Editing Sexual abstinence

{{Short description|Act of refraining from sexual activity}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2017}}
[[File:Purity-Rings.jpg|thumb|[[Purity ring]]s are worn by some [[youth]] committed to the practice of sexual abstinence.<ref name="O'Brien2009"/>|alt=Metal ring engraved with "my beloved [...] will wait"]]
'''Sexual abstinence''' or '''sexual restraint''' is the practice of refraining from [[Human sexual activity|sexual activity]] for reasons medical, psychological, legal, social, philosophical, moral, religious or other. It is a part of [[chastity]]. [[Celibacy]] is sexual abstinence generally motivated by factors such as an individual's personal or religious [[beliefs]].<ref>''The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language'' (3d ed. 1992), entries for ''celibacy'' and thence ''abstinence''</ref>  Sexual abstinence before [[marriage]] is required by [[social norm]]s in some societies, or by law in some countries.

[[Abstinence]] may be voluntary (when an individual chooses not to engage in sexual activity due to moral, religious, philosophical, or other reasons), an involuntary result of social circumstances (when one cannot find any willing [[sexual partner]]s), or legally mandated (e.g. in countries where sexual activity outside marriage is illegal, in prisons, etc.).

While actual abstinence prevents [[pregnancy]] and [[sexually transmitted infections]], mere attempts at abstinence have little effect on the risk of either.<ref name="CT2023">{{cite book |last1=Cason |first1=Patty |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sa3WEAAAQBAJ |title=Contraceptive Technology |last2=Cwiak |first2=Carrie |last3=Kowal |first3=Deborah |last4=Edelman |first4=Alison |date=26 September 2023 |publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning |isbn=978-1-284-25503-4 |edition=22 |pages=207–219 |language=en}}</ref> Access to other forms of [[birth control]], such as [[emergency birth control]], is thus recommended.<ref name="CT2023" />

==History==
{{More citations needed section|date=March 2017}}

The ancient world discouraged [[promiscuity]] for both health and social reasons.<ref name=Uta>{{cite book |title=Eunuchs for the Kingdom of Heaven - the Catholic Church and Sexuality|author=Uta Ranke.Heinman|publisher=Penguin Books USA|year=1988|isbn=0-385-26527-1}}</ref> According to [[Pythagoras]] (6th century BCE), [[Having sex|sex]] should be practiced in the winter, but not the summer, but was harmful to male health in every season because the loss of [[semen]] was dangerous, hard to control, and both physically and spiritually exhausting, but had no effect on females.<ref name="Uta" /> This idea may have been merged with [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] ideas of [[good and evil]] in a philosophy known as [[Gnosticism]], which influenced [[Christianity|Christian]] and [[Mariwan Halabjaee|Islamic]] attitudes to sexual activity.<ref name="Uta" /> But others stated that the Christian religion's hold on to the ideal of sexual [[abstinence]] prior to the appearing of gnosticism and Zoroastrianism and its roots are to be found in the Old Testament (which is the base of the New Testament) in which  virginity was required by law and marriage was especially protected (see Deuteronomy chapter 22).

Throughout history, and especially prior to the 20th century, there have been those who have held that sexual abstinence confers numerous health benefits. For males, lack of abstinence was thought to cause a reduction of [[vitality]]. In modern times, the argument has been phrased in biological terms, claiming that loss of [[semen]] through ejaculation results in a depletion of vital nutrients such as [[lecithin]] and [[phosphorus]], which are also found at high levels in the [[Human brain|brain]]. Conservation of the semen allegedly allows it to be reabsorbed back into the bloodstream and aid in the healthy development of the body.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yoshida|first=M.|date=2000-07-02|title=Conservation of sperms: current status and new trends|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10844206/|journal=Animal Reproduction Science|volume=60-61|pages=349–355|doi=10.1016/s0378-4320(00)00125-1|issn=0378-4320|pmid=10844206}}</ref> Along these lines, the noted German philosopher [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] spoke of the positive physiological effects of abstinence: "The reabsorption of semen by the blood ... perhaps prompts the stimulus of power, the unrest of all forces towards the overcoming of resistances ... The feeling of power has so far mounted highest in abstinent priests and hermits" (quoted by Walter Kaufman in his classic, ''[[Nietzsche: Philosopher, Psychologist, Antichrist]]'', p.&nbsp;222). Before the "[[sexual revolution]]" of the 1960s, it was commonly believed by members of the medical profession that numerous mental and physical diseases in men were caused primarily by loss of [[nutrient]]s through seminal discharge, and that the deliberate conservation of this substance would lead to increased health, vitality, and intellectual prowess. This also applied to masturbation, which was also thought to lead to [[bedwetting]] and [[Hairy palms and soles|hairy palms.]]

Some advantages in favor of sexual [[abstinence]] were also claimed by [[Walter Siegmeister]], better known as Dr. Raymond W. Bernard, an early 20th-century American alternative health, esoteric writer, author and mystic, who formed part of the alternative reality subculture. In his essay entitled "Science discovers the physiological value of continence" (1957) he states:<ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20100818043434/http://ktk.ru/~cm/contin.htm Science discovers the physiological value of continence]"</ref>

<blockquote>[I]t is clear that there is an important internal [[physiology|physiological]] relation between the secretions of the sex [[gland]]s and the [[central nervous system]], that the loss of these secretions, voluntarily or involuntarily, exercises a detrimental effect on the nutrition and vitality of the nerves and brain, while, on the other hand, the conservation of these secretions has a vitalizing effect on the nervous system, a regenerating effect on the [[endocrine glands]] [,] and a rejuvenating effect on the organism as a whole.</blockquote>

