Editing Service-learning

{{short description|Pedagogy combining learning objectives with community service}}
[[File:Service Learning at Batam.jpg|thumb|A Service Learning Project at Butam organized by MaxPac Travel for Catholic Junior College students. January 15, 2009. Tay Yong Seng.]]
'''Service-learning''' is an educational approach that uses community service to meet both classroom learning objectives and societal needs. It has been used with students of all grades and stages. Projects based in communities are designed to apply classroom learning to create positive change in the community and often involve community organisations.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Knapp |first=Timothy D. |author2=Bradley J. Fisher|title=The Effectiveness of Service-Learning: It's not always what you think|journal=Journal of Experiential Education|year=2010|volume=33|issue=3|pages=208–224|doi=10.5193/JEE33.3.208}}</ref> Recent studies have proven its use in citizen coexistence as a strategy to foster intercultural coexistence in local communities, which is essential for successfully implementing socio-educational interventions.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ferrer-Aracil |first=J. |author2=Giménez-Bertomeu V.M.|author3= Cortés-Florín E.M.|title=Implementation of Service-Learning as a Strategy to Foster Intercultural Coexistence in the Local Community: A Case Study|journal=Education Sciences|year=2022|volume=12|issue=7|pages=426|doi=10.3390/educsci12070426|doi-access=free |hdl=10045/124520|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

Service learning combines [[experiential learning]] and [[community service]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Perez, Shivaun |year=2000 |title=Assessing Service Learning Using Pragmatic Principles of Education: A Texas Charter School Case Study |url=http://ecommons.txstate.edu/arp/76 |journal=Applied Research Projects |series=Paper 76 |publisher=Texas State University |access-date=2010-01-01 |archive-date=2020-08-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801023740/https://digital.library.txstate.edu/handle/10877/3512 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== Definitions ==
According to Andrew Furco, '''service-learning''' "occurs when there is a balance between learning goals and service outcomes."<ref name="Furco">{{cite journal |last1=Furco |first1=Andrew |date=October 2011 |title='Service-Learning': A Balanced Approach to Experiential Education |url=http://educacio-cp89.webjoomla.es/wp-content/uploads/03-Furco-1-English.pdf |journal=The International Journal for Global and Development Education Research |pages=71–76 |access-date=4 September 2014}}</ref> Other authors, including the [[National Youth Leadership Council]], emphasize the same balance.<ref>{{cite web |title=K–12 Service-Learning Standards for Quality Practice |url=http://www.nylc.org/sites/nylc.org/files/files/Standards_Oct2009-web.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111111201324/http://www.nylc.org/sites/nylc.org/files/files/Standards_Oct2009-web.pdf |archive-date=November 11, 2011 |access-date=November 11, 2008 |publisher=National Youth Leadership Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Jacoby |first1=Barbara |url=https://archive.org/details/servicelearningi00jaco |title=Service-Learning in Higher Education: Concepts and Practices |date=1996 |publisher=Jossey-Bass |isbn=978-0787902919}}</ref> Robert Sigmon conceives the variety of service-learning projects found on college campuses in terms of variations in that balance: i.e. whether learning goals or service goals are primary, secondary, of equal importance, or completely separate.<ref name="Sigmon 1997">{{cite report |last=Sigmon |first=Robert |author-link= |date=1997 |title=Linking Service with Learning in Liberal Arts Education |url=https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED446685 |publisher=Council of Independent Colleges, Washington, DC |access-date=2024-09-30}}</ref>

