Editing Shibboleth

{{Short description|Custom or tradition that distinguishes one group from another}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2023}}
[[File:Celebrate Taking Them Down (34400658742).jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|A [[New Orleans]] resident challenges out-of-towners who had come to protest against the 2017 [[Removal of Confederate monuments and memorials|removal]] of the [[Robert E. Lee Monument (New Orleans)|Robert E. Lee Monument]]. The out-of-towners' inability to pronounce "[[Tchoupitoulas Street]]" according to the local fashion would be a ''shibboleth'' marking them as outsiders.]]

A '''shibboleth''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=GT Shibboleth.ogg|ˈ|ʃ|ɪ|b|əl|ɛ|θ|,_|-|ɪ|θ}};<ref>{{Citation |last=Jones |first=Daniel |title=English Pronouncing Dictionary |page=485 |year=2003 |editor=Roach |editor-first=Peter |url=https://archive.org/details/englishpronounci0000unse_d4y7/page/484/mode/2up?q=shibboleth |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=3-12-539683-2 |author-link=Daniel Jones (phonetician) |editor2=Hartmann |editor2-first=James |editor3=Setter |editor3-first=Jane |orig-year=1917}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{MerriamWebsterDictionary|shibboleth}}</ref> {{langx|he|שִׁבֹּלֶת|šībbōleṯ}}) is any [[Convention (norm)|custom]] or tradition, usually a choice of phrasing or single word, that distinguishes one group of people from another.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Allen |first1=R. E. |url=https://archive.org/details/conciseoxforddic00real/mode/2up?q=shibboleth |title=The Concise Oxford dictionary of current English |last2=Fowler |first2=H. W. |last3=Fowler |first3=F. G. |publisher=Clarendon Press |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-19-861200-1 |edition=8th |location=Oxford |page=1117 |via=Internet Archive}}</ref><ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=SHIBBOLETH definition and meaning |url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/shibboleth |access-date=2024-09-09 |website=[[Collins English Dictionary]]}}</ref> Historically, shibboleths have been used as [[password]]s, ways of self-identification, signals of loyalty and affinity, ways of maintaining traditional segregation, or protection from threats. It has also come to mean a moral formula held tenaciously and unreflectingly, or a [[taboo]].<ref>Oxford English Dictionary Online, ''Shibboleth'', Additional sense.</ref>

==Origin==
The term originates from the Hebrew word {{transliteration|hbo|shibbóleth}} ({{lang|hbo|שִׁבֹּלֶת}}), which means the part of a plant containing [[grain]], such as the [[ear (botany)|ear]] of a stalk of [[wheat]] or [[rye]];<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wahrig |first=Gerhard |author-link=Gerhard Wahrig |url=https://archive.org/details/deutschesworterb0000wahr_t1i5/mode/2up?q=Schib%27bo-leth |title=Deutsches Wörterbuch |publisher=Bertelsmann Lexikon |year=2000 |isbn=978-3-577-10446-3 |location=Gütersloh |page=1096 |language=de |trans-title=German Dictionary |via=Internet Archive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Schibboleth |url=https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Schibboleth |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090429051715/http://lexikon.meyers.de/meyers/Schibboleth |archive-date=2009-04-29 |access-date=2024-09-09 |work=[[Duden]]}}</ref><ref name=":2" /><ref>{{cite web |title=shibboleth |url=http://www.tfd.com/shibboleth |work=[[The Free Dictionary]]}}</ref> or less commonly (but arguably more appropriately){{efn|Because the context was crossing a river: see page references in next cited sources.}} '[[flood]], [[Stream#torrent|torrent]]'.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Shibboleth Incident (Judges 12:6)|last=Speiser|first=E. A.|author-link=Ephraim Avigdor Speiser|journal=Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research|date=February 1942|volume=85|issue=85|pages=10–13|publisher=University of Chicago Press|jstor=1355052|doi=10.2307/1355052|s2cid=163386740}}</ref>{{rp|10}}<ref>{{cite journal|title=Sibilants and šibbōlet (Judges. 12:6)|last=Hendel|first=Ronald S.|journal=Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research|date=February 1996|volume=301|issue=301|publisher=University of Chicago Press|pages=69–75|jstor=1357296|doi=10.2307/1357296|s2cid=164131149}}</ref>{{rp|69}}