Historically, there has been a swing from the [[Libertine|sexually liberal]] end of the [[Industrial Revolution]] to the chaste values of the early [[Victorian morality|Victorian]] period.{{Citation needed|date=February 2013}} This was then followed by a new [[Religious fanaticism|puritanism]] from the late Victorian era to the mid-1900s.{{Citation needed|date=February 2013}} This important transformation often colors discussion of sexual behavior in the later 20th century. [[World War I]] began a return to sexual freedom and indulgence, but more often than not, the appearance of conforming to the earlier moral values of [[abstinence]] before marriage was retained.{{Citation needed|date=November 2013}} With the conclusion of [[World War II]], the societal importance of abstinence declined.{{Citation needed|date=February 2013}} The advent of the first [[Combined oral contraceptive pill|oral contraceptive pill]] and widely available [[antibiotics]] suppressed many consequences of wide and free sexual behavior,{{Citation needed|date=February 2013}} while social morals were also changing. By the 1970s, abandonment of premarital [[chastity]] was no longer taboo in the majority of western societies, and the reverse became true.{{Citation needed|date=February 2013}} Some cultural groups continued to place a value on the moral purity of an abstainer, but abstinence was caught up in a wider reevaluation of [[moral values]].

During the early 20th century, prominent [[feminist]] and [[birth control]] advocate [[Margaret Sanger]] argued that abstinence from sexual activity led to greater endurance and strength, and was a sign of the best of the species:

<blockquote>Though sex cells are placed in a part of the anatomy for the essential purpose of easily expelling them into the female for the purpose of reproduction, there are other elements in the sexual fluid which are the essence of blood, nerve, brain, and muscle. When redirected into the building and strengthening of these, we find men or women of the greatest endurance and greatest magnetic power. A girl can waste her creative powers by brooding over a love affair to the extent of exhausting her system, with the results not unlike the effects of masturbation and debauchery.<ref name="Sanger">{{Citation | url = http://www.nyu.edu/projects/sanger/webedition/app/documents/show.php?sangerDoc=304923.xml | title = What Every Girl Should Know: Sexual Impulses — Part II | first = Margaret | last = Sanger | date = 29 December 1912 | access-date = 6 November 2013}}</ref></blockquote>

[[J. D. Unwin]] was a British ethnologist and social anthropologist at [[Oxford University|Oxford]] and [[Cambridge University|Cambridge]] universities. Unwin wrote several books including ''Sex and Culture'' (1934). In ''Sex and Culture'' Unwin studied 80 tribes and six known civilizations through 5,000 years of history and found a positive correlation between the cultural achievement of a people and the amount of sexual restraint which they observed. The author finds that the most culturally successful groups always exhibit lifelong monogamous relationships which include sexual [[abstinence]] outside of marriage.<ref>"Any human society is free to choose either to display great energy or to enjoy sexual freedom; the evidence is that it cannot do both for more than one generation." Unwin, J. D. (1934). ''Sex and Culture'', p. 412.</ref> According to Unwin, after a nation becomes prosperous it becomes increasingly liberal with regard to sexual morality and as a result loses its cohesion, its impetus and its purpose, ultimately having a negative effect on society: "The whole of human history does not contain a single instance of a group becoming civilized unless it has been absolutely monogamous, nor is there any example of a group retaining its culture after it has adopted less rigorous customs."<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Unwin | first1 = J. D. | year = 1927 | title = Monogamy as a Condition of Social Energy | journal = The Hibbert Journal | volume = XXV | page = 662 }}</ref>

==During fertile period==
[[File:Abstinence during fertile period.png|thumb|right|200px|Schematic indicating the fertile period of a woman]]
Sexual abstinence can be practiced during the period in which the woman is [[fertile]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://contraception.about.com/od/contraceptionoverview/p/conception.htm |title=Abstinence during infertile period to prevent conception |access-date=19 February 2014 |archive-date=15 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131015070613/http://contraception.about.com/od/contraceptionoverview/p/conception.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Before marriage==
=== Premarital chastity ===
{{Main| Chastity}}
In most cultural, ethical, and religious contexts, [[sexual intercourse|sex]] within [[marriage]] is not considered to be contrary to notions of [[chastity]]. Some religious systems prohibit sexual activities between a person and anyone other than a spouse of that person, as have past legal systems and societal [[Norm (sociology)|norms]]. In such contexts, sexual [[abstinence]] was prescribed for unmarried individuals for the purpose of chastity. ''Chastity'' has been used as a synonym for sexual abstinence, they are similar but with different behavior and restrictions.{{citation needed|date=April 2021}}

