Editing Semitic languages

{{Short description|Branch of the Afroasiatic languages}}
{{Distinguish|Sinitic languages}}
{{Infobox language family
| name          = Semitic
| region        = [[Western Asia|West Asia]], [[North Africa]], [[Horn of Africa]], [[Malta]]
| familycolor   = Afroasiatic
| protoname     = [[Proto-Semitic language|Proto-Semitic]]
| child1        = [[East Semitic languages|East Semitic]] †
| child2        = [[West Semitic languages|West Semitic]]
| iso2          = sem
| iso5          = sem
| glotto        = semi1276
| glottorefname = Semitic
| map           = Semitic map.svg
| mapcaption    = Modern distribution of the Semitic languages
| map2          = Semitic languages.svg
| mapcaption2   = Approximate historical distribution of Semitic languages
}}
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The '''Semitic languages''' are a branch of the [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic language family]]. They include [[Arabic]], 
[[Amharic]], [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]], [[Aramaic]], [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], [[Maltese language|Maltese]], [[Modern South Arabian languages]] and numerous other ancient and modern languages. They are spoken by more than 330 million people across much of [[Western Asia|West Asia]], [[North Africa]],{{Efn|[[Arabic]] is one of the world's largest languages, spoken natively in West Asia and Africa by about 300 million speakers, and as a [[second language]] by perhaps another 60 million.{{sfn|Owens|2013|p=2}}}} the [[Horn of Africa]],{{Efn|[[Amharic]] is spoken natively by about 35 million speakers, and as a [[second language]] by perhaps another 25 million speakers, in [[Africa]] probably fewer than only Arabic, Swahili, Hausa, and Oromo, and is the second most populous Semitic language, after just Arabic. It is the lingua franca and constitutionally recognized national language of Ethiopia, and the national language of instruction of Ethiopian public education in the primary grades.{{sfn|Hudson|Kogan|1997|p=457}}}}{{Efn|[[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]], not to be confused with the related but distinct language Tigre, is, like Amharic, a northern Ethiopian Semitic language, is spoken as a native language by the overwhelming majority of the population in the Tigre province of Ethiopia and in the highland part of Eritrea (the provinces of Akkele Guzay, Serae and Hamasien, where the capital of the state, Asmara, is situated). Outside of this area Tigrinya is also spoken in the Tambien and Wolqayt historical districts (Ethiopia) and in the administrative districts of Massara and Keren (Eritrea), these being respectively the southern and northern limits of its expansion. The number of speakers of Tigrinya has been estimated at 4 million in 1995; 1.3 million of them live in Eritrea (around 50 percent of the population of the country), in 2008 by an estimated 5 million.<ref>{{harvnb|Hudson|Kogan|1997|p=424}}; {{harvnb|Austin|2008|p=74}}</ref> [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] speaking about ~5 million native/[[First language|L1]] speakers,{{citation needed|date=December 2021}} [[Gurage languages|Gurage]] has around 1.5 million speakers,{{citation needed|date=December 2021}} [[Tigre language|Tigre]] has c. ~1.05 million speakers,{{citation needed|date=December 2021}} [[Aramaic]] is spoken by around 575,000 to 1 million largely [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] speakers).{{citation needed|date=December 2021}}}} [[Malta]],{{Efn|[[Maltese language|Maltese]] has around 483,000 speakers,{{citation needed|date=December 2021}}}} and in large [[Immigration|immigrant]] and [[Expatriate|expatriate communities]] in [[North America]], [[Europe]], and [[Australasia]]. The terminology was first used in the 1780s by members of the [[Göttingen school of history]], who derived the name from [[Shem]], one of the three [[Generations of Noah|sons of Noah]] in the [[Book of Genesis]].

Semitic languages [[List of languages by first written account|occur in written form]] from a very early historical date in [[West Asia]], with [[East Semitic languages|East Semitic]] [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] (also known as [[Ancient Assyrian language|Assyrian]] and [[Babylonian language|Babylonian]]) and [[Eblaite language|Eblaite]] texts (written in a script adapted from Sumerian [[cuneiform]]) appearing from {{circa|2600 BCE}} in [[Mesopotamia]] and the northeastern [[Levant]] respectively. The only earlier attested languages are [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] and [[Elamite language|Elamite]] (2800 BCE to 550 BCE), both [[language isolate]]s, and [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] ({{circa|3000 BCE}}), a sister branch within the Afroasiatic family, related to the Semitic languages but not part of them. [[Amorite language|Amorite]] appeared in Mesopotamia and the northern Levant {{circa|2100 BC}}, followed by the mutually intelligible [[Canaanite languages]] (including Hebrew, Phoenician, Moabite, Edomite, and Ammonite, and perhaps Ekronite, Amalekite and Sutean), the still spoken [[Aramaic]], and [[Ugaritic]] during the 2nd millennium BC.

Most scripts used to write Semitic languages are [[abjad]]s{{snd}}a type of [[alphabet]]ic script that omits some or all of the vowels, which is feasible for these languages because the consonants are the primary carriers of meaning in the Semitic languages. These include the [[Ugaritic alphabet|Ugaritic]], [[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician]], [[Aramaic alphabet|Aramaic]], [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]], [[Syriac alphabet|Syriac]], [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]], and [[ancient South Arabian script|ancient South Arabian]] alphabets. The [[Geʽez script]], used for writing the Semitic languages of [[Ethiopia]] and [[Eritrea]], is technically an [[abugida]]{{snd}} a modified abjad in which vowels are notated using [[diacritic]] marks added to the consonants at all times, in contrast with other Semitic languages which indicate vowels based on need or for introductory purposes. [[Maltese language|Maltese]] is the only Semitic language written in the [[Latin script]] and the only Semitic language to be an official language of the [[European Union]].

The Semitic languages are notable for their [[nonconcatenative morphology]]. That is, word [[Semitic root|roots]] are not themselves syllables or words, but instead are isolated sets of consonants (usually three, making a so-called ''[[Semitic root#Triconsonantal roots|triliteral root]]''). Words are composed from roots not so much by adding prefixes or suffixes, but rather by filling in the vowels between the root consonants, although prefixes and suffixes are often added as well. For example, in Arabic, the root meaning "write" has the form ''[[K-T-B|k-t-b]]''. From this root, words are formed by filling in the vowels and sometimes adding consonants, e.g. كِتاب '''''k'''i'''t'''ā'''b''''' "book", كُتُب '''''k'''u'''t'''u'''b''''' "books", كاتِب '''''k'''ā'''t'''i'''b''''' "writer", كُتّاب '''''k'''u'''tt'''ā'''b''''' "writers", كَتَب '''''k'''a'''t'''a'''b'''a'' "he wrote", يكتُب ''ya'''kt'''u'''b'''u'' "he writes", etc.

==Name and identification==
[[File:1538 comparison of Hebrew and Arabic, Guillaume Postel.png|thumb|1538 comparison of Hebrew and Arabic, by [[Guillaume Postel]]{{snd}} possibly the first such representation in Western European literature.]]
The similarity of the Hebrew, Arabic and Aramaic languages has been accepted by all scholars since medieval times. The languages were familiar to Western European scholars due to historical contact with neighbouring [[Near East]]ern countries and through [[Biblical studies]], and a comparative analysis of Hebrew, Arabic, and Aramaic was published in Latin in 1538 by [[Guillaume Postel]].{{sfn|Kuntz|1981|p=25}} Almost two centuries later, [[Hiob Ludolf]] described the similarities between these three languages and the [[Ethio-Semitic languages]].{{sfn|Ruhlen|1991|p=}}{{page needed|date=December 2021}} However, neither scholar named this grouping as "Semitic".{{sfn|Ruhlen|1991|p=}}{{page needed|date=December 2021}}

The term "Semitic" was created by members of the [[Göttingen school of history]], initially by [[August Ludwig von Schlözer]] (1781), to designate the languages closely related to Arabic, Aramaic, and Hebrew.<ref name="Vermeulen 2015 p. 252">{{cite book | last=Vermeulen | first=H.F. | title=Before Boas: The Genesis of Ethnography and Ethnology in the German Enlightenment | publisher=University of Nebraska Press | series=Critical Studies in the History of Anthropology Series | year=2015 | isbn=978-0-8032-7738-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B1nxCQAAQBAJ&pg=PT252 | access-date=2022-10-07 | quote=Schlözer 1781: p.161 "From the Mediterranean to the Euphrates, from Mesopotamia to Arabia ruled one language, as is well known. Thus Syrians, Babylonians, Hebrews, and Arabs were one people (ein Volk). Phoenicians (Hamites) also spoke this language, which I would like to call the Semitic (die Semitische). To the north and east of this Semitic language and national district (Semitische Sprach- und VölkerBezirke) begins a second one: With Moses and Leibniz I would like to call it the Japhetic." | archive-date=7 October 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221007163627/https://books.google.com/books?id=B1nxCQAAQBAJ&pg=PT252 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Kiraz|2001|p=25}}; {{harvnb|Baasten|2003|p=67}}</ref> The choice of name was derived from [[Shem]], one of the three sons of Noah in the genealogical accounts of the biblical [[Book of Genesis]],{{sfn|Kiraz|2001|p=25}} or more precisely from the [[Koine Greek]] rendering of the name, {{nowrap|Σήμ (Sēm)}}. [[Johann Gottfried Eichhorn]] is credited with popularising the term,{{sfn|Baasten|2003|p=68-69}}{{sfn|Kitto|1845|p=192}}{{sfn|Kiraz|2001|p=25}} particularly via a 1795 article "Semitische Sprachen" (''Semitic languages'') in which he justified the terminology against criticism that Hebrew and Canaanite were the same language despite Canaan being "[[Hamitic]]" in the [[Table of Nations]]:<ref>{{harvnb|Eichhorn|1794|pp=773–6}}; {{harvnb|Baasten|2003|p=69}}</ref>
{{blockquote|text=In the Mosaic [[Table of Nations]], those names which are listed as [[Semitic people|Semite]]s are purely names of tribes who speak the so-called Oriental languages and live in Southwest Asia. As far as we can trace the history of these very languages back in time, they have always been written with [[syllabograms]] or with [[alphabetic script]] (never with [[hieroglyphs]] or [[pictograms]]); and the legends about the invention of the syllabograms and alphabetic script go back to the Semites. In contrast, all so called [[Hamitic peoples]] originally used hieroglyphs, until they here and there, either through contact with the Semites, or through their settlement among them, became familiar with their syllabograms or alphabetic script, and partly adopted them. Viewed from this aspect too, with respect to the alphabet used, the name "Semitic languages" is completely appropriate.<ref>[[Johann Gottfried Eichhorn]], ''Semitische Sprachen''', 1795</ref>}}

Previously these languages had been commonly known as the "{{nowrap|[[Orient]]al languages}}" in European literature.<ref>{{harvnb|Kiraz|2001|p=25}}; {{harvnb|Kitto|1845|p=192}}</ref> In the 19th century, "Semitic" became the conventional name; however, an alternative name, "{{nowrap|Syro-Arabian languages}}", was later introduced by [[James Cowles Prichard]] and used by some writers.{{sfn|Kitto|1845|p=192}}

==History==
===Ancient Semitic-speaking peoples===
{{Main|Ancient Semitic-speaking peoples}}
[[File:Semitic languages - Chronology.png|thumb|Chronology mapping of Semitic languages]]
Semitic languages were spoken and written across much of the [[Middle East]] and [[Asia Minor]] during the [[Bronze Age]] and [[Iron Age]], the earliest attested being the [[East Semitic]] [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] of [[Mesopotamia]] ([[Akkad (region)|Akkad]], [[Assyria]], [[Isin]], [[Larsa]], and [[Babylonia]]) from the [[3rd millennium BC|third millennium BC]].<ref>[http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/3139/1/PAGE_31%2D71.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731204154/https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/3139/1/PAGE_31-71.pdf|date=2020-07-31}} Andrew George, "Babylonian and Assyrian: A History of Akkadian", In: Postgate, J. N., (ed.), ''Languages of Iraq, Ancient and Modern''. London: British School of Archaeology in Iraq, pp. 37.</ref>

The [[Proto-Semitic language#Linguistic homeland|origin of Semitic-speaking peoples]] is still under discussion. Several locations were proposed as possible sites of a prehistoric [[Proto-Semitic language|origin of Semitic-speaking peoples]]: [[Mesopotamia]], the [[Levant]], [[Ethiopia]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cJc3AAAAIAAJ&q=ethiopia |title=Early Semitic. A diachronical inquiry into the relationship of Ethiopic to the other so-called South-East Semitic languages |access-date=28 March 2023 |archive-date=13 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230513053900/https://books.google.com/books?id=cJc3AAAAIAAJ&q=ethiopia |url-status=live |last1=Murtonen |first1=A. |date=1967 }}</ref> the [[Eastern Mediterranean]] region, the [[Arabian Peninsula]], and [[North Africa]]. According to a 2009 study, the Semitic languages originated in the [[Levant]] {{circa|3750 BC}}, and were introduced to the [[Horn of Africa]] c. 800 BC from the southern Arabian Peninsula.{{sfn|Kitchen|Ehret|Assefa|2009|pp=2703–10}} Others assign the arrival of Semitic speakers in the [[Horn of Africa]] to a much earlier date.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Phillipson |first1=David |title=Foundations of an African Civilization, Aksum and the Northern Horn 1000 BC-AD 1300 |date=2012 |publisher=Boydell & Brewer |isbn=9781846158735 |page=11 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/foundations-of-an-african-civilisation/085D477B9A156FEE4C8D1A3128B9B52A |access-date=6 May 2021 |quote=The former belief that this arrival of South-Semitic-speakers took place in about the second quarter of the first millennium BC can no longer be accepted in view of linguistic indications that these languages were spoken in the northern Horn at a much earlier date. |archive-date=6 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506095009/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/foundations-of-an-african-civilisation/085D477B9A156FEE4C8D1A3128B9B52A |url-status=live }}</ref> According to another hypothesis, [[Proto-Semitic language|Semitic]] originated from an offshoot of a still earlier language in North Africa; [[desertification]] led to emigration in the fourth millennium BC to both what is now [[Ethiopia]] and northeast out of Africa into West Asia.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c3SYDwAAQBAJ |title=The Origin of the Jews: The Quest for Roots in a Rootless Age By Steven Weitzman page 69 |isbn=978-0-691-19165-2 |access-date=14 March 2023 |archive-date=16 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230716002838/https://books.google.com/books?id=c3SYDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live |last1=Weitzman |first1=Steven |date=2 April 2019 |publisher=Princeton University Press }}</ref>

The various extremely closely related and [[mutually intelligible]] [[Canaanite languages]], a branch of the [[Northwest Semitic languages]] included [[Edomite]], [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], [[Ammonite language|Ammonite]], [[Moabite language|Moabite]], [[Phoenician languages|Phoenician]] ([[Punic]]/[[Ancient Carthage|Carthaginian]]), [[Samaritan Hebrew language|Samaritan Hebrew]], and [[Ekron]]ite. They were spoken in what is today [[Israel]] and the [[Palestinian territories]], [[Syria]], [[Lebanon]], [[Jordan]], the northern [[Sinai Peninsula]], some northern and eastern parts of the [[Arabian Peninsula]], southwest fringes of [[Turkey]], and in the case of Phoenician, coastal regions of [[Tunisia]] ([[Carthage]]), [[Libya]], [[Algeria]], and parts of [[Morocco]], [[Spain]], and possibly in [[Malta]] and other Mediterranean islands. [[Ugaritic]], a [[Northwest Semitic]] language closely related to but distinct from the Canaanite group was spoken in the kingdom of [[Ugarit]] in north western Syria.{{Citation needed|date=October 2024}}

[[File:Tablet_XI_or_the_Flood_Tablet_of_the_Epic_of_Gilgamesh,_currently_housed_in_the_British_Museum_in_London.jpg|thumb|[[Epic of Gilgamesh]], an [[Epic poetry|epic poem]] from ancient [[Mesopotamia]], regarded as the earliest surviving notable literature, written in [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]].<ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://seer.ufu.br/index.php/artcultura/article/view/50156/26715 |title=A "Epopeia Gilgamesh" é uma epopeia? |journal=ArtCultura |volume=21 |number=38 |pages=9–24 |year=2019 |first=Jacyntho Lins |last= Brandão |doi=10.14393/artc-v21-n38-2019-50156 |s2cid=202426524 |language=pt-br |place=[[Uberlândia]] |doi-access=free}}</ref>{{rp|23}}]]

A hybrid [[Canaano-Akkadian language]] also emerged in Canaan (Israel and the Palestinian territories, Jordan, Lebanon) during the 14th century BC, incorporating elements of the Mesopotamian East Semitic Akkadian language of Assyria and Babylonia with the West Semitic Canaanite languages.{{sfn|Izre'el|1987c|p=4}}

[[Aramaic language|Aramaic]], a still living ancient [[Northwest Semitic]] language, first attested in the 12th century BC in the northern [[Levant]], gradually replaced the East Semitic and Canaanite languages across much of the Near East, particularly after being adopted as the [[lingua franca]] of the vast [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] (911–605 BC) by [[Tiglath-Pileser III]] during the 8th century BC, and being retained by the succeeding [[Neo-Babylonian Empire|Neo-Babylonian]] and [[Achaemenid Empire]]s.{{sfn|Waltke|O'Connor|1990|p=8}}

The ''Chaldean language'' (not to be confused with [[Aramaic]] or its [[Biblical Aramaic|Biblical variant]], sometimes referred to as ''Chaldean'') was a [[Northwest Semitic]] language, possibly closely related to Aramaic, but no examples of the language remain, as after settling in south eastern Mesopotamia from the Levant during the 9th century BC, the [[Chaldea]]ns appear to have rapidly adopted the Akkadian and Aramaic languages of the indigenous Mesopotamians.{{Citation needed|date=October 2024}}

[[Old South Arabian languages]] (classified as South Semitic and therefore distinct from the Central-Semitic Arabic) were spoken in the kingdoms of [[Dilmun]], [[Sheba]], [[Atlantis of the Sands|Ubar]], [[Socotra]], and [[Magan (civilization)|Magan]], which in modern terms encompassed part of the eastern coast of [[Saudi Arabia]], and [[Bahrain]], [[Qatar]], [[Oman]], and [[Yemen]].{{Citation needed|date=February 2019}} South Semitic languages are thought to have spread to the [[Horn of Africa]] circa 8th century BC where the [[Geʽez]] language emerged (though the direction of influence remains uncertain).{{Citation needed|date=October 2024}}

=== First century to twentieth century CE ===
[[File:Basmalah-1wm.svg|thumb|upright=0.9|Example of [[Arabic calligraphy]]]]
[[Syriac language|Classical Syriac]], a 200 CE<ref>"…Syriac, the Classical dialect of Aramaic first attested in Edessa, about 200 CE, but which spread through the Christian communities of Mesopotamia and the Levant in the following centuries.", Revival and Awakening
American Evangelical Missionaries in Iran and the Origins of Assyrian Nationalism, p.49</ref> [[Eastern Aramaic languages|Eastern Middle Aramaic]] dialect,{{sfn|Brock|1998|p=708}} used as a [[liturgical language]] in [[Mesopotamia]], the [[Levant]], and [[Kerala]], India,{{sfn|Harrak|1992|pp=209–14}} rose to importance as a literary language of early [[Christianity]] in the third to fifth centuries and continued into the early [[Islam]]ic era.