The student is also expected to learn by acting in the world and reflecting on the results of their action.<ref name="Eyler 1999" /><ref>{{cite web |title=Service Learning: Reflection in Higher Education Service-Learning |url=http://www.servicelearning.org/instant_info/fact_sheets/he_facts/he_reflection |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071114232334/http://www.servicelearning.org/instant_info/fact_sheets/he_facts/he_reflection/ |archive-date=November 14, 2007 |access-date=November 22, 2013}}</ref> As a process of learning, this has long-established theoretical and empirical bases. According to Barbara Jacoby, therefore, service-learning "is based on the work of researchers and theorists on learning, including [[John Dewey]], [[Jean Piaget]], [[Kurt Lewin]], [[Donald Schon]], and [[David Kolb]], who believe that people learn through combinations of action and reflection."<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lukenchuk |first1=Antonina |last2=Jagla |first2=Virginia |last3=Eigel |first3=Matthew |title=Service-Learning Faculty Manual |url=https://www.nl.edu/media/nlu/downloadable/studentservices/civicengagement/chapter-1.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907075048/http://www.nl.edu/media/nlu/downloadable/studentservices/civicengagement/chapter-1.pdf |archive-date=September 7, 2015 |access-date=November 5, 2016 |publisher=National Louis University}}</ref> Related areas of academic practice, such as [[Action research|Action Research]] and [[Reflective practice|Reflective Practice]], emphasize the relationship between learner and community, or researcher and researched,<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Eatman|first1=Timothy K.|last2=Ivory|first2=Gaelle|last3=Saltmarsh|first3=John|last4=Middleton|first4=Michael|last5=Wittman|first5=Amanda|last6=Dolgon|first6=Corey|date=April 2018|title=Co-Constructing Knowledge Spheres in the Academy: Developing Frameworks and Tools for Advancing Publicly Engaged Scholarship|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0042085918762590|journal=Urban Education|language=en|volume=53|issue=4|pages=532–561|doi=10.1177/0042085918762590|s2cid=150220178 |issn=0042-0859|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Powell|first1=Katrina|last2=Takayoshi|first2=Pamela|date=2003|title=Accepting the Roles Created for Us: The Ethics of Reciprocity|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/3594171.pdf|journal= College Composition and Communication|volume=54|issue=3 |pages=394–422|doi=10.2307/3594171 |jstor=3594171 }}</ref> with a view to creating change beyond the school, rather than only creating knowledge.

==History==
The term "service-learning" originated in and spread from the US<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Thomson |first1=Ann Marie |last2=Smith-Tolken |first2=Antoinette R. |last3=Naidoo |first3=Anthony V. |last4=Bringle |first4=Robert G. |date=2011-06-01 |title=Service Learning and Community Engagement: A Comparison of Three National Contexts |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11266-010-9133-9 |journal=Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations |language=en |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=214–237 |doi=10.1007/s11266-010-9133-9 |issn=1573-7888|hdl=1805/4594 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> and is often discussed in the context of American colleges and schools. Much of its history is therefore American.  

=== In American education ===
In one early account, in the late 1960s federal monies were used for a service-learning internship model by the Southern Regional Education Board. By 1979 the same author claimed "service learning" was being used to describe a number of different volunteer actions and experiential education programs.<ref name="Sigmon1979">{{cite journal |last=Sigmon |first=Robert |date=Spring 1979 |title=Service-Learning: Three Principles |url=http://critical.tamucc.edu/~wiki/uploads/AWebb/sl3p.pdf |journal=Synergist |language=en |pages=9–11 |access-date=November 5, 2016}}</ref> From 1995 to 1997, 458 universities received grants from the [[AmeriCorps|Corporation for National Service]] under the ''Learn and Serve Higher Education'' scheme (see [[Learn and Serve America]]), helping create 3,000 new service-learning courses with an average of more than 60 students per course.<ref name="Eyler 1999">{{cite book|last1=Eyler|first1=Janet|last2=Giles Jr.|first2=Dwight E.|title=Where's the Learning in Service-Learning|year=1999|publisher=Jossey-Bass|edition=1st|location=San Francisco|isbn=978-0-470-90746-7|url=https://archive.org/details/whereslearningin00eyle|url-access=registration}}</ref> In 1992, Maryland and the District of Columbia adopted statewide service-learning requirements for high school graduation.<ref>{{cite web|title=Graduation Requirements|url=http://archives.marylandpublicschools.org/msde/programs/servicelearning/docs/requirements.htm|website=Maryland Department of Education}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=DCPS Community Service Guide 2011–2012|url=http://cfo.dc.gov/sites/default/files/dc/sites/dcps/publication/attachments/DCPS%20Community%20Service%20Guide%20SY11-12%20FINAL.pdf|website=District of Columbia Public Schools|access-date=7 November 2016}}</ref>  In 2014 The National Center for Learning and Civic Engagement surveyed all states for their service-learning policies.<ref>{{cite web | url =http://ecs.force.com/mbdata/mbquest3RTE?Rep=SL1301 | title =High School Graduation Requirement or Credit toward Graduation – Service-Learning/Community Service | date =January 2014 | publisher =Education Commission of the States (ECS) | access-date =November 5, 2016}}</ref> However, while service-learning was well-established in American higher education institutions by 2008, it was to be found in less than 30% of K–12 schools according to Furco and Root.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Furco |first1=Andrew |last2=Root |first2=Susan |last3=Furco |first3=Anthony |date=2010 |title=Research Demonstrates the Value of Service Learning |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27755635 |journal=The Phi Delta Kappan |volume=91 |issue=5 |pages=16–20 |doi=10.1177/003172171009100504 |jstor=27755635|issn=0031-7217|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

