Editing Shatt al-Arab

{{Short description |River in Western Asia}}
{{pp-protected|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date= January 2021}}
{{EngvarB|date=January 2021}}
{{Infobox river
| name                = Shatt al-Arab
| native_name         = {{langx|ar|شط العرب}}
| name_other          = 
| image               = Shat al-arab-22.JPG
| image_caption       = Shatt al-Arab pictured near [[Basra]], Iraq 
| map                 = File:Tigr-euph.png
| map_size            =
| map_caption         = Drainage basin and two major tributaries
| mapframe            = yes
| mapframe-zoom       = 7
| country             = Iraq, Iran, Kuwait<ref name="Ancient_Bubiyan"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1379427/FULLTEXT01.pdf|title= Global Climate Change Impacts on Tigris Euphrates Rivers Basins|page=55}}</ref>
| source2             = [[Tigris]]
| source2_elevation   = {{cvt|4|m|ft|abbr=on}}
| source1             = [[Euphrates]]
| source1_elevation   = {{convert|4|m|ft|abbr=on}}
| tributaries_right   = [[Euphrates River|Euphrates]]
| mouth_location      = [[Persian Gulf]]
| width_min           = {{cvt|250|m|abbr=on}}<ref name="General assessment of Shatt Al-Arab River, Iraq">{{cite journal|journal=International Journal of Water|url=https://doi.org/10.1504/IJW.2019.106049|doi=10.1504/IJW.2019.106049|title=General assessment of Shatt Al-Arab River, Iraq|last1=Safaa|first1=Al-Asadi|last2=Abdulzahra|first2=Alhello|volume=13|page=360-375|year=2019|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
| width_max           = {{cvt|1,500|m|abbr=on}}<ref name="General assessment of Shatt Al-Arab River, Iraq">{{cite journal|journal=International Journal of Water|url=https://doi.org/10.1504/IJW.2019.106049|doi=10.1504/IJW.2019.106049|title=General assessment of Shatt Al-Arab River, Iraq|last1=Safaa|first1=Al-Asadi|last2=Abdulzahra|first2=Alhello|volume=13|page=360-375|year=2019|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
| length              = {{cvt|204|km|mi|abbr=on}}<ref name="General assessment of Shatt Al-Arab River, Iraq">{{cite journal|journal=International Journal of Water|url=https://doi.org/10.1504/IJW.2019.106049|doi=10.1504/IJW.2019.106049|title=General assessment of Shatt Al-Arab River, Iraq|last1=Safaa|first1=Al-Asadi|last2=Abdulzahra|first2=Alhello|volume=13|page=360-375|year=2019|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
*{{cvt|200|km|mi|abbr=on}} from confluence of [[Tigris River|Tigris]]-[[Euphrates]] 
*{{cvt|3,596|km|mi|abbr=on}} total length including [[Euphrates River|Euphrates]]
| mouth_elevation     = {{cvt|0|m|ft|abbr=on}}
| discharge4_avg      = (Period: 1971–2000){{cvt|2,531.8|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}<ref name="Tigris Euphrates Delta-Coastal">{{cite web|url=https://www.riversnetwork.org/MAPS/NEAR%20EAST/TIGRIS_DELTA/index.html|title=Tigris Euphrates Delta-Coastal}}</ref> 
| basin_size          = {{cvt|938,173|km2|mi2|abbr=on}}<ref name="General assessment of Shatt Al-Arab River, Iraq">{{cite journal|journal=International Journal of Water|url=https://doi.org/10.1504/IJW.2019.106049|doi=10.1504/IJW.2019.106049|title=General assessment of Shatt Al-Arab River, Iraq|last1=Safaa|first1=Al-Asadi|last2=Abdulzahra|first2=Alhello|volume=13|page=360-375|year=2019|url-access=subscription}}</ref> to {{cvt|884,000|km2|mi2|abbr=on}}
| discharge4_location = [[Al-Qurnah]], Iraq (confluence of [[Tigris River|Tigris]] and [[Euphrates River|Euphrates]] rivers)
| discharge1_location = Shatt al-Arab Delta, [[Persian Gulf]]
| discharge1_avg      = (Period: 1971–2000){{cvt|3,535|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}<ref name="Tigris Euphrates Delta-Coastal">{{cite web|url=https://www.riversnetwork.org/MAPS/NEAR%20EAST/TIGRIS_DELTA/index.html|title=Tigris Euphrates Delta-Coastal}}</ref>
(Period: 1977–2018){{cvt|105.7|km3/year|m3/s|abbr=on}}<ref name="General assessment of Shatt Al-Arab River, Iraq">{{cite journal|journal=International Journal of Water|url=https://doi.org/10.1504/IJW.2019.106049|doi=10.1504/IJW.2019.106049|title=General assessment of Shatt Al-Arab River, Iraq|last1=Safaa|first1=Al-Asadi|last2=Abdulzahra|first2=Alhello|volume=13|page=360-375|year=2019|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
| discharge2_location = [[Abadan, Iran|Abadan]], Iran
| discharge2_avg      = (Period: 1971–2000){{cvt|3,531.6|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}<ref name="Tigris Euphrates Delta-Coastal">{{cite web|url=https://www.riversnetwork.org/MAPS/NEAR%20EAST/TIGRIS_DELTA/index.html|title=Tigris Euphrates Delta-Coastal}}</ref>
| tributaries_left    = [[Tigris River|Tigris]], [[Hawizeh Marshes|Alswaib canal]], [[Karun]]
| discharge3_location = [[Basra]], [[Iraq]]
| discharge3_avg      = (Period: 1971–2000){{cvt|2,782.8|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}<ref name="Tigris Euphrates Delta-Coastal">{{cite web|url=https://www.riversnetwork.org/MAPS/NEAR%20EAST/TIGRIS_DELTA/index.html|title=Tigris Euphrates Delta-Coastal}}</ref>
| mouth_coordinates   = {{coord|30|24|15.59|N|48|09|3.60|E|type:_river}}
| extra             = 
}}