The [[Arabic]] language, although originating in the [[Arabian Peninsula]], first emerged in written form in the 1st to 4th centuries CE in the southern regions of The [[Levant]]. With the advent of the [[Early Muslim conquests|early Arab conquests]] of the seventh and eighth centuries, Classical Arabic eventually replaced many (but not all) of the indigenous Semitic languages and cultures of the [[Near East]]. Both the Near East and North Africa saw an influx of Muslim Arabs from the Arabian Peninsula, followed later by non-Semitic Muslim [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] and [[Turkic peoples]]. The previously dominant Aramaic dialects maintained by the Assyrians, Babylonians and Persians gradually began to be sidelined, however descendant dialects of [[Eastern Aramaic languages|Eastern Aramaic]] (including [[Suret language|Suret]] (Assyrian and Chaldean varieties), [[Turoyo language|Turoyo]], and [[Mandaic language|Mandaic]]) survive to this day among the [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]] and [[Mandaeans]] of northern and southern [[Iraq]], northwestern [[Iran]], northeastern [[Syria]] and southeastern [[Turkey]], with up to a million fluent speakers. Syriac is a recognized language in Iraq, furthermore, [[Mesopotamian Arabic]] is one of the most Syriac influenced dialects of Arabic, due to Syriac, the dialect of [[Edessa]] specifically, having originated in Mesopotamia.<ref>{{harvnb|Afsaruddin|Zahniser|1997|p=464}}; {{harvnb|Smart|2013|p=253}}; {{harvnb|Sánchez|2013|p=129}}</ref> Meanwhile [[Western Aramaic]] is now only spoken by a few thousand Christian and Muslim [[Terms for Syriac Christians#Aramean identity|Arameans (Syriacs)]] in western [[Syria]]. The Arabs spread their Central Semitic language to [[North Africa]] ([[Egypt]], [[Libya]], [[Tunisia]], [[Algeria]], [[Morocco]], and northern [[Sudan]] and [[Mauritania]]), where it gradually replaced Egyptian [[Coptic language|Coptic]] and many [[Berber languages]] (although Berber is still largely extant in many areas), and for a time to the [[Iberian Peninsula]] (modern [[Spain]], [[Portugal]], and [[Gibraltar]]) and [[Malta]].{{Citation needed|date=October 2024}}

[[File:AndalusQuran.JPG|thumb|right|upright=0.9|Page from a 12th-century [[Quran]] in [[Arabic]] ]]
With the patronage of the caliphs and the prestige of its [[sacred language|liturgical]] status, Arabic rapidly became one of the world's main literary languages. Its spread among the masses took much longer, however, as many (although not all) of the native populations outside the [[Arabian Peninsula]] only gradually abandoned their languages in favour of Arabic. As [[Bedouin]] tribes settled in conquered areas, it became the main language of not only central Arabia, but also Yemen,{{sfn|Nebes|2005|p=335}} the [[Fertile Crescent]], and [[Egypt]]. Most of the [[Maghreb]] followed, specifically in the wake of the [[Banu Hilal]]'s incursion in the 11th century, and Arabic became the native language of many inhabitants of [[al-Andalus]]. After the collapse of the [[Nubia]]n kingdom of [[Dongola]] in the 14th century, Arabic began to spread south of Egypt into modern [[Sudan]]; soon after, the [[Beni Ḥassān]] brought [[Arabization]] to [[Mauritania]]. A number of [[Modern South Arabian languages]] distinct from Arabic still survive, such as [[Soqotri language|Soqotri]], [[Mehri language|Mehri]] and [[Shehri language|Shehri]] which are mainly spoken in [[Socotra]], Yemen, and Oman.{{Citation needed|date=October 2024}}

Meanwhile, the Semitic languages that had arrived from southern Arabia in the 8th century BC were diversifying in [[Ethiopia]] and [[Eritrea]], where, under heavy [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] influence, they split into a number of languages, including [[Amharic]] and [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]]. With the expansion of Ethiopia under the [[Solomonic dynasty]], Amharic, previously a minor local language, spread throughout much of the country, replacing both Semitic (such as [[Gafat language|Gafat]]) and non-Semitic (such as [[Weyto language|Weyto]]) languages, and replacing Geʽez as the principal literary language (though Geʽez remains the liturgical language for [[Christians]] in the region); this spread continues to this day, with [[Qimant language|Qimant]] set to disappear in another generation.{{Citation needed|date=October 2024}}

==Present distribution ==
[[File:Semitic 1st AD.svg|thumb|Approximate distribution of the Semitic languages around the 1st century AD]]
[[Arabic]] is currently the native language of majorities from [[Mauritania]] to [[Oman]], and from [[Iraq]] to [[Sudan]]. [[Classical Arabic]] is the language of the [[Quran]]. It is also studied widely in the non-Arabic-speaking [[Muslim world]]. The [[Maltese language]] is a descendant of the extinct [[Siculo-Arabic]], a variety of [[Maghrebi Arabic]] formerly spoken in [[Sicily]]. The modern [[Maltese alphabet]] is based on the [[Latin script]] with the addition of some letters with [[diacritic]] marks and [[Digraph (orthography)|digraphs]]. [[Maltese language|Maltese]] is the only Semitic official language within the [[European Union]].

Successful as second languages far beyond their numbers of contemporary first-language speakers, a few Semitic languages today are the base of the sacred literature of some of the world's major religions, including Islam (Arabic), [[Judaism]] (Hebrew and Aramaic ([[Biblical Aramaic|Biblical]] and [[Jewish Babylonian Aramaic|Talmudic]])), churches of [[Syriac Christianity]] (Classical Syriac) and [[Christianity in Ethiopia|Ethiopian and Eritrean Orthodox Christianity]] (Geʽez). Millions learn these as a second language (or an archaic version of their modern tongues): many [[Muslim]]s learn to read and recite the [[Qur'an]] and [[Jews]] speak and study [[Biblical Hebrew]], the language of the [[Torah]], [[Midrash]], and other Jewish scriptures. The followers of the [[Assyrian Church of the East]], [[Chaldean Catholic Church]], [[Ancient Church of the East]], [[Assyrian Pentecostal Church]], [[Assyrian Evangelical Church]], and the [[Syriac Orthodox Church]] speak [[Eastern Aramaic languages]] and use [[Syriac language|Classical Syriac]] as their [[liturgical language]]. Classical Syriac is also used liturgically by the primarily Arabic-speaking followers of the [[Maronite Church]], [[Syriac Catholic Church]], and was originally the liturgical language of the [[Melkite|Melkites]] in [[Antioch]], and ancient [[Syria Prima|Syria]].<ref>{{cite book |title=CLASSICAL SYRIAC |publisher=Gorgias Handbooks |page=14 |language=English |quote=In contrast to "Nestorians" and "Jacobites", a small group of Syriacs accepted the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon. Non-Chalcedonian Syriacs called them "Melkites" (from Aramaic malka "king"), thereby connecting them to the Byzantine Emperor's denomination. Melkite Syriacs were mostly concentrated around Antioch and adjacent regions of northern Syria and used Syriac as their literary and liturgical language. The Melkite community also included the Aramaic-speaking Jewish converts to Christianity in Palestine and the Orthodox Christians of Transjordan. During the 5th-6th centuries, they were engaged in literary work (mainly translation) in Palestinian Christian Aramaic, a Western Aramaic dialect, using a script closely resembling the Estrangela cursive of Osrhoene.}}</ref><ref>"JACOB BARcLAY, Melkite Orthodox Syro-Byzantine Manuscripts in Syriac and Palestinian Aramaic" quote from the German book Internationale Zeitschriftenschau für Bibelwissenschaft und Grenzgebiete, p. 291</ref><ref>"However, in contrast to what went on in northern Syria and Mesopotamia, where Syriac competed well with Greek to remain a great cultural language, Syropalestinian was in a weak position with regard to Greek and, later, to Arabic." quote from the book The Fourth International Conference on the History of Bilād Al-Shām During the Umayyad Period: English section, p.31</ref><ref>"Some Chalcedonians of Palestine and the Transjordan chose to write in Christian Palestinian Aramaic (CPA) rather than Syriac." quote from the book A Companion to Byzantine Epistolography, p.68</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=Arman Akopian |title=Introduction to Aramean and Syriac Studies |date=11 December 2017 |publisher=Gorgias Press |isbn=9781463238933 |pages=573 |language=English |chapter=Other branches of Syriac Christianity: Melkites and Maronites |quote= The main center of Aramaic-speaking Melkites was Palestine. During the 5th-6th centuries, they were engaged in literary, mainly translation work in the local Western Aramaic dialect, known as "Palestinian Christian Aramaic", using a script closely resembling the cursive Estrangela of Osrhoene. Palestinian Melkites were mostly Jewish converts to Christianity, who had a long tradition of using Palestinian Aramaic dialects as literary languages. Closely associated with the Palestinian Melkites were the Melkites of Transjordan, who also used Palestinian Christian Aramaic. Another community of Aramaic-speaking Melkites existed in the vicinity of Antioch and parts of Syria. These Melkites used Classical Syriac as a written language, the common literary language of the overwhelming majority of Christian Arameans.}}</ref> [[Koine Greek]] and Classical Arabic are the main liturgical languages of [[Oriental Orthodox Churches|Oriental Orthodox Christians]] in the Middle East, who compose the patriarchates of [[Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch|Antioch]], [[Greek Orthodox Church of Jerusalem|Jerusalem]], and [[Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Alexandria]]. Mandaic is both spoken and used as a liturgical language by the [[Mandaeans]]. Although the majority of Neo-Aramaic dialects spoken today are descended from Eastern varieties, [[Western Neo-Aramaic]] is still spoken in two villages in Syria.

Despite the ascendancy of Arabic in the Middle East, other Semitic languages still exist. Biblical Hebrew, long extinct as a colloquial language and in use only in Jewish literary, intellectual, and liturgical activity, [[Revival of the Hebrew language|was revived in spoken form]] at the end of the 19th century. [[Modern Hebrew]] is the main language of [[Israel]], with Biblical Hebrew remaining as the [[Study of the Hebrew language|language of liturgy and religious scholarship]] of Jews worldwide.

In Arab-dominated [[Yemen]] and Oman, on the southern rim of the Arabian Peninsula, a few tribes continue to speak [[Modern South Arabian languages]] such as [[Mehri language|Mahri]] and [[Soqotri language|Soqotri]]. These languages differ greatly from both the surrounding Arabic dialects and from the languages of the [[Old South Arabian]] inscriptions.

Historically linked to the peninsular homeland of Old South Arabian, of which only one language, [[Razihi language|Razihi]], remains, Ethiopia and Eritrea contain a substantial number of Semitic languages; the most widely spoken are [[Amharic]] in Ethiopia, [[Tigre language|Tigre]] in [[Eritrea]], and [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] in both. Amharic is the official language of Ethiopia. Tigrinya is a working language in Eritrea. Tigre is spoken by over one million people in the northern and central Eritrean lowlands and parts of eastern Sudan. A number of [[Gurage languages]] are spoken by populations in the semi-mountainous region of central Ethiopia, while [[Harari language|Harari]] is restricted to the city of [[Harar]]. Geʽez remains the liturgical language for certain groups of [[Christianity in Ethiopia|Christians in Ethiopia]] and [[Christianity in Eritrea|in Eritrea]].

==Phonology==
The phonologies of the attested Semitic languages are presented here from a [[comparative method|comparative]] point of view (see [[Proto-Semitic language#Phonology]] for details on the phonological reconstruction of Proto-Semitic used in this article). The reconstruction of Proto-Semitic (PS) was originally based primarily on [[Arabic]], whose phonology and morphology (particularly in [[Classical Arabic]]) is very conservative, and which preserves as contrastive 28 out of the evident 29 consonantal phonemes.{{sfn|Versteegh|1997|p=13}} with {{nounderlines|[[Samekh|*s]]}} {{IPAblink|s}} and {{nounderlines|[[Shin (letter)|*š]]}} {{IPAblink|ʃ}} merging into Arabic {{IPAslink|s}} {{nounderlines|{{angbr|[[Sīn|س]]}}}} and {{nounderlines|[[Shin (letter)|*ś]]}} {{IPAblink|ɬ}} becoming Arabic {{IPAslink|ʃ}} {{nounderlines|{{angbr|[[šīn|ش]]}}}}.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ '''Proto-Semitic consonant phonemes'''{{sfnp|Kogan|2011|p=54}}

|-
! Type
! [[Manner of articulation|Manner]]
! [[Voice (phonetics)|Voicing]]
! [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! [[Interdental consonant|Interdental]]
! [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! [[Lateral consonant|Lateral]]
! [[Velar consonant|Velar]]/[[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]
! [[Pharyngeal consonant|Pharyngeal]]
! [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! rowspan="6" | [[Obstruent]]
! rowspan="3" | [[Stop consonant|Stop]]
! style="font-size: 80%;" | [[Voiceless consonant|voiceless]]
| {{nounderlines|[[Pe (Semitic letter)|*p]]}} {{IPAblink|p}} || || {{nounderlines|[[Taw|*t]]}} {{IPAblink|t}} || || || {{nounderlines|[[Kaph|*k]]}} {{IPAblink|k}} || ||
|-
! style="font-size: 80%;" | [[Emphatic consonant|emphatic]]
| ({{IPAlink|pʼ}}){{efn|Woodard (2008, p. 219) suggests the presence of an emphatic p in some disparate Semitic languages may indicate that such an emphatic was present in Proto-Semitic.}}|| || {{nounderlines|[[Teth|*ṭ]]}} {{IPAblink|tʼ}} || || || {{nounderlines|[[Qoph|*q]]}}/{{nounderlines|[[Qoph|ḳ]]}} {{IPAblink|kʼ}} || || {{nounderlines|[[Aleph|*ʼ]]}},{{nounderlines|[[Aleph|ˀ]]}} {{IPAblink|ʔ}}
|-
! style="font-size: 80%;" | [[Voiced consonant|voiced]]
| {{nounderlines|[[Bet (letter)|*b]]}} {{IPAblink|b}} || || {{nounderlines|[[Dalet|*d]]}} {{IPAblink|d}} || || || {{nounderlines|[[Gimel|*g]]}} {{IPAblink|ɡ}}|| ||
|-
! rowspan="3" | [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
! style="font-size: 80%;" |[[Voiceless consonant|voiceless]]
| || {{nounderlines|[[Ṯāʾ|*ṯ]]}} {{IPAblink|θ}} || {{nounderlines|[[Samekh|*s]]}} {{IPAblink|s}} || {{nounderlines|[[Shin (letter)|*š]]}} {{IPAblink|ʃ}} || {{nounderlines|[[Shin (letter)|*ś]]}} {{IPAblink|ɬ}} || {{nounderlines|[[Ḫāʾ|*ḫ]]}} [{{IPAlink|x}}~{{IPAlink|χ}}] || {{nounderlines|[[Heth|*ḥ]]}} {{IPAblink|ħ}} || {{nounderlines|[[He (letter)|*h]]}} {{IPAblink|h}}
|-
! style="font-size: 80%;" |[[Emphatic consonant|emphatic]]
| || [[Ẓāʾ|*ṱ]]{{efn|The emphatic interdental fricative is usually spelled *ṯ̣ but is replaced here by *ṱ for better readability.}}/{{nounderlines|[[Ẓāʾ|θ̣]]}}/{{nounderlines|[[Ẓāʾ|ẓ]]}} {{IPAblink|θʼ}} || {{nounderlines|[[Tsade|*ṣ]]}} {{IPAblink|sʼ}} || || {{nounderlines|[[Ḍād|*ṣ́]]}}/{{nounderlines|[[Ḍād|ḏ̣]]}} {{IPAblink|ɬʼ}} || ({{IPAlink|xʼ}}~{{IPAlink|χʼ}}){{efn|Huehnergard (2003, p.49) presents a minority opinion that an ejective velar fricative existed in Proto-Semitic.}} || ||
|-
! style="font-size: 80%;" | [[Voiced consonant|voiced]]
| || {{nounderlines|[[Ḏāl|*ḏ]]}} {{IPAblink|ð}} || {{nounderlines|[[Zayin|*z]]}} {{IPAblink|z}}|| || || {{nounderlines|[[Ghayn|*ġ]]}}/{{nounderlines|[[Ghayn|ǵ]]}} [{{IPAlink|ɣ}}~{{IPAlink|ʁ}}] || {{nounderlines|[[Ayin|*ʻ]]}},{{nounderlines|[[Ayin|ˤ]]}} {{IPAblink|ʕ}} ||
|-
! rowspan="3" | [[Sonorant|Resonant]]
! colspan="2" style="font-size: 80%;" | [[Trill consonant|Trill]]
| || || {{nounderlines|[[Resh|*r]]}} {{IPAblink|r}} || || || || ||
|-
! colspan="2" style="font-size: 80%;" | [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
| {{nounderlines|[[Waw (letter)|*w]]}} {{IPAblink|w}} || || || {{nounderlines|[[Yodh|*y]]}} {{IPAblink|j}} || {{nounderlines|[[Lamedh|*l]]}} {{IPAblink|l}} || || ||
|-
! colspan="2" style="font-size: 80%;" | [[Nasal stop|Nasal]]
| {{nounderlines|[[Mem|*m]]}} {{IPAblink|m}} || || {{nounderlines|[[Nun (letter)|*n]]}} {{IPAblink|n}} || || || || ||
|-
| colspan="11" | {{notelist}}
|}
Note: the fricatives *s, *z, *ṣ, *ś, *ṣ́, and *ṱ may also be interpreted as affricates (/t͡s/, /d͡z/, /t͡sʼ/, /t͡ɬ/, /t͡ɬʼ/, and /t͡θʼ/), as discussed in {{slink|Proto-Semitic language|Fricatives}}.

This comparative approach is natural for the [[consonant]]s, as sound correspondences among the consonants of the Semitic languages are very straightforward for a family of its time depth. Sound shifts affecting the vowels are more numerous and, at times, less regular.

===Consonants===
Each Proto-Semitic phoneme was reconstructed to explain a certain regular sound correspondence between various Semitic languages. Note that Latin letter values (''italicized'') for extinct languages are a question of transcription; the exact pronunciation is not recorded.

Most of the attested languages have merged a number of the reconstructed original fricatives, though South Arabian retains all fourteen (and has added a fifteenth from *p > f).

In Aramaic and Hebrew, all non-emphatic stops occurring singly after a vowel were softened to fricatives, leading to an alternation that was often later phonemicized as a result of the loss of gemination.