===Legal issues===
In some countries any [[sexual activity outside marriage]] is illegal. Such laws are mostly tied to [[religion]] and the legal and political traditions within the particular jurisdiction. Laws differ greatly from country to country. In some countries, such as Saudi Arabia, Pakistan,<ref>{{cite news|last=Jordan|first=Mary|title=Searching for Freedom, Chained by the Law|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/08/20/AR2008082003754.html|access-date=3 August 2013|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=21 August 2008}}</ref> Afghanistan,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.e-ariana.com/ariana/eariana.nsf/allArticles/807B10B75C9F425487257A740056F9CD?OpenDocument |title=Afghanistan sees rise in 'dancing boys' exploitation |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=9 September 2012 |author=Ernesto Londoño |location=DEHRAZI, Afghanistan |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510180701/http://www.e-ariana.com/ariana/eariana.nsf/allArticles/807B10B75C9F425487257A740056F9CD?OpenDocument |archive-date=10 May 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aidsportal.org/news_details.aspx?ID=4236 |title=Home |publisher=AIDSPortal |access-date=2 August 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20081026065259/http://www.aidsportal.org/news_details.aspx?ID=4236 |archive-date=26 October 2008 }}</ref><ref name=travel.state.gov>{{cite web|title=Iran |url=https://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1142.html |publisher=Travel.state.gov |access-date=3 August 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130801084310/http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1142.html |archive-date=1 August 2013 }}</ref> Iran,<ref name="travel.state.gov"/> Kuwait,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/0/2f5665ae20b956cb8025675a0033cafb?Opendocument |title=United Nations Human Rights Website - Treaty Bodies Database - Document - Summary Record - Kuwait |publisher=Unhchr.ch |access-date=2 August 2013}}</ref> Maldives,<ref>{{cite web|title=Culture of Maldives|url=http://www.everyculture.com/Ja-Ma/Maldives.html|publisher=Every Culture|access-date=3 August 2013}}</ref> Morocco,<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-19049000 | work=BBC News | title=Morocco: Should pre-marital sex be legal? | date=9 August 2012}}</ref> Mauritania,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/2010/af/154358.htm |title=2010 Human Rights Report: Mauritania |publisher=State.gov |date=8 April 2011 |access-date=2 August 2013}}</ref> Qatar,<ref>{{cite news|title="Sex outside of marriage is a criminal offense here," PH ambassador to Qatar warns Pinoys|url=http://www.spot.ph/the-feed/49282/ph-ambassador-to-qatar-warns-pinoys-sex-outside-of-marriage-is-a-criminal-offense-here/|access-date=3 August 2013|newspaper=SPOT.ph|date=12 September 2011}}</ref> Sudan,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2007/06/28/idUSL28849488._CH_.2400 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121209050025/http://www.reuters.com/article/2007/06/28/idUSL28849488._CH_.2400 |url-status=dead |archive-date=9 December 2012 |title=Sudan must rewrite rape laws to protect victims |work=Reuters |date=28 June 2007 |access-date=2 August 2013}}</ref> Yemen,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/47387b712f.html/ |title=Women's Rights in the Middle East and North Africa - Yemen |publisher=Unhcr.org |access-date=2 August 2013}}</ref> any form of sexual activity outside marriage is illegal.

===Violence===
{{Main|Honor killing|Stoning}}
In some parts of the world, people suspected of engaging in [[premarital sex|premarital]] or [[Human sexual activity#Homosexuality|same-sex sexual activity]] can become victims of [[honor killing]]s committed by their families.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://edition.cnn.com/2012/01/13/world/europe/turkey-gay-killing | work=CNN | title=Shocking gay honor killing inspires movie - CNN.com | date=13 January 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/CRIME/02/23/arizona.iraqi.father/index.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110224045945/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/CRIME/02/23/arizona.iraqi.father/index.html | url-status=dead | archive-date=24 February 2011 | work=CNN | title=Iraqi immigrant convicted in Arizona 'honor killing' awaits sentence | date=23 February 2011}}</ref> Stoning for sexual activity outside marriage is also a punishment in some places.{{citation needed|date=March 2017}}

==Long-term abstinence as a lifestyle==
[[File:Young monks of Drepung.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Young [[Buddhist monk]]s in [[Tibet]]. Celibacy is required for some religious orders like [[Jainism]].]]
Lifelong (or at least long-term) [[abstinence]], often associated with philosophical or religious [[asceticism]], is distinguished from [[chastity]] before marriage. Abstinence is often viewed as an act of self-control over the natural desire to have sex. The display of the strength of character allows the abstainer to set an example for those not able to contain their "base urges".{{Citation needed|date=March 2022|reason='Based urges' as a phrase, is not cited.}} At other times, abstinence has been seen as a great social skill practiced by those who refuse to engage with the material and physical world. Some groups and teachers that propose sexual abstinence consider it an essential means to reach a particular intellectual or spiritual condition, or that chastity allows one to achieve a required self-control or self-consciousness.<ref>[https://ssrn.com/abstract=979394 SSRN-The Hermeneutics of Sexual Order by L. Khan<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
<!--Sexual abstinence is required for some religious orders, such as [[Catholic]] priests, nuns, monks. Although many individuals abstain from sex for reasons such as religion or morality, some individuals may simply have a dislike of sex ([[antisexualism]]), or are simply not interested in it ([[asexuality]]). They may view sexual activity as an unnecessary part of human life. As with other lifestyle choices, this attitude toward sexual activity and relationships can vary. Some who choose such a [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]] still accept sexual activity for [[reproduction]], some engage in romantic [[intimate relationship|relationship]]s, and some engage in [[masturbation]]. This is a long paragraph and needs refs to make it relevant -->

==Abstinence in religions==
{{More citations needed section|date=March 2017}}
Some religions regard [[chastity]] as a [[virtue]] expected of faithful adherents. This usually includes [[abstinence]] from sex for the unmarried, and fidelity to a [[marriage]] partner.

In some religions, some groups of people are expected to remain unmarried and to abstain from sex completely. These groups include [[monk]]s, [[nun]]s, and [[priest]]s in various sects of Islam, Judaism, Christianity, Hinduism, and Buddhism. Chastity is required of the respective [[clergy|sacerdotal]] orders. The [[Shakers]], on the other hand, impose chastity in the form of celibacy for all members, even forgoing procreation such as the case with the [[castration cult]].