== Applications & contexts ==
There are several documented models of service-learning, such as the ''Comprehensive Action Plan for Service Learning.''<ref>{{cite journal |last=Robert |first=G. Bringle |author2=Julie A. Hatcher |date=March–April 1996 |title=Implementing Service Learning in Higher Education |url=http://www.compact.org/advancedtoolkit/pdf/bringle-all.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Higher Education |volume=67 |issue=2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118030420/http://www.compact.org/advancedtoolkit/pdf/bringle-all.pdf |archive-date=2012-01-18}}</ref> There are variants that focus on particular elements or purposes, such as "critical service learning" which emphasizes political and social power relations in marginalized communities.<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal |last=Kraft |first=Richard J. |date=February 1996 |title=Service Learning |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0013124596028002001 |journal=Education and Urban Society |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=131–159 |doi=10.1177/0013124596028002001 |issn=0013-1245 |s2cid=143302144|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last=Mitchell |first=Tania |date=2008 |title=Traditional vs. critical service-learning: Engaging the literature to differentiate two models. |url=https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ831374 |journal=Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning 14.2 |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=50–65}}</ref> Recent attention has been paid to online service-learning or eService-Learning.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Strait & Sauer |first=Jean & Tim |date=2023 |title=Constructing Experiential Learning for Online Courses: The Birth of E-Service A lack of service-learning programs for online courses prompted the creation of e-service to provide experiential learning opportunities. |journal=Educause Quarterly |pages=62–65}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Faulconer |first=Emily |date=2021-04-03 |title=eService-Learning: A Decade of Research in Undergraduate Online Service–learning |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/08923647.2020.1849941 |journal=American Journal of Distance Education |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=100–117 |doi=10.1080/08923647.2020.1849941 |issn=0892-3647 |s2cid=230540426|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Waldner, McGorry, & Widener |first=L, S, M |date=2010 |title=Extreme e-service learning (XE-SL): E-service learning in the 100% online course. |journal=Journal of Online Learning and Teaching |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=839–851}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Doulatabadi |first1=M. |title=2016 International Conference on Industrial Engineering, Management Science and Application (ICIMSA) |last2=Yusof |first2=S. M. |date= 2016 |publisher=IEEE |isbn=978-1-5090-1671-6 |pages=1–5 |chapter=Sustained Quality Award Status in Developing Country: A Study on the Dubai Quality Award Recipients |doi=10.1109/icimsa.2016.7504036 |chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/icimsa.2016.7504036 |s2cid=25518080}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=McGorry |first=Sue Y. |date=2012-06-23 |title=No Significant Difference in Service Learninng Online |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.24059/olj.v16i4.218 |journal=Online Learning |volume=16 |issue=4 |doi=10.24059/olj.v16i4.218 |issn=2472-5730|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bourelle |first=Tiffany |date=2014-10-01 |title=Adapting Service-Learning into the Online Technical Communication Classroom: A Framework and Model |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10572252.2014.941782 |journal=Technical Communication Quarterly |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=247–264 |doi=10.1080/10572252.2014.941782 |issn=1057-2252 |s2cid=62234740|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nielsen |first=Danielle |date=April 2016 |title=Facilitating Service Learning in the Online Technical Communication Classroom |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0047281616633600 |journal=Journal of Technical Writing and Communication |language=en |volume=46 |issue=2 |pages=236–256 |doi=10.1177/0047281616633600 |issn=0047-2816 |s2cid=111627624|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=McWhorter |first1=Rochell |last2=Delello |first2=Julie |last3=Roberts |first3=Paul |date=2016-01-01 |title=Giving Back: Exploring Service-Learning in an Online Learning Environment |url=https://scholarworks.uttyler.edu/education_fac/13 |journal=Education Faculty Publications and Presentations}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Marcus |first1=Valerie Bukas |last2=Atan |first2=Noor Azean |last3=Talib |first3=Rohaya |last4=Latif |first4=Adibah Abdul |last5=Yusof |first5=Sanitah Mohd |date=2019-10-18 |title=Promoting Students' Generic Skills with the Integration of e-Service Learning Platform |url=https://online-journals.org/index.php/i-jet/article/view/11455 |journal=International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning |language=en |volume=14 |issue=20 |pages=4–17 |doi=10.3991/ijet.v14i20.11455 |issn=1863-0383 |s2cid=208107376 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Service-learning has been used in multiple academic and community contexts. For example, it has been used in and by native American and other potentially marginalized communities.<ref>{{cite book |last=Guffey |first=John |url=https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED416179 |title=Learning with the Community: Concepts and Models for Service-Learning in Teacher Education. AAHE's Series on Service-Learning in the Disciplines. |date=1997 |publisher=Stylus Publishing, LLC. |isbn=9781563770111 |editor1=Erickson, Joseph A. |chapter=Turtle Island Project: Service-Learning in Native Communities |editor2=Anderson, Jeffrey B.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Fletcher |first=Matthew |title=American Indian Education: Counternarratives in Racism, Struggle, and the Law |date= 2008 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0415957359}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sykes |first1=Brent E. |last2=Pendley |first2=Joy |last3=Deacon |first3=Zermarie |date=22 June 2017 |title=Transformative learning, tribal membership and cultural restoration: A case study of an embedded Native American service-learning project at a research university |url=http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/journals/index.php/ijcre/article/view/5334 |journal=Gateways: International Journal of Community Research and Engagement |volume=10 |pages=204–228 |doi=10.5130/ijcre.v10i1.5334 |via=epress.lib.uts.edu.au |doi-access=free}}</ref> And it has been used within academic specialisms, such as history,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Straus |first1=Emily E. |last2=Eckenrode |first2=Dawn M. |date=2014 |title=Engaging Past and Present: Service-Learning in the College History Classroom |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43264227 |journal=The History Teacher |volume=47 |issue=2 |pages=253–266 |jstor=43264227 |issn=0018-2745}}</ref> sociology,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mooney |first1=Linda A. |last2=Edwards |first2=Bob |date=2001 |title=Experiential Learning in Sociology: Service Learning and Other Community-Based Learning Initiatives |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1318716 |journal=Teaching Sociology |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=181–194 |doi=10.2307/1318716 |jstor=1318716 |issn=0092-055X|url-access=subscription }}</ref> language-learning,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tocaimaza-Hatch |first1=C. Cecilia |last2=Walls |first2=Laura C. |date=2016 |title=Service-Learning as a Means of Vocabulary Learning for Second Language and Heritage Language Learners of Spanish |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44114650 |journal=Hispania |volume=99 |issue=4 |pages=650–665 |doi=10.1353/hpn.2016.0109 |jstor=44114650 |issn=0018-2133|url-access=subscription }}</ref> and engineering.<ref name="IJSLE">{{Citation |title=International Journal for Service Learning in Engineering |url=https://ojs.library.queensu.ca/index.php/ijsle |access-date=2024-10-03}}</ref> 