In languages exhibiting pharyngealization of emphatics, the original velar emphatic has rather developed to a [[Uvular consonant|uvular]] stop {{IPA|[q]}}.
<div style="max-width:100%; overflow:auto;">
{| class="wikitable" style="vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;"
|+ Regular correspondences of the Proto-Semitic consonants{{sfn|Kogan|2012|pp=54–151}}
! rowspan="3" | Proto<br/>Semitic
! rowspan="3" | IPA
![[Ancient South Arabian]]
![[Ancient North Arabian]]
! rowspan="3" |
![[Modern South Arabian languages|Modern South Arabian]]<sup>15</sup>
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" | [[Arabic]]
! rowspan="3"|
! colspan="2" |[[Maltese language|Maltese]]
! rowspan="3" |
! [[Akkadian language|Akka&shy;dian]]
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="2" | [[Ugaritic]]
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]]
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="7" |[[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | [[Aramaic]]
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | [[Geʽez]]
|-
! rowspan="2" |<small>[[Ancient South Arabian script|Written]]</small>
! rowspan="2" |<small>Written</small>
! rowspan="2" |<small>[[Modern_South_Arabian_languages#Phonology|{{Abbr|Pronun.|Pronunciation}}]]</small>
! rowspan="2" |<small>[[Arabic script|Written]]</small>
! rowspan="2" |<small>[[Romanization of Arabic|{{Abbr|Translit.|Transliteration}}]]</small>
! colspan="2" |<small>{{Abbr|Pronun.|Pronunciation}}</small>
! rowspan="2" |<small>[[Maltese alphabet|Written]]</small>
! rowspan="2" |<small>[[Maltese language#Phonology|{{Abbr|Pronun.|Pronunciation}}]]</small>
! rowspan="2" |<small>{{Abbr|Translit.|Transliteration}}</small>
! rowspan="2" |<small>Written</small>
! rowspan="2" |<small>{{Abbr|Pronun.|Pronunciation}}</small>
! rowspan="2" |<small>Written</small>
! rowspan="2" |<small>[[Phoenician language#Phonology|{{Abbr|Pronun.|Pronunciation}}]]</small>
! rowspan="2" |<small>{{Abbr|Translit.|Transliteration}}</small>
! rowspan="2" |<small>[[Hebrew alphabet|Written]]</small>
! rowspan="2" |<small>[[Romanization of Hebrew|{{Abbr|Translit.|Transliteration}}]]</small>
! colspan="2" |<small>{{Abbr|Pronun.|Pronunciation}}</small>
! colspan="3" |[[Samaritan Hebrew]]
! rowspan="2" |<small>[[Aramaic alphabet|Imperial]]</small>
! rowspan="2" |<small>[[Syriac alphabet|Syriac]]</small>
! rowspan="2" |<small>{{Abbr|Translit.|Transliteration}}</small>
! rowspan="2" |<small>[[Geʽez script|Written]]</small>
! rowspan="2" |<small>[[Geʽez#Phonology|Pronounced]]</small>
! rowspan="2" |<small>{{Abbr|Translit.|Transliteration}}</small>
|-
! style="font-size:85%" | [[Classical Arabic|Classical]]{{sfn|Watson|2002|p=13}}
! style="font-size:85%" | [[Modern Standard Arabic|Modern Standard]]
![[Biblical Hebrew|<small>Classical</small>]]
![[Modern Hebrew|<small>Modern</small>]]
! style="font-size:85%" | [[Samaritan script|Written]]
!<small>{{Abbr|Translit.|Transliteration}}</small>
!<small>[[Samaritan Hebrew#Phonology|{{Abbr|Pronun.|Pronunciation}}]]</small>
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Bet (letter)|*b]]}}
! {{IPAblink|b}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩨}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪈}}}}
| rowspan="29"|
|{{IPA|/b/}}
| rowspan="29" |
| <big>ب</big>
| ''{{transliteration|sem|b}}''
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/b/}}
| rowspan="29"|
| b
|{{IPA|/b/}}
| rowspan="29"|
| ''{{transliteration|sem|b}}''
| rowspan="29"|
| 𐎁 || ''{{transliteration|sem|b}}''
| rowspan="29"|
| 𐤁 
|{{IPA|/b/}}|| ''{{transliteration|sem|b}}''
| rowspan="29"|
| <big>ב</big>
| {{transliteration|sem|b}}, {{transliteration|sem|ḇ}}<sup>5</sup>
|{{IPA|/b/, /β/}}<sup>5</sup>
|{{IPA|/b/, /v/}}
| ࠁ
|{{transliteration|sem|b}}
|{{IPA|/b/}}
| rowspan="29"|
| 𐡁 
| ܒ || {{transliteration|sem|ḇ}}, {{transliteration|sem|b}}<sup>5</sup>
| rowspan="29"|
| በ || {{IPA|/b/}}
|{{transliteration|sem|b}}
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Gimel|*g]]}}
! {{IPAblink|ɡ}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩴}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪔}}}}
|{{IPA|/g ~ d͡ʒ/}}
| <big>ج</big>
| ''{{transliteration|sem|ǧ}}''
| {{IPA|/ɟ ~ d͡ʒ/}}<sup>9</sup>
| {{IPA|/d͡ʒ/}}<sup>11</sup>
|ġ
|{{IPA|/d͡ʒ/}}
| ''{{transliteration|sem|g}}''
| 𐎂 || ''{{transliteration|sem|g}}''
| 𐤂 
|{{IPA|/ɡ/}}|| ''{{transliteration|sem|g}}''|| <big>ג</big>
| {{transliteration|sem|g}}, {{transliteration|sem|ḡ}}<sup>5</sup>
|{{IPA|/ɡ/, /ɣ/}}<sup>5</sup>
|{{IPA|/ɡ/}}
| ࠂ
|{{transliteration|sem|g}}
| {{IPA|/ɡ/}}
| 𐡂 
| ܓ || {{transliteration|sem|ḡ}}, {{transliteration|sem|g}}<sup>5</sup>
| ገ || {{IPA|/ɡ/}}
|{{transliteration|sem|g}}
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Pe (Semitic letter)|*p]]}}
! {{IPAblink|p}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩰}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪐}}}}
|{{IPA|/f/}}
| <big>ف</big>
| ''{{transliteration|sem|f}}''
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/f/}}
|f
|{{IPA|/f/}}
| ''{{transliteration|sem|p}}''
| 𐎔 || ''{{transliteration|sem|p}}''
| 𐤐 
|{{IPA|/p/}}|| ''{{transliteration|sem|p}}''|| <big>פ</big>
| {{transliteration|sem|p}}, {{transliteration|sem|p̄}}<sup>5</sup>
|{{IPA|/pʰ/, /ɸ/}}<sup>5</sup>
|{{IPA|/p/, /f/}}
| ࠐ
|{{transliteration|sem|f}}
|{{IPA|/f/}}
| 𐡐 
| ܦ || {{transliteration|sem|p̄}}, {{transliteration|sem|p}}<sup>5</sup>
| ፈ || {{IPA|/f/}}
|{{transliteration|sem|f}}
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Kaph|*k]]}}
! {{IPAblink|k}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩫}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪋}}}}
|{{IPA|/k/}}
| <big>ك</big>
| ''{{transliteration|sem|k}}''
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/k/}}
|k
|{{IPA|/k/}}
| ''{{transliteration|sem|k}}''
| 𐎋 || ''{{transliteration|sem|k}}''
| 𐤊 
|{{IPA|/k/}}|| ''{{transliteration|sem|k}}''|| <big>כ</big>
| {{transliteration|sem|k}}, {{transliteration|sem|ḵ}}<sup>5</sup>
|{{IPA|/kʰ/, /x/}}<sup>5</sup>
|{{IPA|/k/, /x/}}
| ࠊ
|{{transliteration|sem|k}}
| {{IPA|/k/}}
| 𐡊 
| ܟ || {{transliteration|sem|ḵ}}, {{transliteration|sem|k}}<sup>5</sup>
| ከ || {{IPA|/k/}}
|{{transliteration|sem|k}}
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Qoph|*ḳ]]}}
! {{IPAblink|kʼ}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩤}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪄}}}}
|{{IPA|/kʼ/}}
| <big>ق</big>
| ''{{transliteration|sem|q}}''
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/q/}}
|q
|{{IPA|/ʔ ~ q/}}
| ''{{transliteration|sem|q}}''
| 𐎖 || ''{{transliteration|sem|ḳ}}''
| 𐤒 
|{{IPA|/q/}}||''{{transliteration|sem|q}}''|| <big>ק</big>
| {{transliteration|sem|ḳ}}
|{{IPA|/kˤ/ ~ /q/}}
|{{IPA|/k/}}
|ࠒ
|{{transliteration|sem|q}}
| {{IPA|/q/}}
| 𐡒 
| ܩ || {{transliteration|sem|q}}
| ቀ || {{IPA|/kʼ/}}
|{{transliteration|sem|ḳ}}
|-
!{{transliteration|sem|[[Dalet|*d]]}}
!{{IPAblink|d}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩵}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪕}}}}
|{{IPA|/d/}}
|<big>د</big>
|''{{transliteration|sem|d}}''
| colspan="2" |{{IPA|/d/}}
| rowspan="2" |d
| rowspan="2" |{{IPA|/d/}}
|''{{transliteration|sem|d}}''
|𐎄
|''{{transliteration|sem|d}}''
|𐤃
|{{IPA|/d/}}
|''{{transliteration|sem|d}}''
|<big>ד</big>
|{{transliteration|sem|d}}, {{transliteration|sem|ḏ}}<sup>5</sup>
|{{IPA|/d/, /ð/}}<sup>5</sup>
|{{IPA|/d/}}
|ࠃ
|{{transliteration|sem|d}}
|{{IPA|/d/}}
|𐡃
|ܕ
|{{transliteration|sem|ḏ}}, {{transliteration|sem|d}}<sup>5</sup>
|ደ
|{{IPA|/d/}}
|{{transliteration|sem|d}}
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Ḏāl|*ḏ]]}}
! {{IPAblink|ð}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩹}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪙}}}}
|{{IPA|/ð/}}
| <big>ذ</big>
| ''{{transliteration|sem|ḏ}}''
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/ð/}}
| rowspan="2" | ''{{transliteration|sem|z}}''
| 𐎏 || ''{{transliteration|sem|ḏ}}'' > ''{{transliteration|sem|d}}''
| rowspan="2" | 𐤆 
| rowspan="2" |{{IPA|/z/}}|| rowspan="2" | ''{{transliteration|sem|z}}''|| rowspan="2" | <big>ז</big>
| rowspan="2" | {{transliteration|sem|z}}
| rowspan="2" |{{IPA|/z/}}
| rowspan="2" |{{IPA|/z/}}
| rowspan="2" |ࠆ
| rowspan="2" |{{transliteration|sem|z}}
| rowspan="2" |{{IPA|/z/}}
| {{bdo|ltr|𐡆<sup>3</sup>, 𐡃}}
| {{bdo|ltr|ܙ<sup>3</sup>, ܕ}}|| ''{{transliteration|sem|ḏ}}''<sup>3</sup>, {{transliteration|sem|d}}
| rowspan="2" | ዘ || rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/z/}}
| rowspan="2" |{{transliteration|sem|z}}
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Zayin|*z]]}}
! {{IPAblink|z}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩸}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪘}}}}
|{{IPA|/z/}}
| <big>ز</big>
| ''{{transliteration|sem|z}}''
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/z/}}
|ż
|{{IPA|/z/}}
| 𐎇 || ''{{transliteration|sem|z}}''
| 𐡆 
| ܙ || {{transliteration|sem|z}}
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Samekh|*s]]}} (s<sub>3</sub>)
! {{IPAblink|s}} / {{IPAblink|ts}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩯}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪏}}}}
|{{IPA|/s/}}
| rowspan="2" | <big>س</big>
| rowspan="2" | ''{{transliteration|sem|s}}''
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/s/}}
| rowspan="2" |s
| rowspan="2" |{{IPA|/s/}}
| ''{{transliteration|sem|s}}''
| 𐎒 || ''{{transliteration|sem|s}}''
| 𐤎 
|{{IPA|/s/}}|| ''{{transliteration|sem|s}}''|| <big>ס</big>
| ''{{transliteration|sem|s}}''
|{{IPA|/s/}}
|{{IPA|/s/}}
|ࠎ
|{{transliteration|sem|s}}
|{{IPA|/s/}}
| 𐡎 
| ܣ || {{transliteration|sem|s}}
| rowspan="2" | ሰ || rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/s/}}
| rowspan="2" |{{transliteration|sem|s}}
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Shin (letter)|*š]]}} (s<sub>1</sub>)
! {{IPAblink|ʃ}} / {{IPAblink|s}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩪}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪊}}}}
|{{IPA|/ʃ/}}, {{IPA|/h/}}
| rowspan="3" | ''{{transliteration|sem|š}}''
| rowspan="2" | 𐎌 || rowspan="2" | ''{{transliteration|sem|š}}''
| rowspan="3" | 𐤔 
| rowspan="3" |{{IPA|/ʃ/}}|| rowspan="3" | ''{{transliteration|sem|š}}''|| <big>שׁ</big>
| {{transliteration|sem|š}}
|{{IPA|/ʃ/}}
|{{IPA|/ʃ/}}
| rowspan="3" |ࠔ
| rowspan="3" |{{transliteration|sem|š}}
| rowspan="3" |{{IPA|/ʃ/}}
| 𐡔 
| ܫ || {{transliteration|sem|š}}
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Shin (letter)|*ś]]}} (s<sub>2</sub>)
! {{IPAblink|ɬ}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩦}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪆}}}}
|{{IPA|/ɬ/}}
| <big>ش</big>
| ''{{transliteration|sem|š}}''
| colspan="2" |{{IPA|/ʃ/}}
|x
|{{IPA|/ʃ/}}|| {{bdo|ltr|<big>שׂ</big><sup>1</sup>}}
| {{transliteration|sem|ś}}<sup>1</sup>
|{{IPA|/ɬ/}}
|{{IPA|/s/}}
| {{bdo|ltr|𐡔<sup>3</sup>, 𐡎}} 
| {{bdo|ltr|ܫ<sup>3</sup>, ܣ}}|| ''{{transliteration|sem|ś}}''<sup>3</sup>, {{transliteration|sem|s}}
| ሠ || {{IPA|/ɬ/}}
|{{transliteration|sem|ś}}
|-
!{{transliteration|sem|[[Ṯāʾ|*ṯ]]}}
!{{IPAblink|θ}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩻}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪛}}}}
|{{IPA|/θ/}}
|<big>ث</big>
|''{{transliteration|sem|ṯ}}''
| colspan="2" |{{IPA|/θ/}}
| rowspan="3" |t
| rowspan="3" |{{IPA|/t/}}
|𐎘
|''{{transliteration|sem|ṯ}}''
|<big>שׁ</big>
|{{transliteration|sem|š}}
|{{IPA|/ʃ/}}
|{{IPA|/ʃ/}}
|{{bdo|ltr|𐡔<sup>3</sup>, 𐡕}}
|{{bdo|ltr|ܫ<sup>3</sup>, ܬ}}
|''{{transliteration|sem|ṯ}}''<sup>3</sup>, {{transliteration|sem|t}}
|ሰ
|{{IPA|/s/}}
|{{transliteration|sem|s}}
|-
!{{transliteration|sem|[[Taw|*t]]}}
!{{IPAblink|t}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩩}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪉}}}}
|{{IPA|/t/}}
|<big>ت</big>
|''{{transliteration|sem|t}}''
| colspan="2" |{{IPA|/t/}}
|''{{transliteration|sem|t}}''
|𐎚
|''{{transliteration|sem|t}}''
|𐤕
|{{transliteration|sem|t}}
|''{{transliteration|sem|t}}''
|<big>ת</big>
|{{transliteration|sem|t}}, {{transliteration|sem|ṯ}}<sup>5</sup>
|{{IPA|/tʰ/, /θ/}}<sup>5</sup>
|{{IPA|/t/}}
|ࠕ
|{{transliteration|sem|t}}
|{{IPA|/t/}}
|𐡕
|ܬ
|{{transliteration|sem|ṯ}}, {{transliteration|sem|t}}<sup>5</sup>
|ተ
|{{IPA|/t/}}
|{{transliteration|sem|t}}
|-
!{{transliteration|sem|[[Teth|*ṭ]]}}
!{{IPAblink|tʼ}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩷}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪗}}}}
|{{IPA|/tʼ/}}
|<big>ط</big>
|''{{transliteration|sem|ṭ}}''
| colspan="2" |{{IPA|/tˤ/}}
|''{{transliteration|sem|ṭ}}''
|𐎉
|''{{transliteration|sem|ṭ}}''
|𐤈
|{{IPA|/tˤ/}}
|''{{transliteration|sem|ṭ}}''
|<big>ט</big>
|{{transliteration|sem|ṭ}}
|{{IPA|/tˤ/}}
|{{IPA|/t/}}
|ࠈ
|{{transliteration|sem|ṭ}}
|{{IPA|/tˤ/}}
|𐡈
|ܛ
|{{transliteration|sem|ṭ}}
|ጠ
|{{IPA|/tʼ/}}
|{{transliteration|sem|ṭ}}
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Ẓāʾ|*ṱ]]}}
! {{IPAblink|θʼ}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩼}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪜}}}}
|{{IPA|/θʼ ~ ðʼ/}}
| <big>ظ</big>
| ''{{transliteration|sem|ẓ}}''
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/ðˤ/}}
|d
|{{IPA|/d/}}
| rowspan="3" |''{{transliteration|sem|ṣ}}''
| 𐎑 ||''{{transliteration|sem|ẓ}}''<sup>12</sup> > ''{{transliteration|sem|ġ}}''
| rowspan="3" |𐤑
| rowspan="3" |{{IPA|/sˤ/}}
| rowspan="3" |''{{transliteration|sem|ṣ}}''
| rowspan="3" |<big>צ</big>
| rowspan="3" |''{{transliteration|sem|ṣ}}''
| rowspan="3" |{{IPA|/sˤ/}}
| rowspan="3" |{{IPA|/t͡s/}}
| rowspan="3" |ࠑ
| rowspan="3" |{{transliteration|sem|ṣ}}
| rowspan="3" |{{IPA|/sˤ/}}
| {{bdo|ltr|𐡑<sup>3</sup>, 𐡈}}
| {{bdo|ltr|ܨ<sup>3</sup>, ܛ}}|| ''{{transliteration|sem|ṯʼ }}''<sup>3</sup>, {{transliteration|sem|ṭ}}
| rowspan="2" | ጸ || rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/t͡sʼ/}}
| rowspan="2" |''{{transliteration|sem|ṣ}}''
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Tsade|*ṣ]]}}
! {{IPAblink|sʼ}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩮}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪎}}}}
|{{IPA|/sʼ/}}, {{IPA|/ʃʼ/}}<sup>15</sup>
| <big>ص</big>
| ''{{transliteration|sem|ṣ}}''
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/sˤ/}}
|s
|{{IPA|/s/}}
| rowspan="2" | 𐎕 || rowspan="2" | ''{{transliteration|sem|ṣ}}''
| 𐡑 
| ܨ || {{transliteration|sem|ṣ}}
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Ḍād|*ṣ́]]}}
! {{IPAblink|ɬʼ}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩳}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪓}}}}
|{{IPA|/ɬʼ/}}
| <big>ض</big>
| ''{{transliteration|sem|ḍ}}''
| {{IPA|/ɮˤ ~ dˤ/}}
| {{IPA|/dˤ/}}
|d
|{{IPA|/d/}}
| {{bdo|ltr|𐡒<sup>3</sup>, 𐡏}}
| {{bdo|ltr|ܩ<sup>3</sup>, ܥ}}|| ''{{transliteration|sem|*ġʼ }}''<sup>3</sup>, {{transliteration|sem|ʻ}}
| ፀ || {{IPA|/t͡ɬʼ/}}
|''{{transliteration|sem|ḍ}}''
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Ghayn|*ġ]]}}
! {{IPAblink|ɣ}}~{{IPAblink|ʁ}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩶}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪖}}}}
|{{IPA|/ʁ/}}
| <big>غ</big>
| ''{{transliteration|sem|ḡ}}''
| colspan="2" |{{IPA|/ɣ ~ ʁ/}}
| rowspan="2" |għ
| rowspan="2" |/[[Pharyngealization|ˤ]][[Length (phonetics)|ː]]/
| ''{{transliteration|sem|ḫ}}''
| 𐎙 || ''{{transliteration|sem|ġ}}'',''{{transliteration|sem|ʻ}}''
| rowspan="2" | 𐤏 
| rowspan="2" |{{IPA|/ʕ/}}|| rowspan="2" | ''{{transliteration|sem|ʻ}}''|| rowspan="2" | {{bdo|ltr|<big>ע</big><sup>2</sup>}}
| rowspan="2" | ''{{transliteration|sem|ʻ}}''<sup>2</sup>
|{{IPA|/ʁ/}}
| rowspan="2" |{{IPA|/ʕ/ ~ /ʔ/ ~ ∅}}<sup>14</sup>
| rowspan="2" | ࠏ
| rowspan="2" |{{transliteration|sem|ʻ}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/ʕ/, /ʔ/ ~ ∅}}
| {{bdo|ltr|𐡏<sup>3</sup>}} 
| {{bdo|ltr|ܥ<sup>3</sup>}} || ''{{transliteration|sem|ġ}}''<sup>3</sup>, {{transliteration|sem|ʻ}}
| rowspan="2" | ዐ || rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/ʕ/}}
| rowspan="2" |''{{transliteration|sem|ʻ}}''
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Ayin|*ʻ]]}}
! {{IPAblink|ʕ}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩲}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪒}}}}
|{{IPA|/ʕ/}}
| <big>ع</big>
| ''{{transliteration|sem|ʻ}}''
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/ʕ/}}
| –<sup>4</sup>
| 𐎓 || ''{{transliteration|sem|ʻ}}''
|{{IPA|/ʕ/}}
| 𐡏 
| ܥ || {{transliteration|sem|ʻ}}
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Aleph|*ʼ]]}}
! {{IPAblink|ʔ}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩱}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪑}}}}
|{{IPA|/ʔ/}}
| <big>ء</big>
| ''{{transliteration|sem|ʼ}}''
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/ʔ/}}
| –
| –
| –, ''ʾ''
| 𐎀, 𐎛, 𐎜 || ''{{transliteration|sem|ʼa}}'', ''{{transliteration|sem|ʼi}}'', ''{{transliteration|sem|ʼu}}''<sup>10</sup>
| 𐤀 
|{{IPA|/ʔ/}}|| ''{{transliteration|sem|ʼ}}''|| <big>א</big>
| ''{{transliteration|sem|ʼ}}''
|{{IPA|/ʔ/}}
|{{IPA|/ʔ/ ~ ∅}}
|ࠀ
|{{transliteration|sem|ʼ}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ/ ~ ∅}}
| 𐡀 
| ܐ|| {{transliteration|sem|ʼ}}
| አ || {{IPA|/ʔ/}}
|''{{transliteration|sem|ʼ}}''
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Ḫāʾ|*ḫ]]}}
! {{IPAblink|x}}~{{IPAblink|χ}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩭}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪍}}}}
|{{IPA|/χ/}}
| <big>خ</big>
| ''{{transliteration|sem|ẖ}}''
| colspan="2" |{{IPA|/x ~ χ/}}
| rowspan="2" |ħ
| rowspan="2" |{{IPA|/ħ/}}
| ''{{transliteration|sem|ḫ}}''
| 𐎃 || ''{{transliteration|sem|ḫ}}''
| rowspan="2" | 𐤇 
| rowspan="2" |{{IPA|/ħ/}}|| rowspan="2" | ''{{transliteration|sem|ḥ}}''|| rowspan="2" | {{bdo|ltr|<big>ח</big><sup>2</sup>}}
| rowspan="2" | {{transliteration|sem|ḥ}}<sup>2</sup>
|{{IPA|/χ/}}
| rowspan="2" |{{IPA|/χ/ ~ /ħ/}}<sup>14</sup>
| rowspan="2" | ࠇ
| rowspan="2" |{{transliteration|sem|ḥ}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/ʕ/, /ʔ/ ~ ∅}}
| {{bdo|ltr|𐡇<sup>3</sup>}} 
| {{bdo|ltr|ܚ<sup>3</sup>}} || ''{{transliteration|ar|DIN|ḫ}}''<sup>3</sup>, {{transliteration|sem|ḥ}}
| ኀ || {{IPA|/χ/}}
|''{{transliteration|sem|ḫ}}''
|-
!{{transliteration|sem|[[Heth|*ḥ]]}}
! {{IPAblink|ħ}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩢}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪂}}}}
|{{IPA|/ħ/}}
|<big>ح</big>
|''{{transliteration|sem|ḥ}}''
| colspan="2" |{{IPA|/ħ/}}
|  –<sup>4</sup>
| 𐎈 || ''{{transliteration|sem|ḥ}}''
|{{IPA|/ħ/}}
| 𐡇 
| ܚ 
|{{transliteration|sem|ḥ}}
|ሐ
|{{IPA|/ħ/}}
|''{{transliteration|sem|ḥ}}''
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[He (letter)|*h]]}}
! {{IPAblink|h}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩠}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪀}}}}
|{{IPA|/h/}}
| <big>ه</big>
| ''{{transliteration|sem|h}}''
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/h/}}
| h
| /[[Length (phonetics)|ː]]/
| –
| 𐎅 || ''{{transliteration|sem|h}}''
| 𐤄 
|{{IPA|/h/}}|| ''{{transliteration|sem|h}}''|| <big>ה</big>
| {{transliteration|sem|h}}
|{{IPA|/h/}}
|{{IPA|/h/ ~ ∅}}
|ࠄ
|{{transliteration|sem|h}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ/ ~ ∅}}
| 𐡄 
| ܗ|| {{transliteration|sem|h}}
| ሀ || {{IPA|/h/}}
|''{{transliteration|sem|h}}''
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Mem|*m]]}}
! {{IPAblink|m}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩣}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪃}}}}
|{{IPA|/m/}}
| <big>م</big>
| ''m''
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/m/}}
|m
|{{IPA|/m/}}
| ''m''
| 𐎎 || ''m''
| 𐤌 
|{{IPA|/m/}}|| ''m''|| <big>מ</big>
| {{transliteration|sem|m}}
|/m/
|/m/
|ࠌ
|{{transliteration|sem|m}}
|/m/
| 𐡌 
| ܡ|| m
| መ || {{IPA|/m/}}
|''{{transliteration|sem|m}}''
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Nun (letter)|*n]]}}
! {{IPAblink|n}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩬}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪌}}}}
|{{IPA|/n/}}
| <big>ن</big>
| ''{{transliteration|sem|n}}''
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/n/}}
|n
|{{IPA|/n/}}
| ''{{transliteration|sem|n}}''
| 𐎐 || ''{{transliteration|sem|n}}''
| 𐤍 
|{{IPA|/n/}}|| ''{{transliteration|sem|n}}''|| <big>נ</big>
| {{transliteration|sem|n}}
|/n/
|/n/
|ࠍ
|{{transliteration|sem|n}}
|/n/
| 𐡍 
| ܢ || {{transliteration|sem|n}}
| ነ || {{IPA|/n/}}
|''{{transliteration|sem|n}}''
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Resh|*r]]}}
! {{IPAblink|ɾ}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩧}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪇}}}}
|{{IPA|/r/}}
| <big>ر</big>
| ''{{transliteration|sem|r}}''
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/r/}}
|r
|{{IPA|/r/}}
| ''{{transliteration|sem|r}}''
| 𐎗 || ''{{transliteration|sem|r}}''
| 𐤓 
|{{IPA|/r/}}|| ''{{transliteration|sem|r}}''|| <big>ר</big>
| {{transliteration|sem|r}}
|/r/
|/ʁ/
| ࠓ
|{{transliteration|sem|r}}
| /ʁ/
| 𐡓 
| ܪ || {{transliteration|sem|r}}
| ረ || {{IPA|/r/}}
|''{{transliteration|sem|r}}''
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Lamedh|*l]]}}
! {{IPAblink|l}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩡}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪁}}}}
|{{IPA|/l/}}
| <big>ل</big>
| ''{{transliteration|sem|l}}''
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/l/}}
|l
|{{IPA|/l/}}
| ''{{transliteration|sem|l}}''
| 𐎍 || ''{{transliteration|sem|l}}''
| 𐤋 
|{{IPA|/l/}}|| ''{{transliteration|sem|l}}''|| <big>ל</big>
| {{transliteration|sem|l}}
|{{IPA|/l/}}
|{{IPA|/l/}}
|ࠋ
|{{transliteration|sem|l}}
|{{IPA|/l/}}
| 𐡋 
| ܠ || {{transliteration|sem|l}}
| ለ || {{IPA|/l/}}
|''{{transliteration|sem|l}}''
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Waw (letter)|*w]]}}
! {{IPAblink|w}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩥}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪅}}}}
|{{IPA|/w/}}
| <big>و</big>
| ''{{transliteration|sem|w}}''
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/w/}}
|w
|{{IPA|/w/}}
| ''{{transliteration|sem|w}}''
| 𐎆 || ''{{transliteration|sem|w}}''
| 𐤅 
|{{IPA|/w/}}|| ''{{transliteration|sem|w}}''|| <big>ו</big>
| {{transliteration|sem|w}}
|{{IPA|/ʋ/}}
|{{IPA|/v/ ~ /w/}}
|ࠅ
|{{transliteration|sem|w}}
| {{IPA|/b/}}
| 𐡅 
| ܘ || {{transliteration|sem|w}}
| ወ || {{IPA|/w/}}
|''{{transliteration|sem|w}}''
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Yodh|*y]]}}
! {{IPAblink|j}}
|{{lang|sem-x-oldsoara|{{script|Sarb|{{huge|𐩺}}}}}}
|{{lang|xna|{{huge|𐪚}}}}
|{{IPA|/j/}}
| <big>ي</big>
| ''{{transliteration|sem|y}}''
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/j/}}
|j
|{{IPA|/j/}}
| ''{{transliteration|sem|y}}''
| 𐎊 || ''{{transliteration|sem|y}}''
| 𐤉 
|{{IPA|/j/}}|| ''{{transliteration|sem|y}}''|| <big>י</big>
| {{transliteration|sem|y}}
|{{IPA|/j/}}
|{{IPA|/j/}}
|ࠉ
|{{transliteration|sem|y}}
|{{IPA|/j/}}
| 𐡉 
| ܝ || {{transliteration|sem|y}}
| የ || {{IPA|/j/}}
|''{{transliteration|sem|y}}''
|}
</div>
<blockquote>Note: the fricatives *s, *z, *ṣ, *ś, *ṣ́, and *ṱ may also be interpreted as affricates (/t͡s/, /d͡z/, /t͡sʼ/, /t͡ɬ/, /t͡ɬʼ/, and /t͡θʼ/).</blockquote>
Notes:
# Proto-Semitic {{transliteration|sem|*ś}} was still pronounced as {{IPAblink|ɬ}} in Biblical Hebrew, but no letter was available in the [[Phoenician alphabet|Early Linear Script]], so the letter ש did double duty, representing both {{IPA|/ʃ/}} and {{IPA|/ɬ/}}. Later on, however, {{IPA|/ɬ/}} merged with {{IPA|/s/}}, but the old spelling was largely retained, and the two pronunciations of ש were distinguished graphically in [[Tiberian Hebrew]] as שׁ {{IPA|/ʃ/}} vs. שׂ {{IPA|/s/}} < {{IPA|/ɬ/}}.
# Biblical Hebrew as of the 3rd century BCE apparently still distinguished the phonemes {{transliteration|sem|ġ}} {{IPA|/ʁ/}} and {{transliteration|sem|ḫ}} {{IPA|/χ/}} from {{transliteration|sem|ʻ}} {{IPA|/ʕ/}} and {{transliteration|sem|ḥ}} {{IPA|/ħ/}}, respectively, based on transcriptions in the [[Septuagint]]. As in the case of {{IPA|/ɬ/}}, no letters were available to represent these sounds, and existing letters did double duty: ח {{IPA|/χ/ /ħ/}} and ע {{IPA|/ʁ/ /ʕ/}}. In both of these cases, however, the two sounds represented by the same letter eventually merged, leaving no evidence (other than early transcriptions) of the former distinctions.
# Although early Aramaic (pre-7th century BCE) had only 22 consonants in its alphabet, it apparently distinguished all of the original 29 Proto-Semitic phonemes, including {{transliteration|sem|*ḏ}}, {{transliteration|sem|*ṯ}}, {{transliteration|sem|*ṱ}}, {{transliteration|sem|*ś}}, {{transliteration|sem|*ṣ́}}, {{transliteration|sem|*ġ}}, and {{transliteration|sem|*ḫ}}{{snd}}although by [[Middle Aramaic]] times, these had all merged with other sounds. This conclusion is mainly based on the shifting representation of words etymologically containing these sounds; in early Aramaic writing, the first five are merged with {{transliteration|sem|z}}, {{transliteration|sem|š}}, {{transliteration|sem|ṣ}}, {{transliteration|sem|š}}, and {{transliteration|sem|q}} respectively, but later with {{transliteration|sem|d}}, {{transliteration|sem|t}}, {{transliteration|sem|ṭ}}, {{transliteration|sem|s}}, and {{transliteration|sem|ʿ}}.<ref name="bekins">{{cite web |url=http://balshanut.wordpress.com/essays/a-short-introduction-to-aramaic/old-aramaic-c-850-to-c-612-bce/ |date=2008-09-12 |title=Old Aramaic (c. 850 to c. 612 BCE) |last=Bekins |first=Peter |access-date=2011-08-22 |archive-date=18 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111018225506/http://balshanut.wordpress.com/essays/a-short-introduction-to-aramaic/old-aramaic-c-850-to-c-612-bce/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="harrison">{{cite web |url= http://www.linguistics.uwa.edu.au/__data/page/71159/Consonants.pdf |title=LIN325: Introduction to Semitic Languages. Common Consonant Changes |last=Harrison |first=Shelly |access-date=2006-06-25 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060821205928/http://www.linguistics.uwa.edu.au/__data/page/71159/Consonants.pdf <!-- Bot retrieved archive -->|archive-date = 2006-08-21}}</ref> (Also note that due to [[begadkefat]] spirantization, which occurred after this merger, OAm. t > ṯ and d > ḏ in some positions, so that PS *t,ṯ and *d, ḏ may be realized as either of t, ṯ and d, ḏ respectively.) The sounds {{transliteration|sem|*ġ}} and {{transliteration|sem|*ḫ}} were always represented using the pharyngeal letters {{transliteration|sem|ʿ}} and {{transliteration|sem|ḥ}}, but they are distinguished from the pharyngeals in the Demotic-script [[papyrus Amherst 63]], written about 200 BCE.<ref>{{citation|first=Stephen|last=Kaufman|contribution=Aramaic|editor-first=Robert|editor-last=Hetzron|title=The Semitic Languages|pages=117–119|year=1997|publisher=Routledge}}.</ref> This suggests that these sounds, too, were distinguished in Old Aramaic language, but written using the same letters as they later merged with.
# The earlier pharyngeals can be distinguished in Akkadian from the zero reflexes of *ḥ, *ʕ by e-coloring adjacent *a, e.g. pS ''*ˈbaʕal-um'' 'owner, lord' > Akk. ''bēlu(m)''.{{sfn|Dolgopolsky|1999|p=35}}
# Hebrew and Aramaic underwent [[begadkefat]] spirantization at a certain point, whereby the stop sounds {{IPA|/b ɡ d k p t/}} were [[lenition|softened]] to the corresponding fricatives {{IPA|[v ɣ ð x f θ]}} (written ''ḇ ḡ ḏ ḵ p̄ ṯ'') when occurring after a vowel and not geminated. This change probably happened after the original Old Aramaic phonemes {{IPA|/θ, ð/}} disappeared in the 7th century BCE,{{sfn|Dolgopolsky|1999|p=72}} and most likely occurred after the loss of Hebrew {{IPA|/χ, ʁ/}} {{circa|200 BCE}}.{{NoteTag|According to the generally accepted view, it is unlikely that begadkefat spirantization occurred before the merger of {{IPA|/χ, ʁ/}} and {{IPA|/ħ, ʕ/}}, or else {{IPA|[x, χ]}} and {{IPA|[ɣ, ʁ]}} would have to be contrastive, which is cross-linguistically rare. However, Blau argues that it is possible that lenited {{IPA|/k/}} and {{IPA|/χ/}} could coexist even if pronounced identically, since one would be recognized as an alternating allophone (as apparently is the case in Nestorian Syriac).{{sfn|Blau|2010|p=56}}}} It is known to have occurred in Hebrew by the 2nd century CE.{{sfn|Dolgopolsky|1999|p=73}} After a certain point this alternation became contrastive in word-medial and final position (though bearing low [[functional load]]), but in word-initial position they remained allophonic.<ref name="bbgd">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=78–81}}</ref> In [[Modern Hebrew]], the distinction has a higher functional load due to the loss of gemination, although only the three fricatives {{IPA|/v χ f/}} are still preserved (the fricative {{IPA|/x/}} is pronounced {{IPA|/χ/}} in modern Hebrew). [[Samaritan Hebrew]] hasn't undergone this process at all. 
# In the [[Northwest Semitic languages]], {{IPA|*/w/}} became {{IPA|*/j/}} at the beginning of a word, e.g. Hebrew ''yeled'' "boy" < ''*wald'' (cf. Arabic ''walad'').
# There is evidence of a rule of assimilation of /j/ to the following coronal consonant in pre-tonic position,{{clarify|reason=What does this mean? Palatalization? What are some examples?|date=February 2015}} shared by Hebrew, Phoenician, and Aramaic.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Garnier|first1=Romain|last2=Jacques|first2=Guillaume|title=A neglected phonetic law: The assimilation of pretonic yod to a following coronal in North-West Semitic|journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies|volume=75|issue=1|pages=135–145|year=2012|url=https://www.academia.edu/1468535|doi=10.1017/s0041977x11001261|citeseerx=10.1.1.395.1033|s2cid=16649580|access-date=29 June 2014|archive-date=12 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230412083911/https://www.academia.edu/1468535|url-status=live}}</ref>
# In [[Assyrian Neo-Aramaic]], {{IPAblink|ħ}} is nonexistent. In general cases, the language would lack [[pharyngeal consonant|pharyngeal]] fricative {{IPAblink|ʕ}} (as heard in ''[[Ayin]]''). However, /ʕ/ is retained in educational speech, especially among Assyrian priests.<ref>[[Sebastian Brock|Brock, Sebastian]] (2006). ''An Introduction to Syriac Studies''. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press. {{ISBN|1-59333-349-8}}.</ref>
#The [[Palatalization (sound change)|palatalization]] of Proto-Semitic [[Gimel|gīm]] {{IPA|/g/}} to Arabic {{IPA|/d͡ʒ/}} jīm, might be connected to the pronunciation of [[Qoph|qāf]] {{IPA|/q/}} as a {{IPA|/g/}} gāf in most of the [[Peninsular Arabic|Arabian peninsula]]; since in most of the colloquial dialects of the Arabian Peninsula {{lang|ar|[[ج]]}} is pronounced jīm {{IPA|/d͡ʒ/}} and {{lang|ar|[[ق]]}} is pronounced gāf {{IPA|/g/}}, except in western and southern [[Yemeni Arabic|Yemen]] and parts of [[Omani Arabic|Oman]] where {{lang|ar|[[ج]]}} is gīm {{IPA|/g/}} and {{lang|ar|[[ق]]}} is qāf {{IPA|/q/}}.
# Ugaritic orthography indicated the vowel after the [[glottal stop]].
#The Arabic letter ''{{transliteration|ar|ALA|jīm}}'' ({{lang|ar|[[ج]]}}) has three main pronunciations in Modern Standard Arabic. {{IPAblink|d͡ʒ}} in north Algeria, Iraq, also in most of the Arabian peninsula and as the predominant pronunciation of Literary Arabic outside the Arab world, {{IPAblink|ʒ}} occurs in most of the [[Levant]] and most North Africa; and {{IPAblink|ɡ}} is used in northern Egypt and some regions in Yemen and Oman. In addition to other minor allophones.
#''{{transliteration|sem|ṱ}}'' can be written ''{{transliteration|sem|ẓ}}'', and always is in the [[Ugaritic#Phonology|Ugaritic]] and [[Arabic alphabet#Table of basic letters|Arabic]] contexts. In Ugaritic, sometimes assimilates to ''{{transliteration|sem|ġ}}'', as in ''ġmʔ'' 'thirsty' (Arabic ''ẓmʔ'', Hebrew ''ṣmʔ'', but Ugaritic ''mẓmủ'' 'thirsty', root ''ẓmʔ'', is also attested).
#Early [[Amharic]] might have had a different phonology.
#The pronunciations /ʕ/ and /ħ/ for ''ʿAyin'' and ''Ḥet'', respectively, still occur among some older Mizrahi speakers, but for most modern Israelis, ''ʿAyin'' and ''Ḥet'' are realized as /ʔ, -/ and /χ ~ x/, respectively.
#the correspondence between Proto-Semitic phonemes and Modern South Arabian languages is not one-to-one, since some phonemes have merged, some phonemes have changed their pronunciation and some phonemes were split depending on the language, for example the phoneme {{IPA|/ʃʼ/}} appears to be connected to different phonological developments.