===Christianity===
{{further|Evangelical counsels}}
{{quote box
| width = 31%
| align = right
| quote="But because of sexual sins, each man is to have his own wife, and each woman is to have her own husband."
| source = — 1 Corinthians 7:2, [[Evangelical Heritage Version|EHV]]<ref>{{cite web |title=1 Corinthians 7:2 Evangelical Heritage Version (EHV) |url=https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1+Corinthians+7%3A2&version=EHV}}</ref>
}}

{{quote box
| width = 31%
| align = right
| quote="Let marriage be held in honor by all, and let the marriage bed be kept undefiled; for God will judge fornicators and adulterers."
| source = — Hebrews 13:4, [[New Revised Standard Version|NRSV]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Hebrews 13:4 New Revised Standard Version (NRSV) |url=https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Hebrews+13%3A4&version=NRSV}}</ref>
}}
Most Christians teach that sexual intercourse should occur exclusively within marriage, and that sexual [[abstinence]] is the norm outside of that. Sex between people not married to each other is either [[fornication]] or [[adultery]]. But for married couples, [[Paul of Tarsus]] wrote that they should not deprive each other, except for a short time for devotion to [[prayer]].<ref>[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Corinthians%207.3-5;&version=31; 1 Corinthians 7.3-5]</ref>

The [[Eastern Orthodox Church]]es and the [[Oriental Orthodox Church]]es teach [[chastity]] until marriage. But even then, in accordance with the teaching of the Apostle Paul, periods of abstinence are encouraged among married couples. Traditionally, Orthodox spouses abstain from physical relations on Wednesdays (the day Jesus was betrayed), Fridays (the day Jesus was crucified), the eves of [[Great Feasts]] and throughout the four fasting periods ([[Great Lent]], [[Nativity Fast]], [[Apostles' Fast]] and [[Dormition Fast]]). This is to allow believers "to give themselves time for fasting and prayer ({{Bibleverse|1 Corinthians|7:5|KJV}})."<ref name="Samaan2024">{{cite web |last1=Samaan |first1=Moses |title=The Meaning of the Great Lent |url=https://www.lacopts.org/story/the-meaning-of-the-great-lent/ |publisher=[[Coptic Orthodox Diocese of Los Angeles, Southern California, and Hawaii]] |access-date=10 March 2024 |date=9 April 2009 |quote=The Church teaches us to fast until sunset. Fish is not allowed during this period. Also married couples should refrain from physical relations to give themselves time for fasting and prayer (1 Cor. 7: 5). We would like to emphasize the importance of the period of strict abstention during fasting. It is refraining from eating and drinking for a period of time, followed by eating vegetarian food. ... True fasting must be accompanied by abstention from food and drink until sunset as designated by the Church.}}</ref><ref name="Menzel2014">{{cite web |last1=Menzel |first1=Konstantinos |title=Abstaining From Sex Is Part of Fasting |url=https://greekreporter.com/2014/04/14/abstaining-from-sex-is-part-of-fasting/ |publisher=[[Greek Reporter]] |access-date=27 May 2021 |language=English |date=14 April 2014}}</ref>

[[Catholic Church|Catholicism]] defines [[chastity]] as the virtue that moderates the sexual appetite.<ref>Thomas Aquinas, ''Summa Theologia'' I-II q. 60 a. 5; ''Catholic Encyclopedia'', "Chastity"</ref> Unmarried Catholics express chastity through sexual [[abstinence]]. Sexual intercourse within marriage is considered chaste when it retains the twofold significance of union and procreation.<ref>''Humanae vitae'' 12</ref> This is why the Catholic Church does not condone the use of contraception, even within the confines of the marital union.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Birth Control |url=https://www.catholic.com/tract/birth-control |website=Catholic Answers}}</ref> Pope [[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]] spoke on contraception not only as its nature as sinful in the eyes of the church, but also in regards to its dangerous nature to harm married couples. Without the openness to life, John Paul said, the gift of oneself within the bond of marriage is incomplete. The Catholic Church does, however, condone the practice of periodical abstinence during a woman's natural cycle of fertility for married couples who, for just reasons, do not wish to have a child at that time. This is a key component of Natural Family Planning, which is set apart from contraceptive measures on the grounds that it does not interrupt the natural order of the marital union with artificial means.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Natural Family Planning |url=https://www.usccb.org/topics/natural-family-planning |website=United States Council of Catholic Bishops}}</ref> The entirety of the Catholic Church's stance on contraception is predicated by the way the Catholic Church views marriage, insofar as marriage is an intimate human union between man and a woman wherein the two mutually give of themselves in their entirety for the good of the other and live in such a way that is open to procreation.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Catechism of the Catholic Church |publisher=Librenia Editrice Vaticana |pages=400 |language=English}}</ref>

The [[Methodist Church]] teaches that "Although all persons are sexual beings whether or not they are married, sexual relations are only clearly affirmed in the marriage bond."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://archives.umc.org/interior.asp?ptid=1&mid=1728|title=Human Sexuality|year=2014|work=[[The Book of Discipline of The United Methodist Church]]|publisher=The United Methodist Church}}</ref>

The [[United Church of Christ]] is "liberal in their approaches, believing that individuals must decide for themselves how to express their sexual nature."<ref name="Buehler2013">{{cite book|last=Buehler|first=Stephanie|title=What Every Mental Health Professional Needs to Know About Sex|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ccI7AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA55|access-date=19 June 2014|date=29 July 2013|publisher=Springer Publishing Company|isbn=9780826171214|page=55|quote=Religions notably vary in their view of sexuality and its expression, especially regarding premarital sex, sexual orientation, and masturbation. Some religions, such as the United Church of Christ, are liberal in their approaches, believing that individuals must decide for themselves how to express their sexual nature. Others, such as the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Mormonism) and Catholicism, take an austere view of premarital experimentation and masturbation.}}</ref>

===Hinduism===
{{More citations needed section|date=March 2017}}
The [[India]]n tradition of [[Brahmacharya]] places great emphasis on [[abstinence]] as a way of harnessing the energy of body and mind towards the goal of [[spirituality|spiritual]] realization. In males, the semen ([[Vīrya]]) is considered sacred, and its preservation (except when used for procreation) and conversion into higher life-energy (Ojas) is considered essential for the development of enhanced intellectual and [[spirituality|spiritual]] capacities.