{{Main|Service-learning in engineering education}}

==Benefits==
The benefits of service-learning for the participating student are better-documented than the benefits to the communities in which the service occurs.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Jacoby |first=Barbara |title=Service-learning essentials: questions, answers, and lessons learned |date=2015 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |others=Jeffrey Howard |isbn=978-1-118-94401-1 |series=The Jossey-Bass higher and adult education series |location=San Francisco}}</ref> 

===Students' development===

Students have reported developing personal leadership skills,<ref name="UCLA - Service-Learning">{{cite web |author1=Alexander W. Astin |author2=Lori J. Vogelgesang |author3=Elaine K. Ikeda |author4=Jennifer A. Yee |title=How Service Learning Affects Students |url=http://digitalcommons.unomaha.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1145&context=slcehighered |access-date=15 June 2016 |website=Digital Commons}}</ref> skills in working with others, including greater interaction with faculty,<ref name="Eyler 1999" />{{rp|45–52}} and the development of more meaning and purpose in study.<ref name="Eyler 1999" /> Academically, there is evidence of improved understanding of classroom studies, the application of theory, critical thinking and analysis.<ref name=":3" /> Other personal growth outcomes may include self-knowledge, spiritual growth, the reward of helping others, career benefits including careers in service, and changes in personal efficacy<ref name="Eyler 1999" />{{rp|35–39}}