==== Plain Sibilants ====
Sibilants have been one of the aspects of Semitic phonology that historical linguists have taken the most interest in, and Semiticists are nearly unanimous in the opinion that Proto-Semitic contained three plain sibilants, referred to by the shorthand S<small>1</small>, S<small>2</small>, and S<small>3</small>, or as š, ś, and s. The realizations of these phonemes in earlier times is debated, with hypotheses ranging from a palatal {{IPAblink|ɕ}} for S<small>1,</small> and {{IPAblink|s̠}} or {{IPA|[ts]}} for S<small>3</small>, to plain {{IPA|[ʃ]}} for S<small>1</small> and {{IPA|[s]}} for S<small>3.</small> 

Interestingly, the point of least controversy is the realization of S<small>2</small>, widely accepted to be lateral {{IPA|[ɬ]}}, In spite of the fact that this phoneme has completely merged with S<small>1</small> or S<small>3</small> in every other Semitic language outside of Modern South Arabian languages, such that the most widely-spoken Semitic languages (Arabic, Amharic, Hebrew and Tigrinya) have a two-way sibilant distinction rather than the original three-way distinction. This merger occurred at different times, and in different ways across Semitic which has lead to the non-correspondence of, for example, Arabic, Hebrew and Shehri (Jibbali) words for ‘ten’ from Proto-Semitic (ʕ-s₂-r).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brewster |first=Jarred |date=2021 |title=Language contact and covert prominence in the SḤERĒT-JIBBĀLI language of Oman |url=https://uknowledge.uky.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1042&context=ltt_etds |journal=Theses and Dissertations--Linguistics |pages=26, 27}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Proto-Semitic
|ʕ-s₂-r
|-
!Arabic
|{{IPA|/ʕa.ʃa.ra(t)/}}
|-
!Hebrew
|{{IPA|/ʕa.sa.ra(t)/}}
|-
![[Shehri language|Shehri]] (Jibbali)
|{{IPA|/ʕə.ɬɛ.ret/}}
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2" |Proto-Semitic
![[Old South Arabian|Old South]]
[[Old South Arabian|Arabian]]
![[Ancient North Arabian|Old North]]
[[Ancient North Arabian|Arabian]]
![[Modern South Arabian languages|Modern South]]
[[Modern South Arabian languages|Arabian]]
! colspan="2" |[[Modern Standard Arabic|Standard]]
[[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]]
! colspan="2" |[[Aramaic language|Aramaic]]
! colspan="2" |[[Modern Hebrew|Modern]]
[[Modern Hebrew|Hebrew]]
! colspan="2" |[[Geʽez|Ge'ez]]
! colspan="2" |[[Phoenician language|Phoenician]]
![[Akkadian language|Akkadian]]
|-
!s₃ (s)
!{{IPA|[s] / [ts]}}
|{{script|Sarb|𐩯}}
|𐪏
|{{IPA|/s/}}
| rowspan="2" |<big>{{script|Arab|س|label=none}}</big>
| rowspan="2" |{{IPA|/s/}}
|{{script|Hebrew|ס}}
|s
|{{script|Hebrew|ס}}
|{{IPA|/s/}}
| rowspan="2" |{{script|Ethi|ሰ}}
| rowspan="2" |s
|{{script|Phnx|𐤎}}
|s
|s
|-
!s₁ (š)
!{{IPA|[ʃ] / [s]}}
|{{script|Sarb|𐩪}}
|𐪊
|{{IPA|/ʃ/}}, <small>sometimes</small> {{IPA|/h/}}<sup>1</sup>
|{{script|Hebrew|ש}}
|š
|{{script|Hebrew|שׁ}}
|{{IPA|/ʃ/}}
| rowspan="2" |{{script|Phnx|𐤔}}
| rowspan="2" |š
| rowspan="2" |š
|-
!s₂ (ś)
!{{IPA|[ɬ]}}
|{{script|Sarb|𐩦}}
|𐪆
|{{IPA|/ɬ/}}
|<big>{{script|Arab|ش|label=none}}</big>
|{{IPA|/ʃ/}}
|{{script|Hebrew|ס}}
|s
|{{script|Hebrew|שׂ}}
|{{IPA|/s/}}
|{{script|Ethi|ሠ}}
|ś
|}
Notes: s₁ (š) is {{IPA|[ʃ]}}, <small>sometimes</small> {{IPA|[h]}} and {{IPA|[j<sup>ɦ</sup>]}} (in [[Soqotri language|Soqotri]]) - {{IPA|[ʃ]}} and {{IPA|[ɕ<sup>w</sup>]}} (for some speakers of [[Shehri language|Jibbali]]).