The blending of sexual and spiritual is portrayed in Hindu iconography, as seen in ubiquitous phallic and vaginal iconography in Hindu temples and for instance in the Kharjuraho and Konarak medieval temples, where thousands of couples having sex in endless positions, and with the gods, are carved in deep [[bas-relief]]. However, these depictions of sex are not generally understood to be a license for free sexual practices, but are instead meant to celebrate procreation as an integral part of existence in the universe. In actual practice, it is highly encouraged that both males and females abstain from pre-marital sex and exercise [[chastity]], which still exists today in Hindu cultures.<ref>{{Cite web|title=What does Hinduism say about sexual relationships? - Sexual relationships - GCSE Religious Studies Revision - WJEC|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zmct92p/revision/4|access-date=2021-03-17|website=BBC Bitesize|language=en-GB}}</ref>

===Islam===
{{Main|Menstruation in Islam}}
{{See also|Istihadha}}
Islam forbids [[zina|intercourse outside of marriage]] (''zina'').<ref>{{Cite web|title=What does Islam say about sexual relationships? - Human sexuality and relationships - GCSE Religious Studies Revision|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z8kjpv4/revision/4|access-date=2020-08-31|website=BBC Bitesize|language=en-GB}}</ref> Marriage for all who are able to is strongly encouraged, as it is said to help guard one's modesty. For those who cannot marry, [[Fasting in Islam|fasting]] (sawm) is recommended, as it is said to diminish sexual power.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sahih Bukhari 5066 |url=https://sunnah.com/bukhari:5066 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230825200630/https://sunnah.com/bukhari:5066 |archive-date=25 August 2023 |access-date=25 August 2023 |website=sunnah.com |quote="We were with the Prophet (ﷺ) while we were young and had no wealth. So Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said, "O young people! Whoever among you can marry, should marry, because it helps him lower his gaze and guard his modesty (i.e. his private parts from committing illegal sexual intercourse etc.), and whoever is not able to marry, should fast, as fasting diminishes his sexual power."}}</ref> [[Abstinence]] is practiced during the time of a woman's [[menstruation]] or [[istihadha]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Surah Al-Baqarah verse 222 |url=https://quran.com/2?startingVerse=222 |access-date=26 August 2023 |website=quran.com |quote="And they ask you about menstruation. Say, It is harm, so keep away from wives during menstruation. And do not approach them until they are pure. And when they have purified themselves, then come to them from where Allāh has ordained for you. Indeed, Allāh loves those who are constantly repentant and loves those who purify themselves."}}</ref> Abstinence from sexual intercourse is also practiced from dawn to dusk during days where fasting is observed, and sexual intercourse during fasting is prohibited.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Surah Al-Baqarah verse 187 |url=https://quran.com/2?startingVerse=187 |website=quran.com |quote="It has been made permissible for you the night preceding fasting to go to your wives [for sexual relations]. They are a clothing for you and you are a clothing for them. Allāh knows that you used to deceive yourselves, so He accepted your repentance and forgave you. So now, have relations with them and seek that which Allāh has decreed for you [i.e., offspring]. And eat and drink until the white thread of dawn becomes distinct to you from the black thread [of night]. Then complete the fast until the night [i.e., sunset]. And do not have relations with them as long as you are staying for worship in the mosques. These are the limits [set by] Allāh, so do not approach them. Thus does Allāh make clear His verses [i.e., ordinances] to the people that they may become righteous."}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Can You Have Intercourse During Ramadan? |url=https://islamqa.info/en/answers/23339/can-you-have-intercourse-during-ramadan |website=islamqa.org |quote="Intercourse during the day in Ramadan is haram for men and women while intercourse during the night in Ramadan is allowed."}}</ref> [[Ihram#Sexual activity|Sexual intercourse during Hajj]] is also strictly forbidden, as it can invalidate [[Ihram]].

===Jainism===
{{Main|Brahmacharya#Brahmacharya in Jainism}}
[[File:In-jain.png|alt=Jain Flag Photo|thumb|Green colour in the [[Jain flag]] stands for ''brahmacharya''<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jain|first1=Vijay K.|title=Acharya Amritchandra's Purushartha Siddhyupaya|year=2012|publisher=Vikalp Printers |isbn=978-81-903639-4-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?isbn=8190363948|quote={{PD-notice}}|page=iv}}</ref>]]
''[[Brahmacharya]]'' is one of the five [[Ethics in Jainism|major vows]] prescribed for the ''[[Śrāvaka (Jainism)|śrāvakā]]'' (layman) and ascetics in [[Jainism]]. For those Jains who adopt the path of monks, celibacy in action, words and thoughts is expected. For lay Jains who are married, the virtue of ''brahmacharya'' requires remaining sexually faithful to one's chosen partner ([[fidelity]]). For lay Jains who are unmarried, chaste living requires Jains to avoid sex before marriage.<ref>{{citation |title=Brahmacarya |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/jainism/living/brahmacarya.shtml |publisher=[[BBC]] }}</ref>

In the Jain monastic tradition, ''brahmacharya'' implies, among other things, the mandatory renunciation of sex and marriage. For a lay Jain, it represents a virtuous lifestyle devoid of constant sexual urges, that also includes simple living, meditation and other behaviors.