===Biblical account===
The modern use derives from an account in the [[Hebrew Bible]], in which pronunciation of this word was used to distinguish [[Tribe of Ephraim|Ephraimites]], whose dialect used a different first consonant. The difference concerns the Hebrew letter ''[[shin (letter)|shin]]'', which is now pronounced as {{IPA|[ʃ]}} (as in ''[[voiceless postalveolar fricative|sh]]oe'').<ref name="HessBlock2016">{{cite book |last1=Hess |first1=Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q1gzCwAAQBAJ&q=shin |title=Joshua, Judges, and Ruth |last2=Block |first2=Daniel I. |last3=Manor |first3=Dale W. |date=12 January 2016 |publisher=[[Zondervan Academic]] |isbn=978-0-310-52759-6 |editor-last=Walton |editor-first=John H. |series=Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary |page=352}}</ref> In the [[Book of Judges]] chapter 12, after the inhabitants of [[Gilead]] under the command of [[Jephthah]] inflicted a military defeat upon the invading [[tribe of Ephraim]] (around 1370–1070 BC), the surviving Ephraimites tried to cross the [[Jordan River|river Jordan]] back into their home territory, but the Gileadites secured the river's fords to stop them. To identify and kill these Ephraimites, the Gileadites told each suspected survivor to say the word ''shibboleth''. The Ephraimite dialect resulted in a pronunciation that, to Gileadites, sounded like ''sibboleth''.<ref name="HessBlock2016" /> In Judges 12:5–6 in the [[King James Version|King James Bible]], the anecdote appears thus (with the word already in its current English spelling):
{{blockquote|{{lang|en-emodeng|And the Gileadites took the passages of Jordan before the Ephraimites: and it was so, that when those Ephraimites which were escaped said, Let me go over; that the men of Gilead said unto him, Art thou an Ephraimite? If he said, Nay;

Then said they unto him, Say now Shibboleth: and he said Sibboleth: for he could not frame to pronounce it right. Then they took him, and slew him at the passages of Jordan: and there fell at that time of the Ephraimites forty and two thousand.}}|source=Judges 12:5–6<ref>{{Bibleverse|Judges|12:5-6|HE}}</ref>}}

===Phonetics of the biblical test===
''Shibboleth'' has been described as the first "password" in Western literature<ref name="Lennon">{{cite journal|last=Lennon|first=Brian|year=2015|title=Passwords: Philology, Security, Authentication|journal=Diacritic|volume=43|issue=1|pages=82–104|doi=10.1353/dia.2015.0000}}</ref>{{rp|93}} but exactly how it worked is not known; it has long been debated by scholars of Semitic languages.<ref name="Hendel">{{cite journal|last=Hendel|first=Ronald S.|year=1996|title=Sibilants and šibbōlet (Judges 12:6)|journal=Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research|volume=301|pages=69–75|jstor=1357296}}</ref><ref name="Emerton">{{cite book|last=Emerton|first=John|year=2014|author-link=John Emerton|editor-last1=Davies|editor-first1=Graham|editor-last2=Gordon|editor-first2=Robert|chapter=Some Comments on the Shibboleth Incident (Judges xii 6)(1985)|title=Studies on the Language and Literature of the Bible|pages=250–257|publisher=Brill|doi=10.1163/9789004283411_018|isbn=9789004283411}}</ref> It may have been quite subtle: the men of Ephraim were unlikely to be "caught totally napping by any test that involved some gross and readily detectable difference of pronunciation";<ref name="Woodhouse">{{cite journal|last=Woodhouse|first=Robert|year=2003|title=The Biblical Shibboleth Story in the Light of Late Egyptian Perceptions of Semitic Sibilants: Reconciling Divergent Views|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|volume=123|issue=2|pages=271–289|jstor=3217684}}.</ref>{{rp|274}}  On a superficial reading the fleeing Ephraimites were betrayed by their dialect: they said ''sibbōleth''.  But it has been asked why they did not simply repeat what the Gileadite sentries told them to say<ref name="Hendel"/>{{rp|250}} — "they surely would have used the required sound to save their necks",<ref name="Speiser"/> since peoples in the region could say both "sh" and "s".<ref>According to Speiser, "We have no knowledge of any West Semitic language that fails to include both ''š'' and ''s'' as independent phonemes": Speiser (1942), 10-11.</ref><ref>"The phonemic distinction of ''š : s'' is preserved in all known Northwest Semitic dialects of the Iron Age": Hendel (1996), 70.</ref>  "We have yet to learn how the suspects were caught by the catchword".<ref name="Speiser">{{cite journal|last=Speiser|first=E.A.|year=1942|author-link=Ephraim Avigdor Speiser|title=The Shibboleth Incident (Judges 12:6)|journal=Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research|volume=85|pages=10–13|jstor=1355052}}</ref> A related problem (akin to [[false positive]]s) is how the test spared neutral tribes with whom the Gileadite guards had no quarrel, yet pinpointed the Ephraimite enemy.<ref name="Marcus">{{cite journal|last=Marcus|first=David|year=1992|title=Ridiculing the Ephraimites: The Shibboleth Incident (Judg 12: 6)|journal=Maarav|volume=8|issue=1|pages=95–105}}</ref>{{rp|98}}