The following table shows the development of the various fricatives in Hebrew, Aramaic, Arabic and Maltese through cognate words:
<div style="max-width:100%; overflow:auto;">
{| class="wikitable" style="vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2" | Proto-Semitic
! rowspan="2" |(General) Modern<br/>South Arabian 
! rowspan="2" | Arabic
! rowspan="2" |Maltese
! rowspan="2" | Aramaic
! rowspan="2" | Hebrew
! colspan="5" | Examples
|-
! Arabic
!Maltese
! Aramaic
! Hebrew
! meaning
|-
! {{IPA|*/ð/}} [[Ḏāl|*ḏ]]
|{{IPA|*/ð/}}
| {{IPA|*/ð/}} ذ
|{{IPA|*/d/}} d
| {{IPA|*/d/}} ד
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|*/z/}} ז
| ذهب <br/> ذَكَر
|deheb
–
| '''ד'''הב<br />דכרא
| '''ז'''הב<br />זָכָר
| 'gold'<br/>'male'
|-
! {{IPA|*/z/}}<sup>1</sup> [[Zayin|*z]]
|{{IPA|*/z/}}
| {{IPA|*/z/}} ز
|{{IPA|*/z/}} ż
| {{IPA|*/z/}} ז
| موازين <br/> زمن
|miżien
żmien
| מא'''ז'''נין<br />זמן
| מא'''ז'''נים<br />זמן
| 'scale'<br/>'time'
|-
! {{IPA|*/ɬ/}} [[Shin (letter)|*ś]] (s<sub>2</sub>)
|{{IPA|*/ɬ/}}
| {{IPA|*/ʃ/}} ش
|{{IPA|*/ʃ/}} x
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|*/s/}} ס
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|*/s/}} ש ,ס
| عشر
شهر
|għaxra
xahar
| עֲסַר
| עשׂר
סהר
| 'ten'
'moon/month'
|-
! {{IPA|*/s/}} [[Samekh|*s]] (s<sub>3</sub>)
|{{IPA|*/s/}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|*/s/}} س
| rowspan="2" |{{IPA|*/s/}} s
| سكين 
|sikkina
| סכין
| סכין
| 'knife'
|-
! {{IPA|*/ʃ/}} [[Shin (letter)|*š]] (s<sub>1</sub>)
|{{IPA|*/ʃ/}}
| {{IPA|*/ʃ/}} שׁ
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|*/ʃ/}} שׁ
| سنة <br/> سلام
|sena
sliem
| '''שׁ'''נה<br />שלם
| '''שׁ'''נה<br />שלום
| 'year'<br/>'peace'
|-
! {{IPA|*/θ/}} [[Ṯāʾ|*ṯ]]
|{{IPA|*/θ/}}
| {{IPA|*/θ/}} ث
|{{IPA|*/t/}} t
| {{IPA|*/t/}} ת
| ثلاثة <br/> اثنان
|tlieta
tnejn
| תלת<br />תרין
| שלוש<br />שתים
| 'three'<br/>'two'
|-
! {{IPA|*/θʼ/}}<sup>1</sup> [[Ẓāʾ|*ṱ]]
|{{IPA|*/θʼ ~ ðʼ/}}
| {{IPA|*/ðˤ/}} ظ
|{{IPA|*/d/}} d
| {{IPA|*/tʼ/}} ט
| rowspan="3" | {{IPA|*/sˤ~ts/}}<sup>1</sup> צ
| ظل <br/> ظهر
|dell
–
| '''ט'''לה<br />טהרא
| '''צ'''ל<br />'''צ'''הרים
| 'shadow'<br/>'noon'
|-
! {{IPA|*/ɬʼ/}}<sup>1</sup> [[Ḍād|*ṣ́]]
|{{IPA|*/ɬʼ/}}
| {{IPA|*/dˤ/}} ض
|{{IPA|*/t/}} t
{{IPA|*/d/}} d
| {{IPA|*/ʕ/ ע}}
| أرض <br/> ضحك
|art
daħaq
| ארע<br />'''ע'''חק
| אר'''ץ'''<br />'''צ'''חק
| 'land'<br/>'laughed'
|-
! {{IPA|*/sʼ/}}<sup>1</sup> [[Tsade|*ṣ]]
|{{IPA|*/sʼ/}}
| {{IPA|*/sˤ/}} ص
|{{IPA|*/s/}} s
| {{IPA|*/sʼ/}} צ
| صرخ <br/> صبر
|
| '''צ'''רח<br />צבר
| '''צ'''רח<br />צבר
| 'shout'<br/>'watermelon-like plant'
|-
! {{IPA|*/χ/}} [[Ḫāʾ|*ḫ]]
|{{IPA|*/χ/}}
|{{IPA|*/x~χ/}} خ
|{{IPA|*/ħ/}} ħ
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|*/ħ/}} ח
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|*/ħ~χ/}} ח
| خمسة <br/> صرخ
|ħamsa
–
| חַמְשָׁה<br />צר'''ח'''
| חֲמִשָּׁה<br />צר'''ח'''
| 'five'<br/>'shout'
|-
! {{IPA|*/ħ/}} [[Heth|*ḥ]]
|{{IPA|*/ħ/}}
| {{IPA|*/ħ/}} ح
|{{IPA|*/ħ/}} ħ
| ملح<br />حلم
|melħ
ħolm
| מל'''ח'''<br />חלם
| מל'''ח''' <br/> חלום
| 'salt'<br/>'dream'
|-
! {{IPA|*/ʁ/}} [[Ghayn|*ġ]]
|{{IPA|*/ʁ/}}
|{{IPA|*/ɣ~ʁ/}} غ
|*/[[Pharyngealization|ˤ]][[Length (phonetics)|ː]]/ għ
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|*/ʕ/}} ע
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|*/ʕ~ʔ/}} ע
| غراب <br/> غرب
|għorab
għarb
| ערב<br />מערב
| עורב<br />מערב
| 'raven'<br/>'west'
|-
! {{IPA|*/ʕ/}} [[Ayin|*ʻ]]
|{{IPA|*/ʕ/}}
| {{IPA|*/ʕ/}} ع
|*/[[Pharyngealization|ˤ]][[Length (phonetics)|ː]]/ għ
| عبد<br />سبعة
|għabid
sebgħa
| '''ע'''בד<br />שבע
| '''ע'''בד <br/> שבע
| 'slave'<br/>'seven'
|}
</div>
# <small>possibly affricated (/dz/ /tɬʼ/ /ʦʼ/ /tθʼ/ /tɬ/)</small>

===Vowels===
{{see also|Proto-Afroasiatic language#Consonant correspondences}}
Proto-Semitic vowels are, in general, harder to deduce due to the [[nonconcatenative morphology]] of Semitic languages. The history of vowel changes in the languages makes drawing up a complete table of correspondences impossible, so only the most common reflexes can be given:
{| class="wikitable Unicode"
|+ Vowel correspondences in Semitic languages (in proto-Semitic stressed syllables){{sfn|Dolgopolsky|1999|pp=85–86}} 
! rowspan="2" | pS
! colspan="2" | Arabic
! colspan="2" | Aramaic
! colspan="3" | Hebrew
! rowspan="2" | Geʽez
! rowspan="2" | Akkadian
|-
! Classical
! Modern
! usually<sup>4</sup>
! <nowiki>/_C.ˈV</nowiki>
! <nowiki>/ˈ_.</nowiki><sup>1</sup>
! <nowiki>/ˈ_Cː</nowiki><sup>2</sup>
! <nowiki>/ˈ_C.C</nowiki><sup>3</sup>
|-
! *a
| a
| a
| a
| ə
| ā
| a
| ɛ
| a, later ä
| a, e, ē<sup>5</sup>
|-
! *i
| i
| i
| e, i,<br />[[West Syriac dialects|WSyr.]] ɛ
| ə
| ē
| e
| ɛ, e
| ə
| i
|-
! *u
| u
| u
| u, o
| ə
| ō
| o
| o
| ə, ʷə<sup>6</sup>
| u
|-
! *ā
| ā
| ā
| ā
|
| ō{{NoteTag|see [[Canaanite shift]]}}
|
|
| ā, later a
| ā, ē
|-
! *ī
| ī
| ī
| ī
|
| ī
|
|
| i
| ī
|-
! *ū
| ū
| ū
| ū
|
| ū
| ū
|
|u
| ū
|-
! *ay
| ay
| ē, ay
| [[Biblical Aramaic|BA]], [[Jewish Babylonian Aramaic|JA]] ay(i), ē,<br />[[West Syriac dialects|WSyr.]] ay/ī & ay/ē
|
| ayi, ay
|
|
| e
| ī
|-
! *aw
| aw
| ō, aw
| ō,<br />[[West Syriac dialects|WSyr.]] aw/ū
|
| ō,<br />[[pausa]]l ˈāwɛ
|
|
| o
| ū
|}
# in a stressed open syllable
# in a stressed closed syllable before a geminate
# in a stressed closed syllable before a consonant cluster
# when the proto-Semitic stressed vowel remained stressed
# pS *a,*ā > Akk. e,ē in the neighborhood of pS *ʕ,*ħ and before r
# i.e. pS *g,*k,*ḳ,*χ > Geʽez gʷ, kʷ,ḳʷ,χʷ / _u

==Grammar==
The Semitic languages share a number of grammatical features, although variation — both between separate languages, and within the languages themselves — has naturally occurred over time.

===Word order===
The reconstructed default word order in Proto-Semitic is [[verb–subject–object]] (VSO), possessed–possessor (NG), and noun–adjective (NA). This was still the case in [[Classical Arabic]] and [[Biblical Hebrew]], e.g. Classical Arabic رأى محمد فريدا ''ra'ā muħammadun farīdan''. (literally "saw Muhammad Farid", ''Muhammad saw Farid''). In the modern [[Varieties of Arabic|Arabic vernaculars]], however, as well as sometimes in [[Modern Standard Arabic]] (the modern literary language based on Classical Arabic) and [[Modern Hebrew]], the classical VSO order has given way to SVO. Modern Ethiopian Semitic languages follow a different word order: SOV, possessor–possessed, and adjective–noun; however, the oldest attested Ethiopian Semitic language, Geʽez, was VSO, possessed–possessor, and noun–adjective.{{sfn|Greenberg|1999|p=157}} Akkadian was also predominantly SOV.

===Cases in nouns and adjectives===
The proto-Semitic three-case system ([[nominative case|nominative]], [[Accusative case|accusative]] and [[genitive case|genitive]]) with differing vowel endings (-u, -a -i), fully preserved in Qur'anic Arabic (see [[ʾIʿrab]]), Akkadian and [[Ugaritic language|Ugaritic]], has disappeared everywhere in the many colloquial forms of Semitic languages. Modern Standard Arabic maintains such case distinctions, although they are typically lost in free speech due to colloquial influence. An accusative ending ''-n'' is preserved in Ethiopian Semitic.{{NoteTag|"In the historically attested Semitic languages, the endings of the singular noun-flexions survive, as is well known, only partially: in Akkadian and Arabic and Ugaritic and, limited to the accusative, in Ethiopic."{{sfn|Moscati|1958|pp=142–43}}}} In the northwest, the scarcely attested [[Samalian language|Samalian]] reflects a case distinction in the plural between nominative ''-ū'' and oblique ''-ī'' (compare the same distinction in Classical Arabic).{{sfn|Hetzron|1997|p=123}} Additionally, Semitic nouns and adjectives had a category of state, the indefinite state being expressed by [[nunation]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Semitic-languages|title=Semitic languages {{!}} Definition, Map, Tree, Distribution, & Facts|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=2020-01-23|archive-date=25 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200425075122/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Semitic-languages|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Number in nouns===
Semitic languages originally had three [[grammatical number]]s: singular, [[Dual (grammatical number)|dual]], and [[plural]]. Classical Arabic still has a mandatory dual (i.e. it must be used in all circumstances when referring to two entities), marked on nouns, verbs, adjectives and pronouns. Many contemporary dialects of Arabic still have a dual, as in the name for the nation of Bahrain (''baħr'' "sea" + ''-ayn'' "two"), although it is marked only on nouns. It also occurs in Hebrew in a few nouns (''šana'' means "one year", ''šnatayim'' means "two years", and ''šanim'' means "years"), but for those it is obligatory. The curious phenomenon of [[broken plural]]s{{snd}}e.g. in Arabic, ''sadd'' "one dam" vs. ''sudūd'' "dams"{{snd}}found most profusely in the languages of Arabia and Ethiopia, may be partly of proto-Semitic origin, and partly elaborated from simpler origins.

===Verb aspect and tense===
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin: 1em;"
|+ Paradigm of a regular Classical Arabic verb:<br />Form I ''{{transliteration|ar|kataba (yaktubu)}}'' "to write"
|-
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2" style="text-align:center" | Past
! colspan="2" style="text-align:center" | Present<br />[[Indicative]]
|-
! colspan="6" | Singular
|-
! colspan="2"| 1st
| katab'''{{transliteration|ar|-tu}}'''
| {{lang|ar|كَتَبْتُ}}
| '''{{transliteration|ar|DIN|ʼa-}}'''ktub'''{{transliteration|ar|-u}}'''
| {{lang|ar|أَكْتُبُ}}
|-
! rowspan="2"| 2nd
! <small>masculine</small>
| katab'''{{transliteration|ar|-ta}}'''
| {{lang|ar|كَتَبْتَ}}
| '''{{transliteration|ar|ta-}}'''ktub'''{{transliteration|ar|-u}}'''
| {{lang|ar| تَكْتُبُ}}
|-
! <small>feminine</small>
| katab'''{{transliteration|ar|-ti}}'''
| {{lang|ar|كَتَبْتِ}}
| '''{{transliteration|ar|ta-}}'''ktub'''{{transliteration|ar|-īna}}'''
| {{lang|ar|تَكْتُبِينَ}}
|-
! rowspan="2"| 3rd
! <small>masculine</small>
| katab'''{{transliteration|ar|-a}}'''
| {{lang|ar|كَتَبَ}}
| '''{{transliteration|ar|ya-}}'''ktub'''{{transliteration|ar|-u}}'''
| {{lang|ar|يَكْتُبُ}}
|-
! <small>feminine</small>
| katab'''{{transliteration|ar|-at}}'''
| {{lang|ar|كَتَبَتْ}}
| '''{{transliteration|ar|ta-}}'''ktub'''{{transliteration|ar|-u}}'''
| {{lang|ar|تَكْتُبُ}}
|-
! colspan="6" | Dual
|-
! 2nd
! <small>masculine <br>& feminine</small>
| katab'''{{transliteration|ar|-tumā}}'''
| {{lang|ar|كَتَبْتُمَا}}
| '''{{transliteration|ar|ta-}}'''ktub'''{{transliteration|ar|-āni}}'''
| {{lang|ar|تَكْتُبَانِ}}
|-
! rowspan="2"| 3rd
! <small>masculine</small>
| katab'''{{transliteration|ar|-ā}}'''
| {{lang|ar|كَتَبَا}}
| '''{{transliteration|ar|ya-}}'''ktub'''{{transliteration|ar|-āni}}'''
| {{lang|ar|يَكْتُبَانِ}}
|-
! <small>feminine</small>
| katab'''{{transliteration|ar|-atā}}'''
| {{lang|ar|كَتَبَتَا}}
| '''{{transliteration|ar|ta-}}'''ktub'''{{transliteration|ar|-āni}}'''
| {{lang|ar|تَكْتُبَانِ}}
|-
! colspan="6" | Plural
|-
! colspan="2"| 1st
| katab'''{{transliteration|ar|-nā}}'''
| {{lang|ar|كَتَبْنَا}}
| '''{{transliteration|ar|na-}}'''ktub'''{{transliteration|ar|-u}}'''
| {{lang|ar|نَكْتُبُ}}
|-
! rowspan="2"| 2nd
! <small>masculine</small>
| katab'''{{transliteration|ar|-tum}}'''
| {{lang|ar|كَتَبْتُمْ}}
| '''{{transliteration|ar|ta-}}'''ktub'''{{transliteration|ar|-ūna}}'''
| {{lang|ar|تَكْتُبُونَ}}
|-
! <small>feminine</small>
| katab'''{{transliteration|ar|-tunna}}'''
| {{lang|ar|كَتَبْتُنَّ}}
| '''{{transliteration|ar|ta-}}'''ktub'''{{transliteration|ar|-na}}'''
| {{lang|ar|تَكْتُبْنَ}}
|-
! rowspan="2"| 3rd
! <small>masculine</small>
| katab'''{{transliteration|ar|-ū}}'''
| {{lang|ar|كَتَبُوا}}
| '''{{transliteration|ar|ya-}}'''ktub'''{{transliteration|ar|-ūna}}'''
| {{lang|ar|يَكْتُبُونَ}}
|-
! <small>feminine</small>
| katab'''{{transliteration|ar|-na}}'''
| {{lang|ar|كَتَبْنَ}}
| '''{{transliteration|ar|ya-}}'''ktub'''{{transliteration|ar|-na}}'''
| {{lang|ar|يَكْتُبْنَ}}
|-
|}

All Semitic languages show two quite distinct styles of morphology used for conjugating verbs. ''Suffix conjugations'' take suffixes indicating the person, number and gender of the subject, which bear some resemblance to the pronominal suffixes used to indicate direct objects on verbs ("I saw '''him'''") and possession on nouns ("'''his''' dog"). So-called ''prefix conjugations'' actually takes both prefixes and suffixes, with the prefixes primarily indicating person (and sometimes number or gender), while the suffixes (which are completely different from those used in the suffix conjugation) indicate number and gender whenever the prefix does not mark this. The prefix conjugation is noted for a particular pattern of ''{{IPA|ʔ- t- y- n-}}'' prefixes where (1) a ''t-'' prefix is used in the singular to mark the second person and third-person feminine, while a ''y-'' prefix marks the third-person masculine; and (2) identical words are used for second-person masculine and third-person feminine singular. The prefix conjugation is extremely old, with clear analogues in nearly all the families of [[Afroasiatic languages]] (i.e. at least 10,000 years old). The table on the right shows examples of the prefix and suffix conjugations in Classical Arabic, which has forms that are close to Proto-Semitic.

In Proto-Semitic, as still largely reflected in East Semitic, prefix conjugations are used both for the past and the non-past, with different vocalizations. Cf. Akkadian ''niprus'' "we decided" (preterite), ''niptaras'' "we have decided" (perfect), ''niparras'' "we decide" (non-past or imperfect), vs. suffix-conjugated ''parsānu'' "we are/were/will be deciding" (stative). Some of these features, e.g. [[gemination]] indicating the non-past/imperfect, are generally attributed to Afroasiatic. Proto-Semitic had an additional form, the [[jussive]], which was distinguished from the preterite only by the position of stress: the jussive had final stress while the preterite had non-final (retracted) stress.{{sfn|Hetzron|Kaye|Zuckermann|2018|p=568}}

The West Semitic languages significantly reshaped the system. The most substantial changes occurred in the [[Central Semitic languages]] (the ancestors of modern Hebrew, Arabic and Aramaic). Essentially, the old prefix-conjugated jussive or preterite became a new non-past (or imperfect), while the stative became a new past (or perfect), and the old prefix-conjugated non-past (or imperfect) with gemination was discarded. New suffixes were used to mark different moods in the non-past, e.g. Classical Arabic ''-u'' (indicative), ''-a'' (subjunctive), vs no suffix (jussive). It is not generally agreed whether the systems of the various Semitic languages are better interpreted in terms of tense, i.e. past vs. non-past, or aspect, i.e. perfect vs. imperfect. A special feature in classical Hebrew is the [[waw-consecutive]], prefixing a verb form with the letter [[Waw (letter)|waw]] in order to change its [[grammatical tense|tense]] or [[Lexical aspect|aspect]]. The [[South Semitic languages]] show a system somewhere between the East and Central Semitic languages.

Later languages show further developments. In the modern [[varieties of Arabic]], for example, the old mood suffixes were dropped, and new mood prefixes developed (e.g. ''bi-'' for indicative vs. no prefix for subjunctive in many varieties). In the extreme case of Neo-Aramaic, the verb conjugations have been entirely reworked under Iranian influence.

===Morphology: triliteral roots===
{{Main|Semitic root}}
All Semitic languages exhibit a unique pattern of stems called [[Semitic root]]s consisting typically of triliteral, or three-consonant consonantal roots (two- and four-consonant roots also exist), from which nouns, adjectives, and verbs are formed in various ways (e.g., by inserting vowels, doubling consonants, lengthening vowels or by adding prefixes, suffixes, or [[infix]]es).