The '''Shatt al-Arab''' ({{langx|ar|شط العرب|lit=River of the [[Arabs]]}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Shatt al Arab |url=https://opil.ouplaw.com/view/10.1093/law:epil/9780199231690/law-9780199231690-e1349 |access-date=2022-04-23 |website=Oxford Public International Law |language=en |quote=The Shatt al Arab river (or Arvand Rud in Persian) is the confluence of the Euphrates and the Tigris (Tigris and Euphrates Rivers), which starts in the Iraqi town of Al-Qornah and after circa 120 miles flows into the Persian Gulf.}}</ref>) is a [[river]] about {{Convert|200|km|mi}} in length that is formed at the [[confluence]] of the [[Tigris–Euphrates river system|Euphrates and Tigris rivers]] in the town of [[al-Qurnah]] in the [[Basra Governorate]] of [[Geography of Iraq|southern Iraq]]. The southern end of the river constitutes the [[Iran–Iraq border]] down to its [[River mouth|mouth]], where it discharges into the [[Persian Gulf]]. The Shatt al-Arab varies in width from about {{convert|232|m}} at [[Basra]] to {{convert|800|m}} at its mouth. It is thought that the waterway formed relatively recently in geological time, with the [[Tigris]] and [[Euphrates]] originally emptying into the Persian Gulf via a channel further to the west. Kuwait's [[Bubiyan Island]] is part of the Shatt al-Arab delta.<ref name="Ancient_Bubiyan">{{cite journal|first2=Robert|last2=Carter|first1=Linda|last1=Reinink-Smith|year=2022|title=Late Holocene development of Bubiyan Island, Kuwait|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/quaternary-research/article/abs/late-holocene-development-of-bubiyan-island-kuwait/FD3CB9742FC8B0A5EDE6EBAC8F15C301|journal=Quaternary Research|volume=109 |pages=16–38|doi=10.1017/qua.2022.3|bibcode=2022QuRes.109...16R |s2cid=248250022 |url-access=subscription}}</ref>

The [[Karun]], a [[tributary]] which joins the waterway from the Iranian side, deposits large amounts of [[silt]] into the river; this necessitates continuous [[dredging]] to keep it navigable.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-6583.html |title= Iraq – Major Geographical Features|work= country-data.com|access-date= 28 November 2015}}</ref>

The area used to hold the largest [[date palm]] forest in the world. In the mid-1970s, the region included 17–18 million date palms: an estimated one-fifth of the world's 90 million palm trees. However, by 2002, more than 14 million of the palms had been wiped out by the combined factors of war, salt and pests; this count includes around 9 million palms in Iraq and 5 million in Iran. Many of the remaining 3–4 million trees are in poor health.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://na.unep.net/atlas/webatlas.php?id=169 |title= UNEP/GRID-Sioux Falls|work= unep.net|access-date= 28 November 2015}}</ref>

==Geography==
[[File:Shatt al arab.png|right|thumb|Map]]
The Shatt al-Arab is formed by the confluence of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers at [[Al-Qurnah]], and flows into the [[Persian Gulf]] south of the city of [[Al-Faw]]. It receives the [[Karun]] at [[Khorramshahr]].