Experience in communities may result in experience of different cultures. In one survey of service-learning students, "57 percent reported that they had frequent chances to work with people from ethnic groups other than their own."<ref name="Eyler 2007">{{Cite book |last1=Eyler |first1=Janet |title=Where's the Learning in Service-Learning? |last2=Giles |first2=Dwight E. |publisher=Jossey-Bass |year=2007 |location=San Francisco |name-list-style=amp}}</ref>{{rp|26}} Advocates of service-learning argue that this can help students learn to appreciate their shared humanity<ref name="Eyler 2007" />{{rp|31}} and more effectively serve a broader array of people.<ref name="Eyler 2007" />{{rp|177–178}}

=== Community development ===
Service-learning contributes to the presence of more volunteers, which enables community organizations to do more<ref name="Sandy 2006">{{cite journal |last1=Sandy |first1=Marie |last2=Holland |first2=Barbara A. |date=Fall 2006 |title=Different Worlds and Common Ground: Community Partner Perspectives on Campus-Community Partnerships |url=http://quod.lib.umich.edu/m/mjcsl/3239521.0013.103/--different-worlds-and-common-ground-community-partner?view=image |journal=Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=30–43 |access-date=13 December 2014}}</ref>{{rp|35–36}} and to serve more clients.<ref name="Perla">{{cite web |last1=Barrientos |first1=Perla |title=Community Service Learning and its Impact on Community Agencies: An Assessment Study |url=http://www.sfsu.edu/~icce/downloads/pdf/CSL%20Report%20for%20Publishing_3-25-10.pdf |access-date=13 December 2014 |website=www.sfsu.edu |publisher=San Francisco State University}}</ref>{{rp|5}}  Students may supply specific skills they possess to benefit the organization,<ref name="Tryon">{{cite journal |last1=Tryon |first1=Elizabeth |last2=Stoecker |first2=Randy |date=September 2008 |title=The Unheard Voices: Community Organizations and Service-Learning |url=http://openjournals.libs.uga.edu/index.php/jheoe/article/view/99/87 |journal=Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement |volume=12 |issue=3 |access-date=13 December 2014}}</ref>{{rp|49}} and can be a source of new ideas, energy, and enthusiasm.<ref name="Vernon 2014">{{cite journal |last1=Vernon |first1=Andrea |last2=Ward |first2=Kelly |date=1999 |title=Campus and Community Partnerships: Assessing Impacts and Strengthening Connections |url=http://quod.lib.umich.edu/m/mjcsl/3239521.0006.103/--campus-and-community-partnerships-assessing-impacts?view=image |journal=Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning |volume=6 |issue=1 |access-date=13 December 2014}}</ref>{{rp|33}} Through partnering with a college or university, a community organization can gain access to new knowledge and opportunities to connect with other organizations that have partnered with the same school.<ref name="Sandy 2006" />{{rp|36}} 

Service-learning may motivate individuals to become better citizens of their communities by cultivating civic and social responsibility,<ref name="Eyler 1999" />{{rp|12}} and through the development of personal relationships.<ref name="Eyler 2007" />{{rp|56}} A service-learning experience may be the catalyst in the life of a student to dive into the complexities of the social issues they have encountered and to seek to develop innovative solutions.<ref name=":2">{{cite web |title=Reflection in service-learning classes |url=http://www.servicelearning.umn.edu/info/reflection.html |access-date=June 2, 2016 |publisher=Center for Community-Engaged Learning}}</ref>

==Critiques==
Service-learning has been the subject of debate throughout its history. It has been criticized for not generating useful skills, nor meaningful cultural or community knowledge,<ref name=":13" /> nor doing much for the community itself,<ref name=":13" /><ref name="Eby">{{Citation |last=Eby |first=John |title=Why Service Learning is Bad |date=1998 |url=https://digitalcommons.unomaha.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1011&context=slceslgen}}</ref> and instead mostly inculcating communitarian political ideologies in students<ref>{{cite journal |last=Egger |first=John |year=2008 |title=No Service to Learning: 'Service-Learning' Reappraised |url=http://ncsce.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/NoToServiceLearning_000.pdf |journal=Academic Questions |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=183–194 |doi=10.1007/s12129-008-9057-7 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |s2cid=59038318}}</ref> and focusing on the student's "good deeds”.<ref name="Eby" /> Without deeper critical reflection the effect may be to maintain, rather than subvert, systems of community oppression.<ref name=":13" /> "Critical service-learning" claims to address some of these issues (see Applications & Contexts, above).  