[[File:The Ford of River Jordan.jpg|thumb|Shepherds fording the river Jordan (old postcard).  The men of Ephraim could not cross without saying the password.]]
[[Ephraim Avigdor Speiser]] therefore proposed that the test involved a more challenging sound than could be written down in the later biblical Hebrew narrative, namely the [[phoneme]] {{angbr IPA|θ}} (≈ English "th").  Present in archaic Hebrew (said Speiser) but later lost in most dialects, the Gileadites, who lived across a dialect boundary (the river Jordan), had retained it in theirs.  Thus, what the Gileadite guards would have demanded was the password ''thibbōlet''.  The phoneme is difficult for naive users — to this day, wrote Speiser, most non-Arab Muslims cannot pronounce the classical Arabic equivalent — hence the best the Ephraimite refugees could manage was ''sibbōlet''.<ref name=Speiser />  Speiser's solution has had a mixed reception,<ref>David Marcus said it was "virtually the norm in Biblical scholarship" (Marcus, 1992, 96), while Woodhouse did not even include it in his list of proposals deserving serious consideration: Woodhouse (2003).  It has been criticised for lack of evidential support in [[cognate]] Semitic languages (Emerton, 2014, 251) and for not tackling the false positives problem, since neutral Hebrew-speaking tribes could not have said "th" either (Marcus, 1992, 98).</ref> but has been revived by [[Gary A. Rendsburg]].<ref name="Rendsburg">{{cite journal|last=Rendsburg|first=Gary A.|year=1988|author-link=Gary A. Rendsburg|title=The Ammonite Phoneme /Ṯ/|journal=Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research|volume=269|pages=73–79|jstor=1356953}}</ref>

[[John Emerton]] argued that "Perhaps [the Ephraimites] could pronounce ''š'', but they articulated the consonant in a different way from the Gileadites, and their pronunciation sounded to the men of Gilead like ''s''".  There is a range of ways of pronouncing the two phonemes.  "An old clergyman of my acquaintance used to say 'O Lord, save the Queen' in such a way that it sounded [to me] like 'O Lord, shave the Queen'", and analogies could be found amongst Hebrew users in modern Lithuania and Morocco.<ref name="Emerton"/>{{rp|256}}  [[University of California, Berkeley|Berkeley]] scholar Ronald Hendel agreed, saying the theory was supported by a document recently dug up near modern [[Amman]].  It tended to show that, across the Jordan, the pronunciation of the phoneme "sh" was heard as "s" by Hebrew speakers from the opposite side of the river. "This is why Gileadite ''šibbōlet'' is repeated by the Ephraimites as ''sibbōlet'': they simply repeated the word as they heard it".<ref name="Hendel"/>  Other solutions have been proposed.<ref>They are mentioned in the sources cited in this section.</ref>