==History==
3,000 years ago, the Persian Gulf was larger and the Shatt al-Arab had not then formed.

Dispute over the river occurred during the [[Gunpowder empires|Ottoman-Safavid]] era, prior to the establishment of an independent Iraq in the 20th century. In the early 16th century, the Iranian [[Safavid dynasty|Safavids]] gained most of what is present-day Iraq, including Shatt al-Arab. They later lost these territories to the expanding [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] following the [[Peace of Amasya]] (1555).{{sfn|Mikaberidze|2015|page=xxxi}} 

In the early 17th century, the Safavids under king (''[[shah]]'') [[Abbas I of Persia|Abbas I]] (r. 1588–1629) once again regained Shatt al-Arab. Control of the river was at last permanently ceded to the Ottomans with the [[Treaty of Zuhab]] in 1639. Control of the waterway was also temporarily lost by the Safavids to the Ottomans [[Treaty of Zuhab|in this]] treaty.{{sfn|Dougherty|Ghareeb|2013|page=681}} In general, the Treaty of Zuhab roughly re-established the common borders of the Ottomans and Safavid Empires the way they had been in 1555. However, the treaty never demarcated a precise and fixed boundary regarding the frontier in the south. 

Later, [[Nader Shah]] (r. 1736–1747) succeeded in restoring Iranian control over Shatt al-Arab for a time. With the [[Treaty of Kerden]] (1746), however, the Zuhab boundaries were restored, ceding the river to the Turks once again.{{sfn|Shaw|1991|page=309}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marschall|first1=Christin|title=Iran's Persian Gulf Policy: From Khomeini to Khatami|date=2003|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1134429905|pages=1–272}}</ref> The [[Treaties of Erzurum|First Treaty of Erzurum]] (1823) concluded between Ottoman Turkey and [[Qajar Iran]], resulted in the same.{{sfn|Kia|2017|page=21}}{{sfn|Potts|2004}}

The [[Treaties of Erzurum|Second Treaty of Erzurum]] was signed by Ottoman Turkey and Qajar Iran in 1847 after protracted negotiations, which included [[United Kingdom|British]] and [[Russian Empire|Russian]] delegates. Even afterwards, backtracking and disagreements continued, until British Foreign Secretary, [[Henry Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|Lord Palmerston]], was moved to comment in 1851 that "the boundary line between [[Turkey]] and [[Persia]] can never be finally settled except by an arbitrary decision on the part of Great Britain and Russia". A [[Protocol (treaty)|protocol]] between the Ottomans and the Persians was signed in [[Istanbul]] in 1913, which declared that the Ottoman-Persian frontier run along the ''[[thalweg]]'', but [[World War I]] canceled all plans.

[[File:Coat of arms of the Kingdom of Iraq (1921–1958).svg|thumb|left|Coat of arms of the Kingdom of Iraq 1932–1959 depicting the Shatt and the forest]]
During the [[British Mandate of Mesopotamia|Mandate of Iraq]] (1920–1932), the British advisors in Iraq were able to keep the waterway binational under the [[thalweg#Thalweg principle|thalweg principle]] that worked in Europe: the dividing line was a line drawn between the deepest points along the stream bed. In 1937, Iran and Iraq signed a treaty that settled the dispute over control of the Shatt al-Arab.<ref name="Karsh, Efraim page 7">Karsh, Efraim ''The Iran-Iraq War 1980–1988'', London: Osprey, 2002 page 7</ref> The 1937 treaty recognized the Iranian-Iraqi border as along the low-water mark on the eastern side of the Shatt al-Arab except at [[Abadan]] and [[Khorramshahr]] where the frontier ran along the ''thalweg'' (the deep water line) which gave Iraq control of almost the entire waterway; provided that all ships using the Shatt al-Arab fly the Iraqi flag and have an Iraqi pilot, and required Iran to pay tolls to Iraq whenever its ships used the Shatt al-Arab.<ref name="Karsh, Efraim page 8">Karsh, Efraim ''The Iran-Iraq War 1980–1988'', London: Osprey, 2002 page 8</ref> Shah [[Reza Shah]] of Iran together with his close friend President [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] of Turkey had been promoting the [[Saadabad pact]] intended to protect the neutrality of Muslim nations if the world should be plunged into war again. In return for the Shatt al-Arab treaty, Iraq joined the Saadabad pact and Iranian-Iraqi relations were friendly for decades afterward.<ref name="Karsh, Efraim page 8"/> The Saadabad pact ultimately brought together Turkey, Iraq, Iran and Afghanistan in an alliance intended to protect their neutrality. In 1955, both Iran and Iraq were founding members of the [[Baghdad Pact]] alliance.<ref>Karsh, Efraim ''The Iran–Iraq War 1980–1988'', London: Osprey, 2002 page7</ref>

