone-crisis-tapang-ivo-stings-field-marshal-for-raping-the-peoples-culture-imposing-353700.html |title=Cameroon – Anglophone Crisis: Tapang Ivo Stings 'Field Marshal' For "Raping The People's Culture", Imposing Himself 'King Of Lebialem' |author=Atia T. Azohnwi |work=Cameroon Info |date=8 October 2019 |access-date= 19 July 2022 }}</ref> This move was condemned both by Cameroonian loyalists as well as other rebels.<ref name="voaoct212019" /><ref name="Azohnwi" /> Oliver was killed in 2022.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://cameroonnewsagency.com/war-in-anglophone-regions-chris-anu-officially-announces-death-of-brother-oliver-lekeaka/ |title= War in Anglophone regions: Chris Anu officially announces death of brother, Oliver Lekeaka |date= 18 July 2022|author= |website= |publisher= Cameroon News Agency |access-date= 18 July 2022 }}</ref>

===Central African Republic===
In 1976, a short-lived 'Imperial' monarchy, the "[[Central African Empire]]", was created when dictator [[Jean-Bédel Bokassa]] of the [[Central African Republic]] proclaimed himself "Emperor Bokassa I". The following year, he held a [[Coronation of Bokassa I|lavish coronation ceremony]]. He was deposed in 1979.

===Chile===
[[File:Rey de la Araucanía y Patagonia.jpg|thumb|right|[[Orélie-Antoine de Tounens|Antoine de Tounens]] with the Mapuche warriors]]
In 1860, a [[France|French]] adventurer, [[Orélie-Antoine de Tounens]], proclaimed the "[[Kingdom of Araucanía and Patagonia|Kingdom of Araucanía]]" in [[Chile]] with the support of local [[Mapuche]] chiefs. He called himself "Orélie-Antoine I". In 1862, he was arrested and deported by the Chilean government.

=== China ===
[[Hong Xiuquan]] proclaimed himself the leader of the [[Taiping Heavenly Kingdom]] during the [[Taiping Rebellion]] in 1851.

In 1915, the president of [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|China]], [[Yuan Shikai]], declared a [[Empire of China (1915–1916)|restoration of the Chinese monarchy]], with himself as emperor. The plan failed, and he was [[National Protection War|forced to step down]].<ref name="ROCannals">Kuo T'ing-i et al. ''Historical Annals of the ROC (1911–1949).'' Vol 1. pp 207–241.</ref>

Since then, there have been repeated attempts by individuals to declare themselves Chinese emperor or empress. In the 1920s and 1930s, there were several peasant rebels who declared themselves members of [[House of Zhu]] and tried to restore the [[Ming dynasty]], such as the self-proclaimed emperors "Chu the Ninth" (1919–1922, backed by the [[Yellow Sand Society|Yellow Way Society]]), "Wang the Sixth" (1924),{{sfnp|Perry|1980|p=159}} and Chu Hung-teng (1925, backed by the [[Heavenly Gate Society]]).{{sfnp|Tai|1985|p=68}} In course of the [[Spirit Soldier rebellions (1920–1926)]], a former farm worker and rebel leader named Yuan declared himself the "[[Jade Emperor]]".{{sfnp|Chesneaux|1972|p=12}} Following the [[Chinese Civil War]], there have been hundreds of monarchist pretenders who oppose the [[Chinese Communist Party]] and often gathered small groups of supporters. Notable self-proclaimed monarchs include: Li Zhu, declared a new dynasty in 1954;{{sfnp|Smith|2015|p=358}} Song Yiufang, leader of the Nine Palaces Way (crowned by his followers after sneaking into the [[Forbidden City]] in 1961);{{sfnp|Smith|2015|p=358}} Yang Xuehua, empress of the Heavenly Palace Sect (arrested in 1976 and executed after allegedly planning a rebellion); Chao Yuhua, empress of the "Great Sage Dynasty" (crowned in 1988 in a factory);{{sfnp|Smith|2015|p=355}} Tu Nanting, ex-soldier and emperor (believed in his emperorship after reading several books on prophecies, the arcane, and morals);{{sfnp|Smith|2015|p=357}} Yang Zhaogong who attempted to establish a new dynasty with alleged backing of [[Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party|CCCPC]] members.{{sfnp|Smith|2015|pp=357–358}} In general, these self-proclaimed monarchs were not very successful and quickly arrested by security forces.{{sfnp|Smith|2015|pp=357–358}} However, one self-proclaimed emperor, [[Li Guangchang]], organized a large sect of supporters and factually governed a small territory in [[Cangnan County]], called the "Zishen Nation", from 1981 to 1986 in ''de facto'' independence from China. He was eventually arrested, reportedly after attempting to organize a wider rebellion.{{sfnp|Smith|2015|p=358}}