It has also been described as "a utopian vision".<ref name="Sigmon1979" />{{rp|11}} University policies that mandate service learning have been criticized as the imposition of intellectual conformity by means of identifying specific types of civic engagement as worthy community service and thus prescribing social and political perspectives, contrary to the ideal of the university as a site for the pursuit of truth through the free exchange of ideas.<ref>{{cite web |author=[[Carl L. Bankston]] III |date=31 May 2016 |title=Modern Orthodoxies |url=http://www.popecenter.org/commentaries/article.html?id=2537}}</ref>

The relationship between community and academy is an area of general critique. Communication with faculty is often inconsistent, so community organizations do not always understand their roles and the roles of the faculty in students' service projects.<ref name="Tryon" />{{rp|55–56}} Some organizations' representatives have stated that faculty assigned students projects that were not allowed in their organization.<ref name="Sandy 2006" /> And the small number of hours students are required to spend volunteering can cause problems for community organizations and their clients.<ref name="Sandy 2006" /><ref name="Tryon" /> Even research about service-learning is mostly done by scholars rather than community locals and organizations.<ref name="Eby" />

== Factors in effectiveness ==
Research into service-learning claims to have identified a number of factors that determine its effectiveness. These include:

* placement "quality" (level of student challenge, responsibility, activity and sense of positive involvement and instructor/supervisor feedback)<ref name="Eyler 1999" />
* team dynamics<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chavez-Yenter |first1=Daniel |last2=Hearld |first2=Kristine Ria |last3=Badham |first3=Amy |last4=Budhwani |first4=Henna |date=13 November 2015 |title=Service-Learning in Undergraduate Global Health Education: The Effect of Team Dynamics on Civic Attitudes and Skills |url=https://journals.sfu.ca/iarslce/index.php/journal/article/view/134 |journal=The International Journal of Research on Service-Learning and Community Engagement |language=en |volume=3 |issue=1 |doi=10.37333/001c.21578 |issn=2374-9466 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Eyler 2007" />
* placement and program duration (long enough to have a developmental impact)<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last1=Eyler |first1=Janet |title=Service-Learning: Applications From the Research |last2=Giles Jr. |first2=Dwight |publisher=Psychology Press |year=1997 |editor-last=Waterman |editor-first=Alan S. |location=New York |pages=59 |chapter=The Importance of Program Quality in Service-Learning}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Astin |first1=Alexander W. |last2=Sax |first2=Linda J. |date=1998 |title=How Undergraduates are Affected by Service Participation |journal=Journal of College Student Development |page=260}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mabry |first=J. Beth |date=1998 |title=Pedagogical Variations in Service-Learning and Student Outcomes |journal=Michigan Journal of Community Service-Learning |page=41}}</ref>
* quality of student reflection, often as activity (e.g. brainstorming) and/or in written form(e.g. journaling)<ref name="Eyler 2007" /><ref name=":2" /><ref>{{cite web |author=Robin R. Jones |title=Service-Learning Reflection Activities |url=http://www.wartburg.edu/cce/cce/assessment%20and%20reflection/SL-Reflection%20Activities.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120905080645/http://www.wartburg.edu/cce/cce/assessment%20and%20reflection/SL-Reflection%20Activities.pdf |archive-date=September 5, 2012 |access-date=June 2, 2016 |publisher=Wartburg College}}</ref>

==Notable people==
[[Alexander Astin]], founding director of the Cooperative Institutional Research Program and the Higher Education Research Institute, formed a Theory of Involvement which explains how student involvement in co-curricular activities positively affects college outcomes.<ref>{{cite web |title=Alexander Astin's Theory of Involvement |url=https://studentdevelopmenttheory.weebly.com/astin.html |website=Student Development Theory |access-date=18 July 2018}}</ref> Through a 1998 study of college seniors, Astin demonstrated that service greatly improves critical thinking skills.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Eyler |first1=Janet |last2=Giles |first2=Dwight E. Jr. |title=Where's the Learning in Service-Learning? |date=1999 |publisher=Jossey-Bass Publishers |location=San Francisco |isbn=0-7879-4483-1 |edition=1st |url=https://archive.org/details/whereslearningin00eyle }}</ref>