David Marcus has contended that linguistic scholars have missed the point of the biblical anecdote: The purpose of the later [[Judea]]n narrator was not to record some phonetic detail, but to satirise the incompetence of "the [[Tribe of Ephraim#Character|high and mighty northern Ephraimites]]".  "The shibboleth episode ridicules the Ephraimites who are portrayed as incompetent nincompoops who cannot even repeat a test-word spoken by the Gileadite guards".<ref name="Marcus"/>

==Modern use==
In modern [[English language|English]], a shibboleth can have a [[Sociology|sociological]] meaning, referring to any [[In-group and out-group|in-group]] word or phrase that can distinguish members from outsiders.<ref name=McNamara /> It is also sometimes used in a broader sense to mean [[jargon]], the proper use of which identifies speakers as members of a particular group or [[subculture]].

In [[information technology]], [[Shibboleth (software)|Shibboleth]] is a community-wide password that enables members of that community to access an online resource without revealing their individual identities. The origin server can vouch for the identity of the individual user without giving the target server any further identifying information.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Technically Speaking: Can You Say "Shibboleth"?|last=Dorman|first=David|date=October 2002|volume=33|issue=9|journal=American Libraries|pages=86–7|publisher=American Library Association|jstor=25648483}}.</ref> Hence the individual user does not know the password that is actually employed – it is generated internally by the origin server – and so cannot betray it to outsiders.

The term can also be used pejoratively, suggesting that the original meaning of a symbol has in effect been lost and that the symbol now serves merely to identify allegiance, being described as "nothing more than a shibboleth". In 1956, [[economics|economist]] [[Paul Samuelson]] applied the term ''shibboleth'' in works including ''[[Foundations of Economic Analysis]]'' to mean an idea for which "the means becomes the end, and the letter of the law takes precedence over the spirit."<ref>{{cite book |last=Samuelson |first=Paul A. |author-link=Paul Samuelson |title=Natural Resources, Uncertainty, and General Equilibrium Systems: Essays in Memory of Rafael Lusky |publisher=Academic Press |year=1977 |isbn=978-0-12-106150-0 |location=New York |page=55 |chapter=When it is ethically optimal to allocate money income in stipulated fractional shares |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UKeJEc46R9AC&q=shibboleth+letter+law&pg=PR5-IA2}}</ref> Samuelson admitted that ''shibboleth'' is an imperfect term for this phenomenon.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=Quarterly Journal of Economics |volume=70 |issue=1 |pages=1–22 |date=February 1956 |title=Social Indifference Curves |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XQQFn8Vk470C&q=paul%20samuelson%20shibboleth&pg=PA1073 |last=Samuelson |first=Paul A. |author-link=Paul Samuelson  |doi=10.2307/1884510 |jstor=1884510 |isbn=9780262190220 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==Examples==
[[File:Under the Guard of the Ikon - The Reign of Terror on the Roumanian Frontier.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Villagers of [[Ungheni]], [[Bessarabia Governorate]], displaying Christian [[icon]]s on their homes in order to distinguish themselves from [[Jews]] and defend themselves from a [[pogrom]] in 1905, as depicted by Hermanus Willem Koekkoek (1867–1929)]]
{{Main|List of shibboleths}}
Shibboleths have been used by different subcultures throughout the world at different times. Regional differences, level of expertise, and computer coding techniques are several forms that shibboleths have taken.