===Judaism===
{{Further|Abstinence in Judaism}}
[[Judaism]] forbids intercourse outside marriage (which is termed {{Transliteration|he|znut}} or promiscuity), but has no ideal of chastity. Within marriage [[abstinence]] is also required during and following a woman's menstruation. The husband is not allowed to deprive sex from his wife, even if she is not fertile (known as ''[[onah|{{Transliteration|he|mitzvat onah}}]]'').

==Associated practices==
Among some groups of people, the wearing of a [[purity ring]] is a reminder to oneself and others, that they are practicing sexual abstinence.<ref name="O'Brien2009">{{cite book|last=O'Brien|first=Jodi|title=Encyclopedia of Gender and Society|year=2009|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=9781412909167|page=155|quote=In this subset of abstinence-only education programs, young people vow chastity until marriage and wear a "purity ring" to demonstrate a commitment to sexual abstinence.}}</ref> In order to aid their sobriety, some sexual abstinents partake in the usage of [[anaphrodisiac]]s.<ref>Byers, John Andrew. The Sexual Economy of War: Regulation of Sexuality and the US Army, 1898-1940. Diss. Duke University, 2012.</ref>

Historically, some individuals were said to wear a [[chastity belt]], a locking item of clothing designed to prevent sexual intercourse. They were used to protect the wearer from rape or temptation. Some devices have been designed with additional features to prevent masturbation. Chastity belts have been created for males and females, ostensibly for the purpose of chastity.<ref>Karras, Ruth Mazo. "Thomas Aquinas's Chastity Belt." Gender and Christianity in Medieval Europe: New Perspectives (2013): 52.</ref>

==Masturbation==
{{further|Masturbation#Health effects}}
In the 2010s and 2020s, promotion of [[abstinence]] from masturbation for health reasons generated millions of views on [[social media]].<ref name="Hagen" /> The medical claims made were generally unsupported by any scientific evidence, and [[urologist]] Ashley Winter pointed out that voluntary ejaculation is in many men simply replaced by involuntary [[nocturnal emissions]].<ref name="Hagen" /> Unsubstantiated claims included that abstaining from masturbation would "reboot" the brain, increase [[testosterone]], strength, manliness, economic success, and sexual confidence; and resolve problems like [[erectile dysfunction]], depression, and bad skin.<ref name="Hagen" /> Medical experts worried that participation in efforts like 90-day abstinence routines could worsen mental health problems like anxiety and depression, especially for those who cannot complete the abstinence period.<ref name="Hagen">{{cite news |publisher=NPR |title=Masturbation abstinence is popular online. Doctors and therapists are worried |date=February 3, 2024 |author=Lisa Hagen |url=https://www.npr.org/2026/01/01/1198916105/mens-health-masturbation-abstinence}}</ref> Some commentators have also criticized the concept of masculinity promoted in masturbation abstinence forums like [[NoFap]] as [[toxic masculinity|toxic]] and [[misogynist]].<ref name="Hagen" />

Abstinence from masturbation has been advocated by some [[white supremacist]]s since the early 20th century, including modern groups like the [[Proud Boys]] and leaders like [[David Duke]] (who endorses an unsubstantiated [[anti-Semitic]] [[conspiracy theory]] that Jews are using pornography to undermine white men).<ref name="Hagen" />

==Abstinence-only education==
{{Main|Abstinence-only sex education}}

Abstinence can help prevent the spread of [[sexually transmitted infection]]s such as [[HIV]], [[HPV]], [[syphilis]], etc.<ref name="CDC2013P">{{cite web|title=How You Can Prevent Sexually Transmitted Diseases|url=https://www.cdc.gov/std/prevention/default.htm|website=cdc.gov|access-date=5 December 2014|date=5 November 2013}}</ref>  However, [[abstinence-only education]] has been found to be less effective at preventing sexually transmitted infections and [[teenage pregnancy]] among adolescents than [[comprehensive sex education]].<ref name=Obs2007>{{cite journal |doi=10.1097/GCO.0b013e3282efdc0b |pmid=17885460 |pmc=5913747 |title=Abstinence and abstinence-only education |journal=Current Opinion in Obstetrics and Gynecology |volume=19 |issue=5 |pages=446–52 |year=2007 |last1=Ott |first1=Mary A |last2=Santelli |first2=John S }}</ref><ref name=Chin2012>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.amepre.2011.11.006 |pmid=22341164 |title=The Effectiveness of Group-Based Comprehensive Risk-Reduction and Abstinence Education Interventions to Prevent or Reduce the Risk of Adolescent Pregnancy, Human Immunodeficiency Virus, and Sexually Transmitted Infections |journal=American Journal of Preventive Medicine |volume=42 |issue=3 |pages=272–94 |year=2012 |last1=Chin |first1=Helen B |last2=Sipe |first2=Theresa Ann |last3=Elder |first3=Randy |last4=Mercer |first4=Shawna L |last5=Chattopadhyay |first5=Sajal K |last6=Jacob |first6=Verughese |last7=Wethington |first7=Holly R |last8=Kirby |first8=Doug |last9=Elliston |first9=Donna B |last10=Griffith |first10=Matt |last11=Chuke |first11=Stella O |last12=Briss |first12=Susan C |last13=Ericksen |first13=Irene |last14=Galbraith |first14=Jennifer S |last15=Herbst |first15=Jeffrey H |last16=Johnson |first16=Robert L |last17=Kraft |first17=Joan M |last18=Noar |first18=Seth M |last19=Romero |first19=Lisa M |last20=Santelli |first20=John |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1258712 }}</ref>