For instance, the root [[K-T-B|''k-t-b'']] (dealing with "writing" generally) yields in Arabic:

:'''''k'''a'''t'''a'''b'''tu'' كَتَبْتُ or كتبت "I wrote" (f and m)
:''yu'''kt'''a'''b'''(u)'' يُكْتَب or يكتب "being written" (masculine)
:''tu'''kt'''a'''b'''(u)'' تُكتَب or تكتب "being written" (feminine)
:''yata'''k'''ā'''t'''a'''b'''ūn(a)'' يَتَكَاتَبُونَ or يتكاتبون "they write to each other" (masculine)
:''isti'''kt'''ā'''b''''' اِستِكتاب or استكتاب "causing to write"
:'''''k'''i'''t'''ā'''b''''' كِتَاب or كتاب "book" (the hyphen shows end of stem before various case endings)
:'''''k'''u'''t'''ayyi'''b''''' كُتَيِّب or كتيب "booklet" (diminutive)
:'''''k'''i'''t'''ā'''b'''at'' كِتَابَة or كتابة "writing"
:'''''k'''u'''tt'''ā'''b''''' كُتاب or كتاب "writers" (broken plural)
:'''''k'''a'''t'''a'''b'''at'' كَتَبَة or كتبة "clerks" (broken plural)
:''ma'''kt'''a'''b''''' مَكتَب or مكتب "desk" or "office"
:''ma'''kt'''a'''b'''at'' مَكتَبة or مكتبة "library" or "bookshop"
:''ma'''kt'''ū'''b''''' مَكتوب or مكتوب "written" (participle) or "postal letter" (noun)
:'''''k'''a'''t'''ī'''b'''at'' كَتيبة or كتيبة "squadron" or "document"
:''i'''k'''ti'''t'''ā'''b''''' اِكتِتاب or اكتتاب "registration" or "contribution of funds"
:''mu'''k'''ta'''t'''ib'' مُكتَتِب or مكتتب "subscription"

and the same root in Hebrew:

:'''''k'''ā'''ṯ'''a'''ḇ'''ti'' כתבתי or כָּתַבְתִּי "I wrote"
:'''''k'''a'''tt'''ā'''ḇ''''' כתב or כַּתָּב "reporter" (''m'')
:'''''k'''a'''tt'''e'''ḇ'''eṯ'' כתבת or כַּתָּבֶת "reporter" (''f'')
:'''''k'''a'''tt'''ā'''ḇ'''ā'' כתבה or כַּתָּבָה "article" (plural '''''k'''a'''tt'''ā'''ḇ'''ōṯ'' כתבות)
:''mi'''ḵt'''ā'''ḇ''''' מכתב or מִכְתָּב "postal letter" (plural ''mi'''ḵt'''ā'''ḇ'''īm'' מכתבים)
:''mi'''ḵt'''ā'''ḇ'''ā'' מכתבה "writing desk" (plural ''mi'''ḵt'''ā'''ḇ'''ōṯ'' מכתבות)
:'''''k'''ə'''ṯ'''ō'''ḇ'''eṯ'' כתובת "address" (plural '''''k'''ə'''ṯ'''ō'''ḇ'''ōṯ'' כתובות)
:'''''k'''ə'''ṯ'''ā'''ḇ''''' כתב "handwriting"
:'''''k'''ā'''ṯ'''ū'''ḇ''''' כתוב "written" (''f'' '''''k'''ə'''ṯ'''ū'''ḇ'''ā'' כתובה)
:''hi'''ḵt'''ī'''ḇ''''' הכתיב "he dictated" (''f'' ''hi'''ḵt'''ī'''ḇ'''ā'' הכתיבה)
:''hiṯ'''k'''a'''tt'''ē'''ḇ''''' התכתב "he corresponded (''f'' ''hiṯ'''k'''a'''tt'''ə'''ḇ'''ā'' התכתבה)
:''ni'''ḵt'''a'''ḇ''''' נכתב "it was written" (''m'')
:''ni'''ḵt'''ə'''ḇ'''ā'' נכתבה "it was written" (''f'')
:'''''k'''ə'''ṯ'''ī'''ḇ''''' כתיב "spelling" (''m'')
:''ta'''ḵt'''ī'''ḇ''''' תכתיב "prescript" (''m'')
:''m'''ə''''''ḵ'''u'''tt'''ā'''ḇ''''' מכותב "addressee" (''me'''ḵ'''u'''tt'''e'''ḇ'''eṯ'' מכותבת ''f'')
:'''''k'''ə'''ṯ'''u'''bb'''ā'' כתובה "ketubah (a Jewish marriage contract)" (''f'')

(Underlined consonants {{angbr|ḵ}}, {{angbr|ṯ}}, {{angbr|ḇ}} represent the [[fricative]]s /x/, /θ/, /v/ respectively.)

In Tigrinya and Amharic, this root was used widely but is now seen as an archaic form. Ethiopic-derived languages use different roots for things that have to do with writing (and in some cases counting). The primitive root ''ṣ-f'' and the trilateral root stems ''m-ṣ-f'', ''ṣ-h-f'', and ''ṣ-f-r'' are used. This root also exists in other Semitic languages, such as Hebrew: ''sep̄er'' "book", ''[[sofer|sōp̄er]]'' "scribe", ''mispār'' "number", and ''sippūr'' "story". This root also exists in Arabic and is used to form words with a close meaning to "writing", such as ''ṣaḥāfa'' "journalism", and ''ṣaḥīfa'' "newspaper" or "parchment".
Verbs in other non-Semitic Afroasiatic languages show similar radical patterns, but more usually with biconsonantal roots; e.g. [[Kabyle language|Kabyle]] ''afeg'' means "fly!", while ''affug'' means "flight", and ''yufeg'' means "he flew" (compare with Hebrew, where ''hap̄lēḡ'' means "set sail!", ''hap̄lāḡā'' means "a sailing trip", and ''hip̄līḡ'' means "he sailed", while the unrelated ''ʕūp̄'', ''təʕūp̄ā'', and ''ʕāp̄'' pertain to flight).

===Independent personal pronouns===
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" | English
! rowspan="2" | [[Proto-Semitic]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]]
! colspan="2" | [[Arabic language|Arabic]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Geʽez]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Aramaic]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Suret language|Suret]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Maltese language|Maltese]]
|-
! [[Modern Standard Arabic|standard]]
! [[varieties of Arabic|common vernaculars]]
|-
| I
| {{transliteration|sem|*ʔanāku,{{NoteTag|While some believe that *ʔanāku was an innovation in some branches of Semitic utilizing an "intensifying" *-ku, comparison to other Afro-Asiatic 1ps pronouns (e.g. ''3nk'', Coptic ''anak'', ''anok'', [[proto-Berber language|proto-Berber]] *ənakkʷ) suggests that this goes further back.{{sfn|Dolgopolsky|1999|pp=10–11}}}} *ʔaniya}}
| {{transliteration|sem|anāku}}
| أنا {{transliteration|sem|ʔanā}}
| {{transliteration|sem|ʔanā}}, anā, {{transliteration|sem|ana, āni, āna, ānig}}
| {{lang|gez|አነ}} {{transliteration|sem|ʔana}}
| אנכי, אני {{transliteration|sem|ʔānōḵī, ʔănī}}
| אנא {{transliteration|sem|ʔanā}}
| {{transliteration|sem|ānā}}
| {{transliteration|sem|jiena}}, {{transliteration|sem|jien}}
|-
| You (sg., masc.)
| {{transliteration|sem|*ʔanka > *ʔanta}}
| {{transliteration|sem|atta}}
| أنت {{transliteration|sem|ʔanta}}
| {{transliteration|sem|ʔant}}, ant, inta, inte, inti, int, (i)nta
| {{lang|gez|አንተ}} {{transliteration|sem|ʔánta}}
| אתה {{transliteration|sem|ʔattā}}
| אנת {{transliteration|sem|ʔantā}}
| {{transliteration|sem|āt}}, {{transliteration|sem|āty}}, {{transliteration|sem|āten}}
| {{transliteration|sem|int}}, {{transliteration|sem|inti}}
|-
| You (sg., fem.)
| {{transliteration|sem|*ʔanti}}
| {{transliteration|sem|atti}}
| أنت {{transliteration|sem|ʔanti}}
| ʔanti, anti, {{transliteration|sem|inti, init}} (i)nti, intch
| {{lang|gez|አንቲ}} {{transliteration|sem|ʔánti}}
| את {{transliteration|sem|ʔatt}}
| אנת {{transliteration|sem|ʔanti}}
| {{transliteration|sem|āt}}, {{transliteration|sem|āty}}, {{transliteration|sem|āten}}
| {{transliteration|sem|int}}, {{transliteration|sem|inti}}
|-
| He
| {{transliteration|sem|*suʔa}}
| {{transliteration|sem|šū}}
| هو {{transliteration|sem|huwa}}, hū
| {{transliteration|sem|huwwa, huwwe}}, hū
| {{lang|gez|ውእቱ}} {{transliteration|sem|wəʔətu}}
| הוא {{transliteration|sem|hū}}
| הוא {{transliteration|sem|hu}}
| {{transliteration|sem|owā}}
| {{transliteration|sem|hu}}, {{transliteration|sem|huwa}}
|-
| She
| {{transliteration|sem|*siʔa}}
| {{transliteration|sem|šī}}
| هي {{transliteration|sem|hiya}}, hī
| {{transliteration|sem|hiyya, hiyye}}, hī
| {{lang|gez|ይእቲ}} {{transliteration|sem|yəʔəti}}
| היא {{transliteration|sem|hī}}
| היא {{transliteration|sem|hi}}
| {{transliteration|sem|ayā}}
| {{transliteration|sem|hi}}, {{transliteration|sem|hija}}
|-
| We
| {{transliteration|sem|*niyaħnū, *niyaħnā}}
| {{transliteration|sem|nīnu}}
| نحن {{transliteration|sem|naħnu}}
| niħna, iħna, ħinna
| {{lang|gez|ንሕነ}} {{transliteration|sem|ʔnəħnā}}
| אנו, אנחנו {{transliteration|sem|ʔānū, ʔănaħnū}}
| נחנא {{transliteration|sem|náħnā}}
| {{transliteration|sem|axnan}}
| {{transliteration|sem|aħna}}
|-
| You (dual)
| {{transliteration|sem|*ʔantunā}}
| 
| أنتما {{transliteration|sem|ʔantumā}}
|Plural form is used
| 
| <!-- does not exist -->
| 
|-
| They (dual)
| {{transliteration|sem|*sunā}}{{NoteTag|The Akkadian form is from Sargonic Akkadian. Among the Semitic languages, there are languages with /i/ as the final vowel (this is the form in Mehri). For a recent discussion concerning the reconstruction of the forms of the dual pronouns, see Bar-Asher, Elitzur. 2009. "Dual Pronouns in Semitics and an Evaluation of the Evidence for their Existence in Biblical Hebrew," Ancient Near Eastern Studies 46: 32–49}}
| {{transliteration|sem|*sunī(ti)}}
| هما {{transliteration|sem|humā}}
|Plural form is used
|
| 
| 
|-
| You (pl., masc.)
| {{transliteration|sem|*ʔantunū}}
| {{transliteration|sem|attunu}}
| أنتم {{transliteration|sem|ʔantum}}, {{transliteration|sem|ʔantumu}}
| {{transliteration|sem|ʔantum}}, antum, antu, {{transliteration|sem|intu, intum}}, (i)ntūma
| {{lang|gez|አንትሙ}} {{transliteration|sem|ʔantəmu}}
| אתם {{transliteration|sem|ʔattem}}
| אנתן {{transliteration|sem|ʔantun}}
| | {{transliteration|sem|axtōxūn}}
| {{transliteration|sem|intom}}
|-
| You (pl., fem.)
| {{transliteration|sem|*ʔantinā}}
| {{transliteration|sem|attina}}
| أنتنّ {{transliteration|sem|ʔantunna}}<!--
| {{transl|sem|}}-->
|{{transliteration|sem|ʔantin}}, antin, {{transliteration|sem|ʔantum}}, antu, {{transliteration|sem|intu, intum}}, (i)ntūma
| {{lang|gez|አንትን}} {{transliteration|sem|ʔantən}}
| אתן {{transliteration|sem|ʔatten}}
| אנתן {{transliteration|sem|ʔanten}}
| {{transliteration|sem|axtōxūn}}
| {{transliteration|sem|intom}}
|-
| They (masc.)
| {{transliteration|sem|*sunū}}
| {{transliteration|sem|šunu}}
| هم {{transliteration|sem|hum}}, {{transliteration|sem|humu}}
| hum, {{transliteration|sem|humma}}, hūma, hom, hinne(n)
| {{lang|gez|እሙንቱ}} {{transliteration|sem|ʔəmuntu}}
| הם, המה {{transliteration|sem|hēm, hēmmā}}
| הנן {{transliteration|sem|hinnun}}
| {{transliteration|sem|eni}}
| {{transliteration|sem|huma}}
|-
| They (fem.)
| {{transliteration|sem|*sinā}}
| {{transliteration|sem|šina}}
| هنّ {{transliteration|sem|hunna}}<!--
| {{transl|sem|}}-->
|hin, hinne(n), hum, humma, hūma
| {{lang|gez|እማንቱ}} {{transliteration|sem|ʔəmāntu}}
| הן, הנה {{transliteration|sem|hēn, hēnnā}}
| הנן {{transliteration|sem|hinnin}}
| {{transliteration|sem|eni}}
| {{transliteration|sem|huma}}
|-
|}

===Cardinal numerals===
{| class="wikitable"
! English
! Proto-Semitic<ref>{{cite book |last=Weninger |first=Stefan |year=2011 |chapter=Reconstructive Morphology |title=Semitic languages: an international handbook |editor-first=Stefan |editor-last=Weninger |location=Berlin |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |page=166 |doi=10.1515/9783110251586.151|isbn=978-3-11-018613-0 }}</ref>
! IPA
! Arabic
! Hebrew
! [[Sabaic]]
! Assyrian Neo-Aramaic
! Maltese
! Geʽez
|-
| One
| {{transliteration|sem|*ʼaḥad-, *ʻišt-}}
| {{IPA|ʔaħad, ʔiʃt}}
| واحد، أحد {{IPA|waːħid-, ʔaħad-}}
| אחד {{transliteration|sem|ʼeḥáḏ}}, {{IPA|ʔeˈχad}}
| {{transliteration|sem|ʔḥd}}
| {{transliteration|sem|xā}}
| wieħed
| አሐዱ ʾäḥädu
|-
| Two
| {{transliteration|sem|*ṯin-ān}} (nom.), {{transliteration|sem|*ṯin-ayn}} (obl.), {{transliteration|sem|*kilʼ-}}
| {{IPA|θinaːn, θinajn, kilʔ}}
| اثنان {{IPA|iθn-āni}} (nom.), اثنين {{IPA|iθn-ajni}} (obj.), اثنتان fem. iθnat-āni, اثنتين iθnat-ajni
| שנים {{transliteration|sem|šənáyim}} {{IPA|ˈʃn-ajim}}, fem. שתים {{transliteration|sem|šətáyim}} {{IPA|ˈʃt-ajim}}
| {{transliteration|sem|*ṯny}}
| {{transliteration|sem|treh}}
| tnejn
| ክልኤቱ kəlʾetu
|-
| Three
| {{transliteration|sem|*śalāṯ-}} > {{transliteration|sem|*ṯalāṯ-}}{{NoteTag|This root underwent regressive assimilation.{{sfn|Lipiński|2001|p=}}{{page needed|date=March 2022}} This parallels the non-adjacent assimilation of *ś... > *š...š in proto-Canaanite or proto-North-West-Semitic in the roots *śam?š > *šamš 'sun' and *śur?š > *šurš 'root'.{{sfn|Dolgopolsky|1999|pp=61–62}} The form ''{{transliteration|sem|*ṯalāṯ-}}'' appears in most languages (e.g. Aramaic, Arabic, Ugaritic), but the original form {{transliteration|sem|ślṯ}} appears in the [[Old South Arabian]] languages, and a form with ''s'' < {{transliteration|sem|*ś}} (rather than ''š'' < {{transliteration|sem|*ṯ}}) appears in [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]].}}
| {{IPA|ɬalaːθ > θalaːθ}}
| ثلاث {{IPA|θalaːθ-}}
| fem. שלוש {{transliteration|sem|šālṓš}} {{IPA|ʃaˈloʃ}}
| {{transliteration|sem|*ślṯ}}
| {{transliteration|sem|ṭlā}}
| tlieta
| ሠለስቱ śälästu
|-
| Four
| {{transliteration|sem|*ʼarbaʻ-}}
| {{IPA|ʔarbaʕ}}
| أربع {{IPA|ʔarbaʕ-}}
| fem. ארבע {{transliteration|sem|ʼárbaʻ}} {{IPA|ˈʔaʁba}}
| {{transliteration|sem|*ʼrbʻ}}
| {{transliteration|sem|arpā}}
| erbgħa
| አርባዕቱ ʾärbaʿtu
|-
| Five
| {{transliteration|sem|*ḫamš-}}
| {{IPA|χamʃ}}
| خمس {{IPA|χams-}}
| fem. חמש {{transliteration|sem|ḥā́mēš}} {{IPA|ˈχameʃ}}
| {{transliteration|sem|*ḫmš}}
| {{transliteration|sem|xamšā}}
| ħamsa
| ኀምስቱ ḫämsətu
|-
| Six
| {{transliteration|sem|*šidṯ-}}{{NoteTag|This root was also assimilated in various ways. For example, Hebrew reflects {{transliteration|sem|*šišš-}}, with total assimilation; Arabic reflects {{transliteration|sem|*šitt-}} in cardinal numerals, but less assimilated {{transliteration|sem|*šādiš-}} in ordinal numerals. [[Epigraphic South Arabian]] reflects original {{transliteration|sem|*šdṯ}}; Ugaritic has a form {{transliteration|sem|ṯṯ}}, in which the {{transliteration|sem|ṯ}} has been assimilated throughout the root.{{sfn|Lipiński|2001|p=}}{{page needed|date=March 2022}}}}
| {{IPA|ʃidθ}}
| ستّ {{IPA|sitt-}} (ordinal سادس {{IPA|saːdis-}})
| fem. שש {{transliteration|sem|šēš}} {{IPA|ʃeʃ}}
| {{transliteration|sem|*šdṯ/šṯ}}
| {{transliteration|sem|ëštā}}
| sitta
| ስድስቱ sədsətu
|-
| Seven
| {{transliteration|sem|*šabʻ-}}
| {{IPA|ʃabʕ}}
| سبع {{IPA|sabʕ-}}
| fem. שבע {{transliteration|sem|šéḇaʻ}} {{IPA|ˈʃeva}}
| {{transliteration|sem|*šbʻ}}
| {{transliteration|sem|šowā}}
| sebgħa
| ሰብዐቱ säbʿätu
|-
| Eight
| {{transliteration|sem|*ṯamāniy-}}
| {{IPA|θamaːnij-}}
| ثماني {{IPA|θamaːn-ij-}}
| fem. שמונה {{transliteration|sem|šəmṓneh}} {{IPA|ʃˈmone}}
| {{transliteration|sem|*ṯmny/ṯmn}}
| {{transliteration|sem|*tmanyā}}
| tmienja 
| ሰማንቱ sämantu
|-
| Nine
| {{transliteration|sem|*tišʻ-}}
| {{IPA|tiʃʕ}}
| تسع {{IPA|tisʕ-}}
| fem. תשע {{transliteration|sem|tḗšaʻ}} {{IPA|ˈtejʃa}}
| {{transliteration|sem|*tšʻ}}
| {{transliteration|sem|*učā}}
| disgħa
| ተስዐቱ täsʿätu
|-
| Ten
| {{transliteration|sem|*ʻaśr-}}
| {{IPA|ʕaɬr}}
| عشر {{IPA|ʕaʃ(a)r-}}
| fem. עשר {{transliteration|sem|ʻéśer}} {{IPA|ˈʔeseʁ}}
| {{transliteration|sem|*ʻśr}}
| {{transliteration|sem|*uṣrā}}
| għaxra
| ዐሠርቱ ʿäśärtu
|-
|}
These are the basic numeral stems without feminine suffixes. In most older Semitic languages, the forms of the numerals from 3 to 10 exhibit [[polarity of gender]] (also called "chiastic concord" or "reverse agreement"), i.e. if the counted noun is masculine, the numeral would be feminine and vice versa.