The Shatt al-Arab and the forest were depicted in the middle of the coat of arms of the [[Kingdom of Iraq]], from 1932 to 1959. 

[[File:The Arab boatman brings the sailors ashore.jpg|thumb|upright|Arab ferryman on the Shatt al-Arab 1958]] 
[[File:Evening atmosphere on the Shatt al-Arab - 1958.png|thumb|Evening atmosphere on the Shatt al-Arab]]

Under Shah [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]] in the late 1960s, Iran developed a strong military and took a more assertive stance in the Near East.<ref name="Karsh, Efraim page 7"/> In April 1969, Iran abrogated the 1937 treaty over the Shatt al-Arab and Iranian ships stopped paying tolls to Iraq when they used the Shatt al-Arab.<ref>Karsh, Efraim, ''The Iran-Iraq War 1980–1988'', London: Osprey, 2002, pp. 7–8</ref> The Shah argued that the 1937 treaty was unfair to Iran because almost all river borders around the world ran along the ''thalweg'', and because most of the ships that used the Shatt al-Arab were Iranian.<ref>Bulloch, John and Morris, Harvey ''The Gulf War'', London: Methuen, 1989, p. 37.</ref> Iraq threatened war over the Iranian move, but on 24 April 1969, an Iranian tanker escorted by Iranian warships ([[Joint Operation Arvand]]) sailed down the Shatt al-Arab, and Iraq—being the militarily weaker state—did nothing.<ref name="Karsh, Efraim page 8"/> The Iranian abrogation of the 1937 treaty marked the beginning of a period of acute Iraqi-Iranian tension that was to last until the Algiers Accords of 1975.<ref name="Karsh, Efraim page 8"/>

All [[United Nations]] attempts to intervene and mediate the dispute were rebuffed. [[Baathist Iraq]] claimed the frontier agreed to in 1937 was still the legitimate frontier. In response, Iran in the early 1970s became the main patron of Iraqi Kurdish groups fighting for independence from Iraq. In 1974 with the open encouragement and support of Iran, the Iraqi Kurdish ''peshmerga'' rebelled against Iraq, and instead of waging a guerrilla war, the ''peshmerga'' fought a conventional war against Iraq, leading to very intense fighting.<ref>Brogan, Patrick ''World Conflicts'', London: Bloomsbury, 1989, p. 260.</ref> In the winter of 1974–75, Iran and Iraq almost went to war over Iran's support of the Kurds in Iraq (see [[1974–75 Shatt al-Arab conflict]]).<ref name="Karsh, Efraim page 8"/> However, given Iran's greater military strength and population, the Iraqis decided against war, and chose to make concessions to Tehran to end the Kurdish rebellion.<ref name="Karsh, Efraim page 8"/> In March 1975, Vice President Saddam Hussein of Iraq and the Shah signed the [[Algiers Agreement (1975)|Algiers Accord]] in which Iraq recognized a series of straight lines closely approximating the ''thalweg'' (deepest channel) of the waterway, as the official border, in exchange for which Iran ended its support of the Iraqi Kurds.<ref name="Abadan">[http://www.sajed.ir/en/content/view/31/201/ Abadan] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090808213517/http://www.sajed.ir/en/content/view/31/201/ |date=2009-08-08 }}, [http://www.sajed.ir Sajed] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141007084621/http://www.sajed.ir/ |date=7 October 2014 }}, Retrieved on March 16, 2009.</ref> The Algiers Accord was seen as a national humiliation in Iraq, causing much bitterness over what was seen as Iranian bullying.<ref name="Karsh, Efraim page 8"/> However, the Algiers Accord saw Iran cease supporting the ''peshmerga'' as the Iranians closed the frontier, causing the Kurdish rebellion to promptly collapse.<ref name="Brogan, Patrick page 298">Brogan, Patrick page 298</ref> The British journalist Patrick Brogan wrote that "the Iraqis celebrated their victory in the usual manner, by executing as many of the rebels as they could lay their hands on".<ref name="Brogan, Patrick page 298"/>