[[Nadinne I. Cruz]]: works as an independent consultant.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Thomas |first1=Melissa |title=About Nadinne Cruz |url=https://apps.carleton.edu/events/commencement/degrees/recipients/Cruz/ |website=Carleton |access-date=18 July 2018}}</ref> She gained enthusiasm for the cause of service learning through her work in the Philippines.<ref>{{cite web |last1=McCaffrey |first1=Meg |title=Nadinne Cruz, renowned practitioner and advocate of service learning, to be involved in major Fairfield University initiative |url=https://www.fairfield.edu/lassochannel/press/pr_index/index.lasso?id=2143 |website=Fairfield University |access-date=18 July 2018}}</ref> Now, she is an advocate of service learning who argues that only a small portion of skills needed to address life's problems can be learned through traditional academia. Other skills, such as courage, forgiveness, and stewarding the earth, must be learned elsewhere. Therefore, she recommends service learning and community engagement, which “offer learning with and from wise people, who teach by example.”<ref>{{cite web |title=TEDxPioneerValley –Nadinne Cruz – Education on Fire.mov |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ycbQwCb2Gl8 |website=YouTube | date=25 February 2012 |access-date=18 July 2018}}</ref>

[[Andrew Furco]]: Associate Vice President for Public Engagement at the University of Minnesota and a professor.<ref>{{cite web |title=Faculty & Instructors |url=http://www.cehd.umn.edu/olpd/people/afurco/ |website=University of Minnesota |access-date=18 July 2018}}</ref> Furco has contributed a variety of literature to service learning, including two books: Service-Learning: The Essence of the Pedagogy and Service-Learning Through a Multidisciplinary Lens, which he co-authored with S. Billig.<ref>{{cite web |title=Andrew Furco |url=https://talloiresnetwork.tufts.edu/andrew-furco/ |website=The Taillores Network |access-date=18 July 2018}}</ref> He gives five reasons engagement programs differ from engaged universities: “Engagement differs from outreach… is at the heart of the university’s identity… focuses on partnerships… is with, not to, for, or in communities… is about institutional transformation.”<ref>{{cite web |last1=Maynard |first1=Meleah |title=Awesomely Urban: A Conversation with Andrew Furco |url=https://umnalumni.org/UMAA-stories/Awesomely-Urban-Andrew-Furco |website=University of Minnesota Alumni Association |access-date=18 July 2018}}</ref>

[[James Kielsmeier]]: Founded the National Youth Leadership Council, a nonprofit that became the service-learning movement.<ref>{{cite web |title=Founder |url=https://nylc.org/leadership-team/founder/ |website=National Youth Leadership Council |access-date=18 July 2018}}</ref> Kielsmeier posits that service learning involves a change in how schools see young people: from “resource users, recipients, and victims” to “contributors, givers, and leaders.”<ref>{{cite web |title=Service and schools – partnership on purpose: Jim Kielsmeier at TEDxFargo |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M7AkyEuS6QU |website=YouTube | date=14 October 2013 |access-date=18 July 2018}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Schools|Education}}
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Service-Learning]]
* [[Campus Compact]]
* [[Constructivism (learning theory)|Constructivism]]
* [[Cooperative education]]
* [[Global Leadership Adventures]]
* [[International Service Learning]]
* [[Learn and Serve America]]
* [[Lifeworks International]]
* [[National service]]
* [[National Service Learning Conference]]
* [[Out-of-school learning]]
* [[Public sphere pedagogy]]
* [[Youth Service America]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* [https://www.scribd.com/doc/30853941/Pragmatism-and-Education Pragmatism and Education]
* [http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=mjcsl;cc=mjcsl;rgn=full%20text;idno=3239521.0011.101;didno=3239521.0011.101;view=image;seq=00000001 Jane Addams and the Origins of Service-Learning Practice in the United States]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120213231714/http://www.albany.edu/~dkw42/s2_dewey_progr.html John Dewey and Progressive Education]

{{Youth empowerment}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Service-Learning}}
[[Category:Community building]]
[[Category:Applied learning]]
[[Category:Alternative education]]
[[Category:School terminology]]
[[Category:Education in the United States]]
[[Category:Experiential learning]]
[[Category:Learning programs]]