===Typology===

Some early Semitic languages are speculated to have had weak [[ergative-absolutive language|ergative]] features.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|1995|pp=261–71}}; {{harvnb|Coghill|2016|p=}}{{page needed|date=December 2021}}</ref>

==Common vocabulary==
Due to the Semitic languages' common origin, they share some words and roots. Others differ. For example:

{| class="wikitable"
! [[English language|English]]
! Proto-Semitic
! [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]]
! [[Arabic]]
! [[Aramaic]]
! [[Suret language|Suret]]
! [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]
! [[Geʽez]]
! [[Mehri language|Mehri]]
! [[Maltese language|Maltese]]
|-
| father
| {{transliteration|sem|*ʼab-}}
| {{transliteration|sem|''ab-''}}
| {{transliteration|sem|ʼab-}}
| {{transliteration|sem|ʼaḇ-āʼ}}
| {{transliteration|sem|bābā}}
| {{transliteration|sem|ʼāḇ}}
| {{transliteration|sem|ʼab}}
| {{transliteration|sem|ḥa-yb}}
| {{transliteration|sem|bu}} ({{transliteration|sem|missier}})
|-
| heart
| {{transliteration|sem|*lib(a)b-}}
| {{transliteration|sem|libb-}}
| {{transliteration|sem|lubb-}} ({{transliteration|sem|qalb-}})
| {{transliteration|sem|lebb-āʼ}}
| {{transliteration|sem|lëbā}}
| {{transliteration|sem|lëḇ, lëḇāḇ}}
| ləbb
| {{transliteration|sem|ḥa-wbēb}}
| {{transliteration|sem|ilbieba}} ({{transliteration|sem|qalb}})
|-
| house
| {{transliteration|sem|*bayt-}}
| {{transliteration|sem|bītu, bētu}}
| {{transliteration|sem|bayt-}} ({{transliteration|sem|dār-}})
| {{transliteration|sem|bayt-āʼ}}
| {{transliteration|sem|bētā}}
| {{transliteration|sem|báyiṯ}}
| {{transliteration|sem|bet}}
| {{transliteration|sem|beyt, bêt}}
| {{transliteration|sem|bejt}} ({{transliteration|sem|dar}})
|-
| peace
| {{transliteration|sem|*šalām-}}
| {{transliteration|sem|šalām-}}
| {{transliteration|sem|salām-}}
| {{transliteration|sem|šlām-āʼ}}
| {{transliteration|sem|šlāmā}}
| {{transliteration|sem|šālôm}}
| {{transliteration|sem|salām}}
| {{transliteration|sem|səlōm}}
| {{transliteration|sem|sliem}}
|-
| tongue
| {{transliteration|sem|*lišān-/*lašān-}}
| {{transliteration|sem|lišān-}}
| {{transliteration|sem|lisān-}}
| {{transliteration|sem|leššān-āʼ}}
| {{transliteration|sem|lišānā}}
| {{transliteration|sem|lāšôn}}
| ləssān
| {{transliteration|sem|əwšēn}}
| {{transliteration|sem|ilsien}}
|-
| water
| {{transliteration|sem|*may-/*māy-}}
| {{transliteration|sem|mû (root *mā-/*māy-)}}
| {{transliteration|sem|māʼ-/māy}}
| {{transliteration|sem|mayy-āʼ}}
| {{transliteration|sem|mēyā}}
| {{transliteration|sem|máyim}}
| {{transliteration|sem|māy}}
| {{transliteration|sem|ḥə-mō}}
| {{transliteration|sem|ilma}}
|}

Terms given in brackets are not derived from the respective Proto-Semitic roots, though they may also derive from Proto-Semitic (as does e.g. Arabic ''dār'', cf. Biblical Hebrew ''dōr'' "dwelling").

Sometimes, certain roots differ in meaning from one Semitic language to another. For example, the root ''b-y-ḍ'' in Arabic has the meaning of "white" as well as "egg", whereas in Hebrew it only means "egg". The root ''l-b-n'' means "milk" in Arabic, but the color "white" in Hebrew. The root ''l-ḥ-m'' means "meat" in Arabic, but "bread" in Hebrew and "cow" in Ethiopian Semitic; the original meaning was most probably "food". The word ''medina'' (root: ''d-y-n''/''d-w-n'') has the meaning of "metropolis" in Amharic, "city" in Arabic and Ancient Hebrew, and "State" in Modern Hebrew.

There is sometimes no relation between the roots. For example, "knowledge" is represented in Hebrew by the root ''y-d-ʿ'', but in Arabic by the roots ''ʿ-r-f'' and ''ʿ-l-m'' and in Ethiosemitic by the roots ''ʿ-w-q'' and ''f-l-ṭ''.

For more comparative vocabulary lists, see the Wiktionary appendix [[wikt:Appendix:List of Proto-Semitic stems|List of Proto-Semitic stems]].

==Classification==
There are six fairly uncontroversial nodes within the Semitic languages: [[East Semitic languages|East Semitic]], [[Northwest Semitic languages|Northwest Semitic]], [[Classification of Arabic languages|North Arabian]], [[Old South Arabian]] (also known as Sayhadic), [[Modern South Arabian languages|Modern South Arabian]], and [[Ethiopian Semitic languages|Ethiopian Semitic]]. These are generally grouped further, but there is ongoing debate as to which belong together. The classification based on shared innovations given below, established by [[Robert Hetzron]] in 1976 and with later emendations by John Huehnergard and Rodgers as summarized in Hetzron 1997, is the most widely accepted today. In particular, several Semiticists still argue for the traditional (partially nonlinguistic) view of Arabic as part of South Semitic, and a few (e.g. [[Alexander Militarev]] or the German-Egyptian professor Arafa Hussein Mustafa{{Citation needed|date=October 2008}}) see Modern South Arabian as a third branch of Semitic alongside East and West Semitic, rather than as a subgroup of South Semitic. However, a new classification groups Old South Arabian as Central Semitic instead.{{sfn|Hackett|2006|pp=929–35}}

[[Roger Blench]] notes that the [[Gurage languages]] are highly divergent and wonders whether they might not be a primary branch, reflecting an origin of Afroasiatic in or near Ethiopia.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Blench |first1=Roger |title=Archaeology, Language, and the African Past |date=2006 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield|Altamira Press]] |location=Lanham, Maryland |isbn=978-0-7591-0466-2 |page=157 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=esFy3Po57A8C&dq=%22blench%22+%22gurage%22&pg=PA157 |language=en |access-date=3 February 2024 |archive-date=26 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240526080929/https://books.google.com/books?id=esFy3Po57A8C&dq=%22blench%22+%22gurage%22&pg=PA157#v=onepage&q=%22blench%22%20%22gurage%22&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> At a lower level, there is still no general agreement on where to draw the line between "languages" and "dialects"{{snd}}an issue particularly relevant in Arabic, Aramaic and Gurage{{snd}}and the strong mutual influences between Arabic dialects render a genetic subclassification of them particularly difficult.

A [[computational phylogenetic]] analysis by Kitchen et al. (2009) considers the Semitic languages to have originated in the [[Levant]] {{circa|3750 BCE}} during the Early [[Bronze Age]], with early Ethiosemitic originating from southern Arabia {{circa|800 BCE}}.{{sfn|Kitchen|Ehret|Assefa|2009|pp=2703–10}} Evidence for gene movements consistent with this were found in Almarri et al. (2021).<ref>{{Cite journal|url = https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.10.18.342816v2.full|doi = 10.1016/j.cell.2021.07.013|biorxiv = 10.1101/2020.10.18.342816|title = The Genomic History of the Middle East|year = 2020|last1 = Almarri|first1 = Mohamed A.|last2 = Haber|first2 = Marc|last3 = Lootah|first3 = Reem A.|last4 = Hallast|first4 = Pille|last5 = Turki|first5 = Saeed Al|last6 = Martin|first6 = Hilary C.|last7 = Xue|first7 = Yali|last8 = Tyler-Smith|first8 = Chris|journal = Cell|volume = 184|issue = 18|pages = 4612–4625.e14|pmid = 34352227|pmc = 8445022|access-date = 24 December 2021|archive-date = 25 February 2022|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220225030711/https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.10.18.342816v2.full|url-status = live}}</ref>

The [[Himyaritic language|Himyaritic]] and [[Sutean language]]s appear to have been Semitic, but are unclassified due to insufficient data.

;Summary classification

* [[East Semitic languages|East Semitic]]
* [[West Semitic languages|West Semitic]]
** [[Central Semitic languages|Central Semitic]]
*** [[Northwest Semitic languages|Northwest Semitic]]
*** [[Arabic languages|Arabic]]
** [[South Semitic languages|South Semitic]]
*** Western: [[Ethiopian Semitic languages|Ethiopian Semitic]] and [[Old South Arabian]]
*** Eastern: [[Modern South Arabian languages|Modern South Arabian]]

===Detailed list===
{{tree list}}
* '''Semitic'''
** [[East Semitic languages|East Semitic]] (All extinct)
*** [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]]
**** Old Akkadian
**** Babylonian
**** Assyrian
**** [[Canaano-Akkadian language|Canaano-Akkadian]]
*** [[Eblaite language|Eblaite]]
*** [[Kish (Sumer)|Kishite]]<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0FGEMW1NQmwC&pg=PA40|title= Civilizations of Ancient Iraq|author1=Benjamin Read Foster |author2=Karen Polinger Foster |page= 40|isbn= 978-0691137223|year= 2009|publisher= Princeton University Press}}</ref><ref name="Rebecca">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eiHXt0yIWiIC&pg=PA3|title= Sargonic Akkadian: A Historical and Comparative Study of the Syllabic Texts|author=Rebecca Hasselbach|page= 3|isbn= 9783447051729|year= 2005|publisher= Otto Harrassowitz Verlag}}</ref>
*** [[Dilmun#People and language|Dilmunite]] ?
** [[West Semitic languages|West Semitic]]
*** [[Central Semitic languages|Central Semitic]]
**** [[Northwest Semitic languages|Northwest Semitic]]
***** [[Aramaic]]
****** [[Old Aramaic]]
******* [[Samalian language|Samalian]]  (extinct)
******* [[Imperial Aramaic]] (extinct)
******** [[Biblical Aramaic]] (extinct)
******* [[Aramaic#Middle Aramaic|Middle Aramaic]]
******** [[Eastern Aramaic languages|Eastern Aramaic]] ([[dialect continuum]])
********* [[Aramaic#Eastern Middle Aramaic|Eastern Middle Aramaic]]
********** [[Syriac language|Classical Syriac]]
********** [[Hatran Aramaic]] (extinct)
********** [[Central Neo-Aramaic]]
*********** [[Turoyo language|Turoyo (Surayt)]]
*********** [[Mlaḥsô language|Mlaḥsô]] (extinct)
********** [[Northeastern Neo-Aramaic]] ([[dialect continuum]])
*********** [[Suret language|Sureth]]
************ [[Assyrian Neo-Aramaic]]
************* [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Urmia|Christian Urmi Neo-Aramaic]]
************* [[Neo-Aramaic dialect of Bohtan|Bohtan Neo-Aramaic]]
************* [[Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Senaya|Senaya Neo-Aramaic]] 
************ [[Chaldean Neo-Aramaic]]
*********** [[Koy Sanjaq Christian Neo-Aramaic]]
*********** [[Neo-Aramaic dialect of Hertevin|Hertevin Neo-Aramaic]]
*********** [[Qaraqosh Neo-Aramaic]]
*********** [[Judeo-Aramaic languages#Modern dialects|Jewish Assyrian Neo-Aramaic]]
************ [[Inter-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic|Lishanid Noshan]]
************ [[Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Barzani|Barzani Jewish Neo-Aramaic]]
************ [[Trans-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic|Hulaulá]]
************ [[Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Zakho|Lishana Deni]]
************ [[Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Urmia|Lishán Didán]]
************ [[Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Betanure|Betanure Jewish Neo-Aramaic]]
************ [[Koy Sanjaq Jewish Neo-Aramaic]]
********** Southeastern Aramaic
*********** [[Mandaic language|Mandaic]]
************ [[Neo-Mandaic]]
*********** [[Jewish Babylonian Aramaic]] (extinct)
******** [[Western Aramaic languages|Western Aramaic]] ([[dialect continuum]])
********* [[Aramaic#Western Middle Aramaic|Western Middle Aramaic]]
********** [[Nabataean Aramaic]] (extinct)
********** [[Palmyrene Aramaic]] (extinct)
********** [[Western Neo-Aramaic]]
********** Palestinian Aramaic (All extinct)
*********** [[Samaritan Aramaic language|Samaritan Aramaic]]
*********** [[Jewish Palestinian Aramaic]]
************ [[Galilean dialect]]
*********** [[Christian Palestinian Aramaic]]
********** [[Lebanese Aramaic]] (extinct)
******** [[Armazic language|Armazic]] (extinct)
***** [[Canaanite languages|Canaanite]]
****** North Canaanite
******* [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]] (extinct)
******** [[Punic language|Punic]] (extinct)
****** South Canaanite
******* [[Ammonite language|Ammonite]] (extinct)
******* [[Moabite language|Moabite]] (extinct)
******* [[Edomite language|Edomite]] (extinct)
******* [[Biblical Hebrew]]
******** [[Mishnaic Hebrew]]
********* [[Medieval Hebrew]]
********** [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ([[Modern Hebrew]]) (revived)
******** [[Samaritan Hebrew]] (extinct (apart from modern liturgical uses))
***** [[Ugaritic]] (extinct)
***** [[Amorite language|Amorite]] (extinct)
***** [[Taymanitic]] ? (extinct)
**** [[Classification of Arabic languages|North Arabian]]
***** [[Old Arabic]]
****** [[Pre-classical Arabic]]
******* [[Arabic]]
******** [[Classical Arabic]]
********* [[Modern Standard Arabic]]
******** [[Mashriqi Arabic]] (Eastern Arabic) ([[dialect continuum]])
********* [[Peninsular Arabic]] ([[dialect continuum]])
********** [[Old Hijazi Arabic]]
*********** [[Hejazi Arabic]]
********** [[Gulf Arabic]]
*********** [[Emirati Arabic]]
*********** [[Bahraini Gulf Arabic]]
*********** [[Kuwaiti Arabic]]
********** [[Bahrani Arabic]]
********** [[Omani Arabic]]
********** [[Shihhi Arabic]]
********** [[Dhofari Arabic]]
********** [[Yemeni Arabic]] ([[dialect continuum]])
*********** [[Hadhrami Arabic]]
************ [[Indonesian Arabic]]
*********** [[Sanʽani Arabic]]
*********** [[Taʽizzi-Adeni Arabic]]
************ Taʽizzi Arabic
************ Adeni Arabic
************ Djibouti Arabic
*********** [[Judeo-Yemeni Arabic]]
*********** [[Tihamiyya Arabic]]
************ [[Yemeni Arabic#Zabidi dialect|Zabidi dialect]]
*********** [[Yemeni Arabic#Yafi'i Arabic dialect|Yafi'i Arabic]]
********** [[Northwest Arabian Arabic]] (Levantine Bedawi Arabic, Eastern Egyptian Bedawi Arabic)
********** [[Najdi Arabic]]
********** [[Bareqi Arabic]]
********* Egypto-Sudanic Arabic ([[dialect continuum]])
********** [[Egyptian Arabic]] ([[dialect continuum]])
*********** [[Judeo-Egyptian Arabic]]
*********** [[Saʽidi Arabic]]
*********** [[Egyptian Arabic|Cairene Arabic]]
********** Sudanese-Chadian Arabic ([[dialect continuum]])
*********** [[Sudanese Arabic]]
*********** [[Chadian Arabic]]
********* [[Levantine Arabic]] ([[dialect continuum]])
********** [[North Levantine Arabic]]
*********** [[Çukurova Arabic|Cilician Arabic]]
*********** [[Aleppo Arabic|Aleppine Arabic]]
*********** [[Damascus Arabic|Damascene Arabic]]
*********** [[Judeo-Syrian Arabic]]
*********** [[Lebanese Arabic]]
********** [[South Levantine Arabic]]
*********** [[Palestinian Arabic]]
************ [[Modern Palestinian Judeo-Arabic]]
*********** [[Jordanian Arabic]]
********* [[Mesopotamian Arabic]]/[[Iraqi Arabic]] ([[dialect continuum]])
********** [[Gilit Mesopotamian Arabic|Gilit]] Dialects ([[dialect continuum]])
*********** [[Baghdadi Arabic]]
*********** [[Shawi Arabic]]
*********** [[Khuzestani Arabic]]
*********** [[South Mesopotamian Arabic]]
********** [[North Mesopotamian Arabic|Qeltu]] Dialects ([[dialect continuum]])
*********** [[North Mesopotamian Arabic]]
*********** [[Anatolian Arabic]]
*********** [[Judeo-Iraqi Arabic]]
************ [[Baghdad Jewish Arabic|Jewish Baghdadi Arabic]]
*********** [[Cypriot Arabic]]
********* [[Central Asian Arabic]] ([[dialect continuum]])
********** Bakhtiari Arabic
********** Bukharian Arabic
********** Kashkadarian Arabic
********** [[Khorasani Arabic]]
********* [[Shirvani Arabic]] (extinct)
******** [[Maghrebi Arabic]] (Western Arabic) ([[dialect continuum]])
********* [[Pre-Hilalian Arabic dialects|Pre-Hilalian dialects]]
********** [[Pre-Hilalian Urban Arabic dialects]]
*********** [[Fessi dialect]]
********** [[Jebli Arabic]]
********** [[Jijel Arabic]]
********** Maghrebi [[Judeo-Arabic]]
*********** [[Judeo-Moroccan Arabic]]
*********** [[Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic]]
*********** [[Judeo-Tunisian Arabic]]
*********** [[Judeo-Algerian Arabic]]
********** [[Siculo-Arabic]]
*********** [[Maltese Language|Maltese]]
************ [[Cottonera Dialect]]
************ [[Gozitan dialects]]
************ [[Qormi dialect]]
************ [[Żejtun dialect]]
************ [[Maltralian]]
************ [[Corfiot Maltese]] (extinct)
********** [[Andalusi Arabic]] (extinct)
********** Eastern pre-Hilali Dialects
*********** [[Tunisian Arabic]]
********** Western pre-Hilali dialects
********* [[Hilalian dialects]]
********** Sulaym dialects
*********** [[Libyan Arabic]]
************ [[Western Egyptian Bedawi Arabic]]
********** Eastern Hilali dialects
********** Central Hilali dialects
*********** [[Algerian Saharan Arabic]]
********** Western Hilali dialects
**********  Maqil dialects
*********** [[Hassaniya Arabic]]
********* Koines
********** [[Algerian Arabic]]
********** [[Moroccan Arabic]]
******* [[Pre-classical Arabic#ˀAzd dialect|ˀAzd dialect]] (extinct)
******* [[Pre-classical Arabic#Huḏayl dialect|Huḏayl dialect]] (extinct)
******* [[Pre-classical Arabic#Ṭayyiˀ dialect|Ṭayyiˀ dialect]] (extinct)
****** [[Safaitic#Language|Safaitic]] (extinct)
****** [[Hismaic]] (extinct)
****** [[Hasaitic]] (extinct)
****** [[Nabataean Arabic]] (extinct)
***** [[Dadanitic]] ? (extinct)
***** [[Thamudic]] ? (extinct)
*** [[South Semitic languages|South Semitic]]
**** Western South Semitic
***** [[Ethiopian Semitic languages|Ethiopic]]
****** North Ethiopic
******* [[Geʽez]] (Classical Ethiopic)
******** [[Dahalik language|Dahalik]]
******** [[Tigre language|Tigre]]
******* [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]]
****** South Ethiopic
******* Transversal South Ethiopic
******** Amharic–Argobba
********* [[Amharic]]
********* [[Argobba language|Argobba]]
******** Harari–East Gurage
********* [[Harari language|Harari]]
********* [[Gurage languages#Eastern|East Gurage]]
********** [[Siltʼe language|Silt'e]]
********** [[Zay language|Zway]]
******* Outer South Ethiopic
******** n-group
********* [[Gafat language|Gafat]] (extinct)
********* [[Soddo language|Soddo]]
******** tt-group
********* [[Mesmes language|Mesmes]] (extinct)
********* [[Muher language|Muher]]
********* [[Gurage languages#Western|West Gurage]]
********** [[Mesqan language|Mesqan]]
********** Sebat Bet
*********** [[Sebat Bet Gurage language|Sebat Bet Gurage]]
*********** [[Inor language|Inor]]
***** [[Old South Arabian|Old South Arabian (Ṣayhadic)]]
****** [[Sabaic]] (extinct)
****** [[Minaean language|Minaean]] (extinct)
****** [[Qatabanian language|Qatabanian]] (extinct)
******* Awsānian (extinct)
****** [[Hadramautic language|Hadramautic]] (extinct)
****** [[Razihi language|Razihi]] ?
****** [[Faifi language|Faifi]] ?
****** [[Himyaritic language|Himyaritic]] ? (extinct)
**** [[Modern South Arabian languages|Modern South Arabian (Eastern South Semitic)]]
***** [[Baṭḥari language|Baṭḥari]]
***** [[Ḥarsusi language|Ḥarsusi]]
***** [[Hobyót language|Hobyót]]
***** [[Mehri language|Mehri]]
***** [[Shehri language|Shehri]]
***** [[Soqotri language|Soqotri]]
** Unclassified
*** [[Sutean language|Sutean]] (extinct)
{{tree list/end}}

==Semitic-speaking peoples==
The following is a list of some modern and [[ancient Semitic-speaking peoples]] and nations:
[[File:Detailed Afroasiatic map.svg|thumb|350px|Distribution of the Semitic-speaking peoples]]