=== Congo ===
Within days of being independent from Belgium, the new [[Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo]] found itself torn between competing political factions, as well as by foreign interference. As the situation deteriorated, [[Moise Tshombe]] declared the independence of [[Katanga Province]] as the [[State of Katanga]] on 11 July 1960. [[Albert Kalonji]], claiming that the [[Luba people|Baluba]] were being persecuted in the Congo and needed their own state in their traditional [[Kasai (region)|Kasai]] homeland, followed suit shortly afterwards and declared the autonomy of [[South Kasai]] on 8 August, with himself as head.<ref name="Imperial Collection">[https://archive.today/20121209023934/http://www.imperial-collection.net/southkasai01.html "The Imperial Collection: The Autonomous State of South Kasai"]</ref>{{full citation needed|date=April 2022}} On 12 April 1961, Kalonji's father was granted the title ''Mulopwe'' (which roughly translates to "emperor" or "god-king"),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+zr0146) |title=''Zaire: A Country Study'', "Establishment of a Personalistic Regime" |publisher=Lcweb2.loc.gov |accessdate=2014-08-03 |archive-date=2012-12-05 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121205035514/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+zr0146) |url-status=dead }}</ref> but he immediately "abdicated" in favor of his son.<ref name="Imperial Collection"/> On 16 July, but retained the title of ''Mulopwe'' and changed his name to Albert I Kalonji Ditunga.<ref name="Provinces of Congo">{{cite web|author=Ben Cahoon |url=http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Congo-K_Provinces_1960-1966.html |title=Provinces of Belgian Congo and Congo (Kinshasa) |publisher=Worldstatesmen.org |accessdate=2014-08-03}}</ref> The move was controversial with members of Kalonji's own party and cost him much support.

Shortly thereafter, as preparation for the invasion of Katanga, Congolese government troops invaded and occupied South Kasai, and Kalonji was arrested.<ref name="Imperial Collection"/> He escaped, but South Kasai ultimately returned to the Congo.<ref name="Imperial Collection"/>

=== France ===
In 1736, [[Theodore of Corsica|Freiherr Theodor Stephan von Neuhof]] established himself as [[Kingdom of Corsica (1736)|King of Corsica]] in an attempt to free the island of [[Corsica]] from [[Republic of Genoa|Genoese rule]].

In 1804, French [[French Consulate|Consul]] [[Napoleon|Napoleon Bonaparte]] proclaimed himself "[[Emperor of the French|Emperor]] Napoleon I".<ref name="PorterfieldSiegfried2006">{{cite book|last1=Porterfield|first1=Todd Burke|last2=Siegfried|first2=Susan L.|title=Staging empire: Napoleon, Ingres, and David|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pt1KApT_bBsC&pg=PA4|accessdate=1 December 2011|year=2006|publisher=Penn State Press|isbn=978-0-271-02858-3|page=4}}</ref> Although this imperial regime ended with his fall from power, Napoleon's nephew, [[Napoleon III|Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte]], was elected in 1848 as [[President of France]]. In 1852, he declared himself "[[Second French Empire|Emperor Napoleon III]]"; he was deposed in 1870.<ref name="NS">Nohlen & Stöver, p683</ref>