=== Abstinence-only sex education in the United States ===
Abstinence-only sex education is a form of sex education that teaches abstinence from sex, and often excludes many other types of sexual and reproductive health education, particularly regarding birth control and safe sex. Education programs which focus exclusively on abstinence have hardly been shown to delay sexual activity.<ref>[http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/tgr/06/5/gr060504.html The Guttmacher Report on Public Policy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041209224817/http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/tgr/06/5/gr060504.html |date=9 December 2004 }} December 2003, Volume 6, Number 5 By Cynthia Dailard</ref> Such programs promote sexual abstinence until marriage and often also condemn the use of contraceptives as an alternative. [[Comprehensive sex education]], by contrast, covers the use of contraceptives as well as abstinence.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Comprehensive sexuality education|url=https://www.unfpa.org/comprehensive-sexuality-education|access-date=2021-10-23|website=United Nations Population Fund|language=en}}</ref>

Organizations such as [[SIECUS]] have called abstinence-only programs "fear-based," and "designed to control young people's sexual behavior by instilling fear, shame, and guilt."<ref>[http://www.siecus.org/pubs/tsha_scaredchaste.pdf 6-SHA2_Interior<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513043100/http://www.siecus.org/pubs/tsha_scaredchaste.pdf |date=13 May 2008 }}</ref> Author [[Judith Levine]] has argued that there might be a natural tendency of abstinence educators to escalate their messages: "Like advertising, which must continually jack up its seduction just to stay visible as other advertising proliferates, abstinence education had to make sex scarier and scarier and, at the same time, [[chastity]] sweeter."<ref>[[Harmful to Minors]]</ref>

In spite of these criticisms, federal government support has made abstinence the [[de facto]] focus of sex education in the [[United States]], so that opponents frequently adopt the line that abstinence education is acceptable only if it is combined with other methods, such as instruction in the use of condoms, and easy availability thereof. Most nations of [[Western Europe]] use more comprehensive measures, and in sharp contrast to the heated discussion in the U.S., abstinence is hardly discussed as an educational measure.{{Citation needed|date=December 2018}}

A [[U.S. federal government]]-promoted [[abstinence]]-only program was aimed at teens in 1981 in order to discourage premarital sex and unwanted pregnancies. However, recent studies conducted by Mathematica Policy Research showed ineffectiveness of this program.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2014-07-03|title=Evaluation of Abstinence Education Programs Funded Under Title V, Section 510|url=http://www.mathematica-mpr.com/Family_Support/abstinence.asp|access-date=2020-12-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140703152443/http://www.mathematica-mpr.com/Family_Support/abstinence.asp|archive-date=3 July 2014}}</ref> The Responsible Education About Life Act was introduced by Senator [[Frank Lautenberg]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|D]]-[[New Jersey|NJ]]) and Representatives [[Barbara Lee]] (D-[[California|CA]]) and [[Christopher Shays]] ([[Republican Party (United States)|R]]-[[Connecticut|CT]]) to support age-appropriate sexual education. This program is focused to provide teenagers with science-based information on sexual health, so that they can make a sound decision regarding their sex-life.<ref>[http://info.xxx-sextoys.net/post/congress-abstinence.html Congress changed its mind on abstinence] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091025082806/http://info.xxx-sextoys.net/post/congress-abstinence.html |date=25 October 2009 }}</ref>

In 2006, the [[George W. Bush]] [[Presidency of George W. Bush|administration]] expanded abstinence programs from teens to adults, by introducing programs to encourage unmarried adults to remain abstinent until marriage.<ref>New Bush Administration Policy Promotes Abstinence Until Marriage Among People in their 20s, Guttmacher Policy Review 2006, Volume 9, Number 4. Available online at http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/gpr/09/4/gpr090423.html</ref> Family-planning advocates and researchers denounced the program as unrealistic, due to the rising age of first-time marriage in the United States.<ref>Boerner, Heather. Questioning Abstinence Until Marriage. Available online at {{cite web|url=http://www.plannedparenthood.org/news-articles-press/politics-policy-issues/teen-pregnancy-sex-education/premarital-sex-13377.htm |title=Planned Parenthood Questioning Abstinence Until Marriage - |access-date=2 July 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080113134804/http://www.plannedparenthood.org/news-articles-press/politics-policy-issues/teen-pregnancy-sex-education/premarital-sex-13377.htm |archive-date=13 January 2008 }}</ref> In 2009, the [[Barack Obama]] [[Presidency of Barack Obama|administration]] removed most of the funding from sexual-abstinence education, and instead used the money to fund the Office of Adolescent Health, designed to prevent [[teenage pregnancy]] through evidence-based programs.<ref>
{{cite journal |author=Jessica Fields |date=2012 |title=Sexuality Education in the United States: Shared Cultural Ideas across a Political Divide |journal = Sociology Compass |volume = 6 |issue = 1 |pages=1–14 |doi=10.1111/j.1751-9020.2011.00436.x}}</ref> During the Obama administration, between the years 2007 and 2017, the teen pregnancy rate in the US dropped by 50%, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.pbs.org/newshour/health/why-the-federal-teen-pregnancy-prevention-programs-fate-is-uncertain| title = Why the federal Teen Pregnancy Prevention Program's fate is uncertain {{!}} PBS NewsHour| website = [[PBS]]| date = 22 March 2018}}</ref>