In 1980, President Saddam Hussein of Iraq [[Denunciation|abrogated]] the 1975 treaty and Iraq invaded Iran. The main thrust of the military movement on the ground was across the waterway which was the stage for most of the military battles between the two armies. The waterway was Iraq's only outlet to the Persian Gulf, and thus, its shipping lanes were greatly affected by continuous Iranian attacks.<ref name="Abadan"/>

When [[Al-Faw peninsula]] was captured by the Iranians in 1986, Iraq's shipping activities virtually came to a halt and had to be diverted to other Arab ports such as Kuwait and even [[Aqaba]], [[Jordan]]. On 17 April 1988, [[Second Battle of al-Faw|Operation Ramadan Mubarak]] Materialized which saw Al-Faw peninsula recaptured after three days of fighting.<ref name="Karsh, Efraim page 57">Karsh, Efraim page 57</ref> After retaking Al-Faw, the Iraqis began a sustained drive to clear the Iranians out of all of southern Iraq.<ref>Brogan, Patrick, p. 264</ref> In May 1988, the Iraqis expelled the Iranians from Salamchech and took [[Majnun Island]].<ref name="Karsh, Efraim page 57"/> During the fighting in the spring of 1988, the Iranians showed all the signs of collapsing morale.<ref name="Brogan, Patrick page 265">Brogan, Patrick, p. 265</ref> Brogan reported: 

{{quote|Reports from the front, both at Faw [Fao] and outside Basra, indicated that the Iranian resistance was surprisingly weak. The army that had shown such courage and ''élan'' early in the war now broke in a rout, and fled before the Arabs.<ref name="Brogan, Patrick page 265"/>}}

During the 1988 battles, the Iranians seemed tired and worn out by the nearly eight years of the war, and "put up very little resistance" to the Iraqi offensives.<ref name="Brogan, Patrick page 253">Brogan, Patrick ''World Conflicts'', London: Bloomsbury, 1989, p. 253.</ref> After the [[Iran–Iraq War]], both sides agreed to once again treat the Algiers Accord as binding.

===Conflicts===
[[Image:Basra-Shatt-Al-Arab.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Shatt al-Arab near [[Basra]] city, Iraq]]

====Iranian–Iraqi dispute====
Conflicting territorial claims and disputes over navigation rights between Iran and Iraq were among the main factors for the beginning of the [[Iran–Iraq War]] that lasted from 1980 to 1988, when the pre-1980 ''[[status quo]]'' was restored. The Iranian cities and major ports of [[Abadan, Iran|Abadan]] and [[Khorramshahr]] and the Iraqi cities and major ports of [[Basra]] and [[Al-Faw]] are situated along this river.<ref name="Abadan" />

====Gulf War and Iraq War====
{{unreferenced section|date=November 2022}}
During the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]], the waterway was a key military target for the [[Multi-National Force – Iraq|coalition forces]]. Since it is the only outlet to the Persian Gulf, its capture was important in delivering humanitarian aid to the rest of the country,<ref name="Abadan" /> and stopping the flow of operations trying to break the naval blockade against Iraq.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}} The British [[Royal Marines]] staged an amphibious assault to capture the key oil installations and shipping docks located at [[Umm Qasr]] on the [[al-Faw peninsula]] at the onset of the conflict.

Following the end of the war, the UK was given responsibility, subsequently mandated by [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1723]], to patrol the waterway and the area of the [[Persian Gulf]] surrounding the river mouth. They were tasked until 2007 to make sure that ships in the area were not being used to transport munitions into Iraq. British forces also trained Iraqi naval units to take over the responsibility of guarding their waterways after the [[Coalition Forces]] left Iraq in December 2011.