=== Haiti ===
[[File:Jean Jacques Dessalines.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|[[Jacques I of Haiti|Jacques I]], [[Emperor of Haiti]], 1804]]
In 1804, in [[First Empire of Haiti|Haiti]], the governor general, [[Jean-Jacques Dessalines]], proclaimed himself "Emperor Jacques I". He ruled for two years.<ref>[http://www.fsmitha.com/h3/h34-np2.html "Slave Revolt in St. Domingue"].</ref>{{full citation needed|date=April 2022}} In 1811, the president, [[Henry Christophe]], proclaimed himself "[[Kingdom of Haiti|King Henri I]]" and ruled until 1820.<ref name="ceac">Cheesman, 2007.</ref> In 1849, the president, [[Faustin Soulouque]], proclaimed himself "[[Second Empire of Haiti|Emperor Faustin I]]" and ruled until 1859.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=ujAPRER5jOMC&pg=PA25 ''The impact of the Haitian Revolution in the Atlantic world'']. David Patrick Geggus (ed.), p. 25. University of South Carolina Press, 2001. {{ISBN|1-57003-416-8}}, {{ISBN|978-1-57003-416-9}}.</ref>

=== Mexico ===
On 19 May 1822, [[Agustín de Iturbide|Agustín Cosme Damián de Iturbide y Arámburu]], was crowned as [[Emperor of Mexico]]. He was a Mexican-born general who had served in the Spanish Army, during the [[Mexican War of Independence]], but switched sides and joined the Mexican rebels in 1820. He was proclaimed president of the Regency in 1821. When [[Ferdinand VII of Spain|King Ferdinand VII of Spain]] refused to become a constitutional monarch, Iturbide was crowned Emperor. He ruled [[First Mexican Empire|Mexico]] for less than as a year as he abdicated and went into exile during a revolt in March 1823. He returned to Mexico on 14 July 1824 and was executed by the [[Provisional Government of Mexico]].

=== Romania ===
[[Florin Cioabă]] proclaimed himself [[King of the Gypsies|King of the Roma Everywhere]]. He died in 2013.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Frucht |first=Richard C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lVBB1a0rC70C&pg=PA741 |title=Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture |date=2005 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-57607-800-6 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Philippines ===
In 1823, in [[Manila]], [[Captaincy General of the Philippines|Philippines]], a regimental captain, [[Andrés Novales]], staged a mutiny and proclaimed himself "Emperor of the Philippines". After one day, [[History of Spain (1808–1874)|Spanish]] troops from [[Pampanga]] and [[Intramuros]] removed him.<ref name="Manila, My Manila">{{cite book|author=Joaquin, Nick|title=Manila, My Manila|publisher=Vera-Reyes|year=1990}}</ref>

=== Trindade ===
In 1893, [[James Harden-Hickey]], an admirer of Napoleon III, crowned himself "James I of the [[Principality of Trinidad]]".<ref>"To Be Prince of Trinidad: He Is Baron Harden-Hickey". ''New York Tribune'', 5 November 1893, p. 1</ref> For two years he tried but failed to assert his claim.

===United States===
In 1850, [[James J. Strang]], who claimed to be [[Joseph Smith]]'s successor as leader of the [[Latter Day Saint movement]], proclaimed himself king of his followers on [[Beaver Island (Lake Michigan)|Beaver Island, Michigan]]. On 8 July 1850, he was crowned in an elaborate [[coronation]] ceremony. Strang evaded Federal government charges of [[treason]] and continued to rule until 1856, the year he was assassinated by two disgruntled "[[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite)|Strangites]]".<ref>[https://archive.today/20121228100134/http://www.strangite.org/History.htm "History and Succession"]. ''Strangite.org''. Retrieved 28 October 2007. This compares to approximately 50,000 for Brigham Young at this same time. See [http://www.lds.org/library/display/0%2C4945%2C40-1-3474-2%2C00.html "Church Grows Rapidly"]. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060707055508/http://www.lds.org/library/display/0%2C4945%2C40-1-3474-2%2C00.html|date=2006-07-07}}. Retrieved 30 April 2022.</ref>