==== Popularity and effectiveness ====
{{See also|Sex education}}
The advent of [[AIDS]] helped build a more favorable view of abstinence. However, a review of 13 U.S. sex-abstinence programs involving over 15,000 people by Oxford University found that they do not stop [[risky sexual behavior]], or help in the prevention of unwanted pregnancy.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/6927733.stm|title=No-sex programmes 'not working'|work=BBC News|date=2 August 2007|access-date=17 March 2009}}</ref> Other studies have found that abstinence-only education does little to affect the "age of sexual initiation; number of sexual partners; and rates of sexual abstinence, condom use, vaginal sex, pregnancy, and sexually transmitted infections (STIs)".<ref>
{{cite journal |author=Abby Wilkerson |date=March 2013 |title=I Want to Hold Your Hand: Abstinence Curricula, Bioethics, and the Silencing of Desire |journal = Journal of Medical Humanities |volume = 34 |issue = 2 |pages=101–108 |doi=10.1007/s10912-013-9213-0 |pmid=23468394|s2cid=35152974 }}</ref> Recently, the United States Congress also found similar results in a study conducted by Mathematica Policy Research on abstinence.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mathematica-mpr.com/publications/PDFs/impactabstinence.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2007-06-22 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613193447/http://www.mathematica-mpr.com/publications/PDFs/impactabstinence.pdf |archive-date=13 June 2007 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Currently, there are also issues as to what abstinence means: is it an abstinence from sexual intercourse, or from sexual behavior? Movements such as [[True Love Waits (organization)|True Love Waits]] in America, which ask teenagers to refrain from sex before marriage, are heavily subscribed, but surveys of sexual behavior indicate an increase in the popularity of oral sex.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Lisa Remez |date=Nov–Dec 2000 |title=Oral Sex among Adolescents: Is It Sex or Is It Abstinence? |journal=Family Planning Perspectives |volume=32 |issue=6 |pages=298–304 |url=http://www.znetwork.org/0007.htm |doi=10.2307/2648199 |pmid=11138867 |jstor=2648199 |publisher=Family Planning Perspectives, Vol. 32, No. 6 |url-status=dead |archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20050421032424/http://www.znetwork.org/0007.htm |archive-date=21 April 2005 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

{{as of|2017}}, "The rates of sexually transmitted diseases and pregnancy in American teenagers and young adults are high relative to rates in other industrialized countries."<ref name="Gray Bjorklund 2017 p. ">{{cite book | last1=Gray | first1=Peter O. | last2=Bjorklund | first2=David F. | title=Psychology | publisher=Macmillan Higher Education | date=2017-12-22 | edition=8th | isbn=978-1-319-06035-0 | page=1044 | quote=The rates of sexually transmitted diseases and pregnancy in American teenagers and young adults are high relative to rates in other industrialized countries.}}</ref>

=== Criticism ===
[[Alfred Kinsey]] is widely regarded as the first and among the most influential figures in American [[sexology]].<ref name="Irvine">{{cite book|title=Disorders of Desire: Sexuality and Gender in Modern American Sexology|isbn =978-1592131518|publisher=[[Temple University Press]]|year=2005|pages=37–43|access-date=3 January 2012|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uIJXT7ZCTCsC&pg=PA37|author=Janice M. Irvine}}</ref><ref name="Zastrow">{{cite book | author= Charles Zastrow|author-link=Charles Zastrow|title = Introduction to Social Work and Social Welfare: Empowering People | publisher =[[Cengage Learning]]|year= 2007|pages=227–228|access-date = 15 March 2014| isbn = 978-0495095101 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=tco4YjyZab4C&pg=PT248}}</ref> He believed that [[sexual liberation]], as opposed to sexual abstinence, was the key to both a strong marriage and a happy life. Kinsey believed that abstinence was a sexual dysfunction: "The only kinds of sexual dysfunction are abstinence, [[celibacy]] and delayed marriage."<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/kinsey/filmmore/pt.html |title=American Experience &#124; Kinsey &#124; Transcript &#124; PBS |website=[[PBS]] |access-date=11 September 2017 |archive-date=13 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113041707/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/kinsey/filmmore/pt.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Human sexuality}}
* [[Abstinence, be faithful, use a condom]]
* [[Antisexualism]]
* ''[[Harmful to Minors]]'', a book by [[Judith Levine]] which deals with [[sexual morality]] in the United States
* [[Generations of Virtue]]
* [[Making Sense of Abstinence]]
* [[Purity Ball]]
* [[Virginity]]
* [[Virginity pledge]]
* [[Voluntary childlessness]] 
* [[N-po generation]]
** [[4B movement]]
* [[Satori generation]]
* [[Singleton (lifestyle)]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* [https://www.academia.edu/4919509/Kedushah_The_Sexual_Abstinence_of_Married_Men_in_Gur_Slonim_and_Toldos_Ahron Benjamin Brown, "Kedushah: The Sexual Abstinence of Married Men in Gur, Slonim and Toldos Ahron", Jewish History 2013, pp. 475-522]

==External links==
* [http://www.chastityproject.com Chastityproject.com]
* [http://www.chastity.com Chastity.com]
* [http://www.abstinence.net National Abstinence Clearinghouse]
* [http://www.antisex.info/index.php/articles/27 Science discovers the physiological value of continence] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171211211511/http://antisex.info/index.php/articles/27 |date=11 December 2017 }} by Dr. R. W. Bernard

{{Birth control methods}}
{{Human sexuality}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sexual Abstinence}}
[[Category:Sexual abstinence| ]]
[[Category:Asceticism]]
[[Category:Celibacy]]
[[Category:Fertility]]
[[Category:Prevention of HIV/AIDS]]
[[Category:Non-sexuality]]