On two separate occasions, Iranian forces operating on the Shatt al-Arab captured British [[Royal Navy]] sailors who they claim trespassed into their territory:
* In 2004, several British servicemen were held for [[2004 Iranian seizure of Royal Navy personnel|two days]] after purportedly straying into the Iranian side of the waterway. After being initially threatened with prosecution, they were released after high-level conversations between [[Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs|British Foreign Secretary]] [[Jack Straw]] and Iranian Foreign Minister [[Kamal Kharrazi]]. The initial hardline approach came down to power struggles within the Iranian government. The British marines' weapons and boats were confiscated.
* In 2007, a [[2007 Iranian seizure of Royal Navy personnel|seizure of fifteen more British personnel]] became a major diplomatic crisis between the two nations. It was resolved after thirteen days when the Iranians unexpectedly released the captives under an "amnesty".

==Naming==
The river is also known in Iraq as the Dijla al-Awara (دجلة العوراء) and in Iran as the Arvand Rud (Persian: اروندرود, lit. 'Swift River'). 

The Persian epic poem ''[[Shahnameh]]'' (written between {{circa|977–1010 CE}}) and many other works of [[Middle Persian literature]] use the name ''Arvand'' ({{Langx|fa|اروند|label=none}}) for the [[Tigris–Euphrates river system|Tigris]], the confluent of the Shatt al-Arab.<ref name="Iranica2">M. Kasheff, ''[[Encyclopædia Iranica]]'': [http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/arvand-rud Arvand-Rud]. – Retrieved on 18 October 2007.</ref> Iranians also used this name specifically to designate the Shatt al-Arab during the later [[Pahlavi Iran|Pahlavi period]], and continue to do so since the [[Iranian Revolution|1979 Iranian Revolution]].<ref name="Iranica2" />

==See also==
* [[Arvand Free Zone]]
* [[al-Qurnah]]
*[[Shafi, Iraq|Shafi]]
* [[Wildlife of Iraq]]
* [[Shatt al-Arab dispute]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
* {{cite book|last1=Dougherty|first1=Beth K.|last2=Ghareeb|first2=Edmund A.|title=Historical Dictionary of Iraq|date=2013|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0810879423|edition=2}}
* {{cite book|last1=Kia|first1=Mehrdad|title=The Ottoman Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia|date=2017|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1610693899}}
* {{cite book|last1=Mikaberidze|first1=Alexander|title=Historical Dictionary of Georgia|date=2015|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1442241466|edition=2}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | article = SHATT AL-ARAB | last = Potts | first = D. T. | encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia Iranica | year = 2004 }}
* {{cite book|last=Shaw|first=Stanford|chapter=Iranian Relations with the Ottoman Empire in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries|title=The Cambridge History of Iran (Vol. 7)|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1991|isbn=978-0857451842|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H20Xt157iYUC&q=1| editor-given1 = Peter | editor-surname1 = Avery | editor-given2 = Gavin | editor-surname2 = Hambly | editor-given3 = Charles | editor-surname3 = Melville }}

==External links==
{{Commons-inline}}

* [http://www.american.edu/projects/mandala/TED/ice/IRANIRAQ.HTM ICE case: Iran–Iraq War and Waterway rights]
* [http://www.archiveeditions.co.uk/titledetails.asp?tid=34 The Iran–Iraq border, 1639–1992, archive] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225161007/http://www.archiveeditions.co.uk/titledetails.asp?tid=34 |date=25 December 2018 }}

{{coord|30|24|26|N|48|09|06|E|display=title|region:IQ_type:river_source:dewiki}}

{{Iraq topics}}
{{Districts of Iraq}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Basra Governorate]]
[[Category:Disputed territories in the Persian Gulf]]
[[Category:District capitals of Iraq]]
[[Category:International rivers of Asia]]
[[Category:Iran–Iraq border]]
[[Category:Landforms of Khuzestan province]]
[[Category:National symbols of Iraq]]
[[Category:Persian Gulf]]
[[Category:Rivers of Iran]]
[[Category:Rivers of Iraq]]
[[Category:Shatt al-Arab basin]]
[[Category:Geography of Kuwait]]
[[Category:Territorial disputes of Iran]]
[[Category:Territorial disputes of Iraq]]
[[Category:Rivers in Mandaeism]]