In 1859, [[Emperor Norton|Joshua Abraham Norton]], a failed businessman from [[San Francisco]], declared himself "Emperor of the United States", followed by assuming the additional title "Protector of Mexico" in 1863 in the wake of [[Second French intervention in Mexico|France's invasion of the country]]; he became and remained a local celebrity for the rest of his life.<ref>William Drury, [https://archive.org/details/nortoniemperorof00drur/page/199/mode/2up?q=%22San+Francisco+had+lived+off+Emperor+Norton%2C+not+Norton+off+San+Francisco.%22 Norton I: Emperor of the United States], (Dodd, Mead, 1986), p. 199.</ref>

==Current self-proclaimed monarchies==

===Italy===
The [[Principality of Seborga]] ({{langx|it|Principato di Seborga}}) is a [[micronation]] that claims a {{convert|14|km2|mi2}} area located in the northwestern [[Italy|Italian]] [[Province of Imperia]] in [[Liguria]], near the [[France|French]] border, and about {{convert|35|km|mi}} from [[Monaco]].<ref>[http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Selfprocl.html "Self-Proclaimed Micronations"], WorldStatesmen.org</ref> The principality is in coexistence with, and claims the territory of, the town of [[Seborga]]. In the early 1960s, Giorgio Carbone, began promoting the idea that Seborga restore its historic independence as a principality.<ref>[http://www.italymag.co.uk/italy/liguria/prince-seborga-fights-362-subjects/ "Prince of Seborga fights on for 362 subjects"], ''Italy Magazine'', 15 June 2006</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://m.huffpost.com/uk/entry/5760864|title = Seborga: The Micronation Inside Italy Where Time Stands Still|date = 11 September 2014}}</ref> By 1963 the people of Seborga were sufficiently convinced of these arguments to elect Carbone as their Head of State. He then assumed the style and title ''His Serene Highness'' [[Giorgio I, Prince of Seborga]], which he held until his death in 2009. The Principality of Seborga is an [[elective monarchy]] and elections are held 
every seven years. The subsequent monarch was Prince [[Marcello Menegatto]] (Prince Marcello I) who ruled from 2010 to 2019. On 23 April 2017, Prince Marcello was re-elected and took office for another seven years,<ref name="telegraph180832017">{{cite news|last1=Squires|first1=Nick|title=Radio DJ from West Sussex vies to become next leader of tiny self-declared principality in Italy|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/03/18/british-dj-west-sussex-vies-become-next-leader-tiny-self-declared/|accessdate=20 March 2017|work=The Telegraph|date=18 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170318223939/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/03/18/british-dj-west-sussex-vies-become-next-leader-tiny-self-declared/|archive-date=18 March 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> but abdicated the throne in 2019.<ref>[https://www.principatodiseborga.com/pds/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Lettera-di-dimissioni-del-Principe-Marcello.pdf Letter of resignation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190928091926/https://www.principatodiseborga.com/pds/s-a-s-il-principe-di-seborga |date=2019-09-28 }} on principatodiseborga.com</ref> [[Nina Menegatto]] was elected head of state as Princess Nina on 10 November 2019.<ref name="telegraph-nina">{{cite news|last=Vogt|first=Andrea |title='Her Tremendousness' elected leader of self-declared micro-nation on hilltop in Italy |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/11/10/tremendousness-elected-leader-self-declared-micro-nation-hilltop/|accessdate=11 November 2019|newspaper=The Daily Telegraph|date=10 November 2019}}</ref>

=== United Kingdom ===
In 1967, [[Paddy Roy Bates]], a former major in the [[British Army]], took control of [[Roughs Tower]], a Maunsell sea fort situated off the coast of [[Suffolk]] and declared it the "[[Principality of Sealand]]".<ref name="Jawn">Strauss, Erwin. ''How to Start Your Own Country'', Paladin Press, 1999, p. 132, cited in admin (20 September 2008). [http://www.historiainfinitus.com/?p=104 "A Brief History of Sealand"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120328142725/http://www.historiainfinitus.com/?p=104 |date=2012-03-28 }}. Historia Infinitas. Retrieved 11 May 2011</ref> Upon his death in 2012, "[[Prince]]" Paddy Roy Bates was succeeded by his son, [[Prince Michael of Sealand|Michael]].<ref name="summitofmicronations">{{cite web|url=http://www.muu.fi/amorph03/downloads/pdfs/principality_of_sealand.pdf|title=Information on the Principality of Sealand including Bates Family, GDP, Constitution|website=Artists' Association MUU|publisher=Amorph Summit of Micronations|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141015085734/http://www.muu.fi/amorph03/downloads/pdfs/principality_of_sealand.pdf|archive-date=2014-10-15|url-status=dead|accessdate=13 November 2007}}</ref> 