===Central Semitic===
* [[Amorites]]
* [[Arabs]]
** [[Alawites]]
** [[Ancient North Arabian]]-speaking [[bedouin]]s
** [[Itureans]]
** [[Nabataeans]]
** [[Tayy]]
** [[Thamud]]{{snd}}2nd to 5th centuries AD
* [[Arameans]]{{snd}}an ancient Northwest Semitic people. They had various kingdoms and city-states and were historically organized in tribal structures.
** [[Ahlamu]]
** [[Terms for Syriac Christians#Aramean identity|Arameans (Syriacs)]]{{snd}}a minority ethnic group in the [[Qalamoun Mountains|Qalamoun mountains]] who still speak [[Western Aramaic languages|Western Aramaic]].<ref>{{cite book |author1=Abū al-Faraj ʻIshsh |title=اثرنا في الايقليم السوري |publisher=Al-Maṭbaʻah al-Jadīdah |page=56 |language=Arabic |quote=السريان في معلولا وجبعدين ولا يزال الأهلون فيها يتكلمون}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=iنصر الله، إلياس أنطون |title=إلياس أنطون نصر الله في معلولا |publisher=لينين |page=45 |language=Arabic |quote=... معلولا السريان منذ القديم ، والذين ثبتت سريانيتهم بأدلة كثيرة هم وعين التينة وبخعا وجبعدين فحافظوا على لغتهم وكتبهم أكثر من غيرهم . وكان للقوم في تلك الأيام لهجتان ، لهجة عاميّة وهي الباقية الآن في معلولا وجوارها ( جبعدين وبخعا ) ...}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=Rafik Schami |title=Märchen aus Malula |date=25 July 2011 |publisher=Carl Hanser Verlag GmbH & Company KG |isbn=9783446239005 |page=151 |language=German |quote=Ich kenne das Dorf nicht, doch gehört habe ich davon. Was ist mit Malula?‹ fragte der festgehaltene Derwisch. >Das letzte Dorf der Aramäer< lachte einer der…}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=Yaron Matras |author2=Jeanette Sakel |title=Grammatical Borrowing in Cross-Linguistic Perspective |date=2007 |publisher=De Gruyter |isbn=9783110199192 |page=185 |doi=10.1515/9783110199192 |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110199192/html |language=English |quote=The fact that nearly all Arabic loans in Ma'lula originate from the period before the change from the rural dialect to the city dialect of Damascus shows that the contact between the Aramaeans and the Arabs was intimate… |access-date=1 May 2024 |archive-date=26 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240526080929/https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110199192/html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=Dr. Emna Labidi |title=Untersuchungen zum Spracherwerb zweisprachiger Kinder im Aramäerdorf Dschubbadin (Syrien) |date=2022 |publisher=LIT |isbn=9783643152619 |page=133 |url=https://www.lit-verlag.de/isbn/978-3-643-15261-9 |language=German |quote=Aramäer von Ǧubbˁadīn |access-date=1 May 2024 |archive-date=26 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240526080935/https://lit-verlag.de/isbn/978-3-643-15261-9/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=Prof. Dr. Werner Arnold |author2=P. Behnstedt |title=Arabisch-aramäische Sprachbeziehungen im Qalamūn (Syrien) |date=1993 |publisher=Harassowitz |isbn=9783447033268 |page=42 |language=German |quote=Die arabischen Dialekte der Aramäer}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=Prof. Dr. Werner Arnold |author2=P. Behnstedt |title=Arabisch-aramäische Sprachbeziehungen im Qalamūn (Syrien) |date=1993 |publisher=Harassowitz |isbn=9783447033268 |page=5 |language=German |quote=Die Kontakte zwischen den drei Aramäer-dörfern sind nicht besonders stark.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=Prof. Dr. Werner Arnold |title=Lehrbuch des Neuwestaramäischen |date=2006 |publisher=Harrassowitz |isbn=9783447053136 |page=133 |url=https://www.harrassowitz-verlag.de/isbn_978-3-447-05313-6.ahtml |language=German |quote=Aramäern in Ma'lūla |access-date=1 May 2024 |archive-date=26 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240526080933/https://www.harrassowitz-verlag.de/isbn_978-3-447-05313-6.ahtml |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=Prof. Dr. Werner Arnold |title=Lehrbuch des Neuwestaramäischen |date=2006 |publisher=Harrassowitz |isbn=9783447053136 |page=15 |language=German |quote=Viele Aramäer arbeiten heute in Damaskus, Beirut oder in den Golfstaaten und verbringen nur die Sommermonate im Dorf.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://friendsofmaaloula.de/en/ | title=Hilfe für das Aramäerdorf Maaloula e.V. &#124; an aid project in Syria | access-date=1 December 2023 | archive-date=16 January 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240116150614/https://friendsofmaaloula.de/en/ | url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Canaanite languages|Canaanite-speaking]] nations of the early Iron Age:
** [[Ammon|Ammonites]]
** [[Edom|Edomites]]{{snd}}appeared in Transjordan between 11th to 2nd centuries BCE. Eventually assimilated into Jewish population during Hasmonean conquest.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Weitzman |first=Steven |date=1999 |title=Forced Circumcision and the Shifting Role of Gentiles in Hasmonean Ideology |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1510155 |journal=The Harvard Theological Review |volume=92 |issue=1 |pages=37–59 |doi=10.1017/S0017816000017843 |jstor=1510155 |s2cid=162887617 |issn=0017-8160 |access-date=28 December 2023 |archive-date=26 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240526080933/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1510155 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
** [[Hebrews]]/[[Israelites]]{{snd}}founded the nation of [[History of ancient Israel and Judah|Israel]] which later split into the Kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Israel]] and [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]]. 
*** [[Jews]]
*** [[Samaritans]]
** [[Moab|Moabites]]
** [[Phoenicia|Phoenicians]]{{snd}}founded Mediterranean colonies including [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]], [[Sidon]] and [[ancient Carthage]]/[[Punics]]. The remnants of these people became the modern inhabitants of Lebanon.
* [[Chaldea|Chaldeans]]{{snd}}appeared in southern Mesopotamia {{circa|1000 BC}} and eventually disappeared into the general Babylonian population.
* [[Druze]]
* [[Maltese people|Maltese]]
* [[Mandaeans]]
* [[Maronites]]
* [[Mhallami]]
* [[Samalian|Samalians]]
* [[Ugarit|Ugarites]]{{snd}}14th to 12th centuries BC

===East Semitic===
* [[Akkadian Empire|Akkadians]]{{snd}}ancient East Semitic speakers who moved from the [[Arabian Desert]]<ref>{{cite book |title=World History |isbn=9789712314728 |page=57 |quote=About 3000 B.C. the nomadic Akkadians, a Semitic people from the Arabian Desert, migrated to Mesopotamia and founded the city-state of Akkad in a region north of Sumer. |last1=Zaide |first1=Gregorio F. |date=16 December 1994 |publisher=Rex Bookstore }}</ref> into Mesopotamia in the fourth millennium BC and settled among the indigenous peoples of [[Sumer]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9110693/Mesopotamian-religion |title=Mesopotamian religion – Britannica Online Encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Britannica.com |access-date=2013-01-27 |archive-date=30 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330151146/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mesopotamian-religion |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9005290/Akkadian-language#62711.hook |title=Akkadian language – Britannica Online Encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Britannica.com |access-date=2013-01-27 |archive-date=26 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080726034545/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9005290/Akkadian-language#62711.hook |url-status=live }}</ref>
**[[Assyria|Assyrians]]
***Modern [[Assyrian people]]
**[[Babylonia|Babylonians]]
*[[Ebla|Eblaites]]{{snd}}23rd century BC

===South Semitic===
* [[Ethiopian Semitic languages|Abyssinian]]-speaking peoples
** [[Kingdom of Aksum|Axum]]{{snd}}4th century BC to 7th century AD
** [[Amhara people]]
** [[Argobba people]]
** [[Dahalik language|Dahalik people]]
** [[Gurage people]]
** [[Harari people]]
** [[Beta Israel]], [[Beta Abraham]], and [[Falash Mura]]s.
** [[Jeberti people]]
** [[Silt'e people]]
** [[Tigrigni|Tigrigna People]] 
** [[Tigrayans|Tigray people]]
** [[Tigre people]]
** [[Wolane people]]
** [[Zay people]]
* [[Old South Arabian|Old]] and [[Modern South Arabian]]-speaking peoples
** [[Bathari language|Bathari people]]
** [[Faifi language|Faifi people]]
** Ancient [[Hadramautic language|Hadramitic]]-speakers. Eventually evolved into the modern day [[Hadhrami people]].
** [[Himyarites]] from 110 BCE until 578 CE
*** [[Yemenite Jews]]
** [[Harasis|Harsusi people]]
** [[Hobyot language|Hobyot people]]
** [[Mehri people]]
** [[Minaeans]]{{snd}}8th century BCE to 2nd centuries BC
** [[Qatabanians]]
** [[Shehri language|Shehri people]]
** [[Razihi language|Razihi people]]
** [[Sabaeans]] of Yemen{{snd}}8th to 1st centuries BC
** [[Soqotri people]]

===Unknown===
* [[Suteans]]{{snd}}14th century BC

==See also==
* [[Proto-Semitic language]]
* [[Middle Bronze Age alphabets]]
* [[Semitic studies]]

==Notes==
{{NoteFoot}}
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
<!-- The entries in the bibliography are (or should) in alphabetical order. Comments show names of named references -->
{{Refbegin|30em}}
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* {{Citation |last=Izre'el |first=Shlomo |title=Canaano-Akkadian |date=1987c |url=https://www.tau.ac.il/~izreel/publications/CanAkkMethRequisites_2007.pdf |access-date=10 August 2020 |archive-date=21 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201021074302/https://www.tau.ac.il/~izreel/publications/CanAkkMethRequisites_2007.pdf |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Kiraz |first=George Anton |author-link=George Kiraz |title=Computational Nonlinear Morphology: With Emphasis on Semitic Languages |year=2001 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=9780521631969 |page=25 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dpl3dHMjVZcC |quote=The term "Semitic" is borrowed from the Bible (Gene. x.21 and xi.10–26). It was first used by the Orientalist A. L. Schlözer in 1781 to designate the languages spoken by the Aramæans, Hebrews, Arabs, and other peoples of the Near East (Moscati et al., 1969, Sect. 1.2). Before Schlözer, these languages and dialects were known as ''Oriental languages''. }}
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* {{cite book |last=Kitto |first=John |author-link=John Kitto |title=A Cyclopædia of Biblical Literature |year=1845 |publisher=[[William Clowes Ltd.|W. Clowes and Sons]] |location=London |quote=That important family of languages, of which the Arabic is the most cultivated and most widely-extended branch, has long wanted an appropriate common name. The term ''Oriental'' languages, which was exclusively applied to it from the time of [[Jerome]] down to the end of the last century, and which is even now not entirely abandoned, must always have been an unscientific one, inasmuch as the countries in which these languages prevailed are only the ''east'' in respect to Europe; and when [[Sanskrit]], [[Chinese language|Chinese]], and other idioms of the [[Far East|remoter East]] were brought within the reach of our research, it became palpably incorrect. Under a sense of this impropriety, [[Johann Gottfried Eichhorn|Eichhorn]] was the first, as he says himself (Allg. Bibl. Biblioth. vi. 772), to introduce the name ''Semitic'' languages, which was soon generally adopted, and which is the most usual one at the present day. [...] In modern times, however, the very appropriate designation ''Syro-Arabian languages'' has been proposed by Dr. [[James Cowles Prichard|Prichard]], in his ''Physical History of Man''. This term, [...] has the advantage of forming an exact counterpart to the name by which the only other great family of languages with which we are likely to bring the Syro-Arabian into relations of contrast or accordance, is now universally known—the ''[[Indo-European languages|Indo-Germanic]]''. Like it, by taking up only the two extreme members of a whole sisterhood according to their geographical position when in their native seats, it embraces all the intermediate branches under a common band; and, like it, it constitutes a name which is not only at once intelligible, but one which in itself conveys a notion of that affinity between the sister dialects, which it is one of the objects of [[Comparative linguistics|comparative philology]] to demonstrate and to apply.}}
* {{cite book |last=Kogan |first=Leonid |editor-last=Weninger |editor-first=Stefan |title=The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC&pg=PA54 |year=2012 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-025158-6 |chapter=Proto-Semitic Phonology and Phonetics }}
* {{Cite book |last=Kuntz |first=Marion Leathers |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=030L3fsNSPIC |title=Guillaume Postel: Prophet of the Restitution of All Things His Life and Thought |date=1981 |publisher=Nijhoff |isbn=90-247-2523-2 |location=The Hague |access-date=17 December 2021 |archive-date=26 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240526081452/https://books.google.com/books?id=030L3fsNSPIC |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Kogan |first=Leonid |title=The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |year=2011 |isbn=978-3-11-025158-6 |editor-last=Weninger |editor-first=Stefan |chapter=Proto-Semitic Phonology and Phonetics |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC |access-date=7 May 2017 |archive-date=18 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231018170312/https://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Levine |first=Donald N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC |title=Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society |date=2000 |isbn=978-0-226-22967-6 |edition=2. |publisher=University of Chicago Press |access-date=17 December 2021 |archive-date=26 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240526081440/https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Lipiński |first=Edward |title=Semitic Languages: Outline of a Comparative Grammar |date=2001 |publisher=Peeters |isbn=90-429-0815-7 |edition=2nd |location=Leuven |author-link=Edward Lipiński (orientalist)}}
* Mustafa, Arafa Hussein. 1974. ''Analytical study of phrases and sentences in epic texts of Ugarit.'' (German title: Untersuchungen zu Satztypen in den epischen Texten von Ugarit). Dissertation. Halle-Wittenberg: Martin-Luther-University.
* {{Cite book |last=Moscati |first=Sabatino |title=An Introduction to the Comparative Grammar of the Semitic Languages: Phonology and Morphology |date=1969 |publisher=Harrassowitz |location=Wiesbaden}}
* {{cite journal |last=Moscati |first=Sabatino |year=1958 |title=On Semitic Case-Endings |journal=Journal of Near Eastern Studies |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=142–144 |doi=10.1086/371454 |s2cid=161828505}}
* {{cite journal |last=Müller |first=Hans-Peter |title=Ergative Constructions In Early Semitic Languages |journal=Journal of Near Eastern Studies |volume=54 |issue=4 |year=1995 |pages=261–271 |jstor=545846 |doi=10.1086/373769 |s2cid=161626451}}
* {{Cite book |last=Nebes |first=Norbert |title=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica |date=2005 |publisher=Harrassowitz |isbn=978-3-447-05238-2 |editor-last=Uhlig |editor-first=Siegbert |chapter=Epigraphic South Arabian |location=Wiesbaden}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ullendorff |first=Edward |title=The Semitic Languages of Ethiopia: A Comparative Phonology |date=1955 |publisher=Taylor's (Foreign) Press |location=London |author-link=Edward Ullendorff}}
* {{cite book |last=Owens |first=Jonathan |date=2013 |title=The Oxford Handbook of Arabic Linguistics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1IJoAgAAQBAJ |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0199344093 |access-date=26 August 2020 |archive-date=26 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240526081441/https://books.google.com/books?id=1IJoAgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Phillipson |first1=David |title=Foundations of an African Civilization, Aksum and the Northern Horn 1000 BC-AD 1300 |date=2012 |publisher=Boydell & Brewer |isbn=9781846158735 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/foundations-of-an-african-civilisation/085D477B9A156FEE4C8D1A3128B9B52A |access-date=6 May 2021 |quote=The former belief that this arrival of South-Semitic-speakers took place in about the second quarter of the first millennium BC can no longer be accepted in view of linguistic indications that these languages were spoken in the northern Horn at a much earlier date. |archive-date=26 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240526081945/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/foundations-of-an-african-civilisation/085D477B9A156FEE4C8D1A3128B9B52A |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Ruhlen |first=Merritt |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mYwmDE3f6wUC |title=A Guide to the World's Languages: Classification |date=1991 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=0-8047-1894-6 |location=Stanford, California |quote=The other linguistic group to be recognized in the eighteenth century was the Semitic family. The German scholar Ludwig von Schlozer is often credited with having recognized, and named, the Semitic family in 1781. But the affinity of Hebrew, Arabic, and Aramaic had been recognized for centuries by Jewish, Christian and Islamic scholars, and this knowledge was published in Western Europe as early as 1538 (see Postel 1538). Around 1700 Hiob Ludolf, who had written grammars of Geez and Amharic (both Ethiopic Semitic languages) in the seventeenth century, recognized the extension of the Semitic family into East Africa. Thus when von Schlozer named the family in 1781 he was merely recognizing genetic relationships that had been known for centuries. Three Semitic languages (Aramaic, Arabic, and Hebrew) were long familiar to Europeans both because of their geographic proximity and because the Bible was written in Hebrew and Aramaic. |access-date=26 August 2020 |archive-date=26 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240526082005/https://books.google.com/books?id=mYwmDE3f6wUC |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Sánchez |first=Francisco del Río |url=https://www.academia.edu/3782152 |title=Archaism and Innovation in the Semitic Languages. Selected Papers. |date=2013 |publisher=Oriens Academic |isbn=978-84-695-7829-2 |editor-last=Monferrer-Sala |editor-first=Juan Pedro |location=Córdoba |editor-last2=Watson |editor-first2=Wilfred G. E. |access-date=19 February 2022 |archive-date=11 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210911023114/https://www.academia.edu/3782152 |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Smart |first=J. R. |title=Tradition and modernity in Arabic language and literature |date=2013 |others=Smart, J. R., Shaban Memorial Conference (2nd : 1994 : University of Exeter) |isbn=978-1-13678-812-3 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |location=Richmond, Surrey, U.K.}} 
* {{Cite book |last=Versteegh |first=Kees |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2tghviSsrF8C |title=The Arabic Language |date=1997 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-11152-2 |location=New York |author-link=Kees Versteegh |access-date=21 December 2018 |archive-date=26 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240526082009/https://books.google.com/books?id=2tghviSsrF8C |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last1=Waltke |first1=Bruce K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jZlwYGilLW0C |title=An Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax |last2=O'Connor |first2=Michael Patrick |date=1990 |publisher=Eisenbrauns |isbn=0-931464-31-5 |volume=3 |location=Winona Lake, Indiana |access-date=17 December 2021 |archive-date=26 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240526082948/https://books.google.com/books?id=jZlwYGilLW0C |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Watson |first=Janet C. E. |url=http://www.kamal-osman.com/wp-content/uploads/The-Phonolgy-and-Morphology-of-Arabic-watson.pdf |title=The Phonology and Morphology of Arabic |date=2002 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-824137-2 |author-link=Janet Watson (linguist) |location=New York |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160301132237/http://www.kamal-osman.com/wp-content/uploads/The-Phonolgy-and-Morphology-of-Arabic-watson.pdf |archive-date=2016-03-01 |url-status=dead |via=[[Wayback Machine]] }}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Woodard |editor-first=Roger D. |year=2008 |title=The Ancient Languages of Syrio-Palestine and Arabia |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |url=http://e-learning.tsu.ge/pluginfile.php/5868/mod_resource/content/0/dzveli_armosavluri_enebi_-ugarituli_punikuri_arameuli_ebrauli_arabuli.pdf |access-date=17 May 2017 |archive-date=11 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111190458/https://e-learning.tsu.ge/pluginfile.php/5868/mod_resource/content/0/dzveli_armosavluri_enebi_-ugarituli_punikuri_arameuli_ebrauli_arabuli.pdf |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last1=Wright |first1=William |title=Lectures on the Comparative Grammar of the Semitic Languages |last2=Smith |first2=William Robertson |date=1890 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge}} [2002 edition: {{ISBN|1-931956-12-X}}]
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{sister project links|collapsible=true|commons=Category:Semitic Languages|b=Subject:Semitic Languages|v=Topic:Semitic Languages|n=no|s=y|species=no|voy=no|d=no|wikt=Category:Semitic Languages}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090104234232/http://community.livejournal.com/terra_linguarum/95880.html Semitic genealogical tree] (as well as the Afroasiatic one), presented by [[Alexander Militarev]] at his talk "Genealogical classification of Afro-Asiatic languages according to the latest data" (at the conference on the 70th anniversary of [[Vladislav Illich-Svitych]], Moscow, 2004; [https://web.archive.org/web/20100818025156/http://community.livejournal.com/terra_linguarum/95627.html short annotations of the talks given there] {{in lang|ru}}
* [https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00831338 ''Pattern-and-root inflectional morphology: the Arabic broken plural'']
* [https://www.usatoday.com/tech/science/discoveries/2007-01-23-snake-spell_x.htm Ancient snake spell in Egyptian pyramid may be oldest Semitic inscription]
* [https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02113751 '' Alexis Neme and Sébastien Paumier (2019), Restoring Arabic vowels through omission-tolerant dictionary lookup, Lang Resources & Evaluation, Vol 53, 1–65 pages'']
* [[wikt:Appendix:Afroasiatic Swadesh lists|Swadesh vocabulary lists of Semitic languages]] (from Wiktionary's [[wikt:Appendix:Swadesh lists|Swadesh-list appendix]])

{{Semitic languages}}
{{Afro-Asiatic languages}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2017}}

[[Category:Semitic languages| ]]
[[Category:Afroasiatic languages]]