=== Canada ===
[[Romana Didulo]], a Filipina–Canadian woman, claimed to be the "secret Queen of Canada" in June 2021, and amassed a cult-like following, mainly consisting of right-wing [[QAnon]] supporters, being followed by 17,000 users of [[Telegram (software)|Telegram]], a messaging platform favoured by the far-right and QAnon figures. She and her followers began to hand out "cease and desist" letters, demanding people and businesses stop following Canadian [[COVID-19 pandemic|COVID-19]] restrictions.<ref>{{Cite web|title=QAnons Are Harassing People at the Whim of a Woman They Say Is Canada's Queen|url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/qanons-are-harassing-people-at-the-whim-of-a-woman-they-say-is-canadas-queen-romana-didulo/|access-date=2021-06-19|website=Vice.com|date=17 June 2021 |language=en}}</ref>

In an introductory video on Telegram, Didulo claimed to be "the founder and leader of Canada1st", an unregistered political party, and "the head of state and commander in chief of Canada, the Republic". She alleged that Canada's actual head of state, Queen [[Elizabeth II]], had been secretly executed and that she had been appointed as Queen by "the same group of people who have helped president Trump", in reference to a common belief within the QAnon conspiracy theory.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-06-18|title=Woman who claims to be secret queen of Canada develops QAnon following|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/us-politics/qanon-secret-queen-of-canada-b1868763.html|access-date=2021-06-19|website=[[The Independent]]|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-06-18|title=Canada still headed by Justin Trudeau and Queen Elizabeth II|url=https://factcheck.afp.com/canada-still-headed-justin-trudeau-and-queen-elizabeth-ii|access-date=2021-06-19|website=Fact Check|language=en}}</ref> In reality, Elizabeth II died of natural causes on [[Death and state funeral of Elizabeth II|September 8, 2022]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-61585886|title=Queen Elizabeth II has died|website=BBC|date=2022-09-08|access-date=2022-10-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-63078676|title=Queen's cause of death given as 'old age' on death certificate|website=BBC|first=Sean|last=Coughlan|date=2022-09-29|access-date=2022-10-09}}</ref>

==References==
===Citations===
{{Reflist}}

=== Works cited ===
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite book|last=Chesneaux|first=Jean|chapter=Secret Societies in China's Historical Evolution|editor=Jean Chesneaux|title=Popular Movements and Secret Societies in China 1840–1950|date=1972|publisher= [[Stanford University Press]]|location= [[Stanford, California]]|pages=1–21}}
*{{cite book |last = Perry |first = Elizabeth J.|author-link =Elizabeth J. Perry |title= Rebels and Revolutionaries in North China, 1845–1945 |date= 1980 |publisher= [[Stanford University Press]] |location= [[Stanford, California]] }}
* {{cite book |last=Smith |first=S.A. |chapter=Redemptive Religious Societies and the Communist State, 1949 to the 1980s |editor1=Jeremy Brown |editor2=Matthew D. Johnson |title=Maoism at the Grassroots: Everyday Life in China's Era of High Socialism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KRTRCgAAQBAJ |date=2015 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |isbn=978-0674287204 |pages=340–364}}
* {{cite book |last = Tai |first = Hsüan-chih |title= The Red Spears, 1916–1949 |date= 1985 |publisher= Centre for Chinese Studies Publications, [[University of Michigan]] |location= [[Ann Arbor, Michigan]] }}
{{refend}}

[[Category:Self-proclaimed monarchy| ]]
[[Category:Monarchy]]