There is a legend that before the [[Battle of the Golden Spurs]] in May 1302, the [[Flanders|Flemish]] slaughtered every Frenchman they could find in the city of [[Bruges]], an act known as the [[Matins of Bruges]].<ref name="Devries">{{Cite book |last=DeVries |first=Kelly |url=https://archive.org/details/infantrywarfarei0000devr/mode/2up?q=matins |title=Infantry warfare in the early fourteenth century: discipline, tactics, and technology |publisher=[[Boydell Press]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-585-20214-3 |location=Woodbridge |page=9 |via=Internet Archive}}</ref> They identified Frenchmen based on their inability to pronounce the Flemish phrase {{lang|nl|schild en vriend}}, 'shield and friend', or possibly {{lang|nl|gilden vriend}}, 'friend of the Guilds'. However, many Medieval Flemish dialects did not contain the cluster ''sch-'' either (even today's [[Kortrijk]] dialect has ''sk-''), and Medieval French rolled the r just as Flemish did.{{efn|name=liberman}}

There is an anecdote in [[Sicily]] that, during the rebellion of the [[Sicilian Vespers]] in 1282, the inhabitants of the island killed the [[Capetian House of Anjou|French occupiers]] who, when questioned, could not correctly pronounce the Sicilian word {{lang|scn|cìciri}} 'chickpeas'.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Schirò |first=Samuele |title=Quando un pugno di ceci fece la storia della Sicilia |url=https://www.palermoviva.it/per-un-pugno-di-ceci/ |access-date=2021-04-28 |website=www.palermoviva.it |language=it-IT}}</ref>

Following [[Mayor Albert's Rebellion]] in 1312 [[Kraków]], Poles used the [[Polish language]] shibboleth ''Soczewica, koło, miele, młyn'' ('Lentil, wheel, grinds (verb), mill') to distinguish the German-speaking burghers. Those who could not properly pronounce this phrase were executed.<ref>{{cite book |author=Knoll |first=Paul |url= |title=The Expansion of Central Europe in the Middle Ages |publisher=Routledge |year=2012 |isbn=9781315239781 |editor=Berend |editor-first=Nora |edition=1st |page=445 |chapter=19: Economic and Political Institutions on the Polish-German Frontier in the Middle Ages: Action, reaction, interaction |chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/reader/read-online/78f6b0db-c1a4-4e32-baab-649741726539/chapter/pdf?context=ubx}}</ref>

[[File:Nl-Schibbolet-fries.oga|thumb|left|{{lang|fy|Bûter, brea, en griene tsiis; wa't dat net sizze kin, is gjin oprjochte Fries}}]]
{{lang|fy|Bûter, brea, en griene tsiis; wa't dat net sizze kin, is gjin oprjochte Fries}} ('Butter, rye bread and green cheese, whoever cannot say that is not a genuine Frisian') was a phrase used by the [[Frisians|Frisian]] [[Pier Gerlofs Donia]] during a [[Arumer Zwarte Hoop|Frisian rebellion]] (1515–1523). Ships whose crew could not pronounce this properly were usually plundered and soldiers who could not were beheaded by Donia.<ref>{{cite web |title=Greate Pier fan Wûnseradiel |url=http://www.wunseradiel.nl/index.php?simaction=content&pagid=289&mediumid=1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081207005139/http://www.wunseradiel.nl/index.php?simaction=content&pagid=289&mediumid=1 |archive-date=2008-12-07 |access-date=2008-01-04 |website=Gemeente Wûnseradiel |publisher= |language=fy}}</ref>

Newspaper advertisements in 18th-century America seeking absconding servants or apprentices frequently used the shibboleth method to identify them.  Since most runaways were from the British Isles originally, they were identified by their distinctive regional accents, e.g. "speaks broad Yorkshire".  Studying a large number of these advertisements, [[Allen Walker Read]] noticed an exception: runaways were never advertised as having London or eastern counties accents.  From this he inferred that their speech did not differ from the bulk of the American population.  "Thus in the colonial period American English had a consistency of its own, most closely approximating the type of the region around London".<ref>{{cite journal|last=Read|first=Allen Walker|year=1938|title=The Assimilation of the Speech of British Immigrants in Colonial America|journal=The Journal of English and Germanic Philology|volume=37|issue=1|pages=70–79|jstor=27704353}}</ref>

[[File:Kanto-Daishinsai-to-Saitama-2.jpg|thumb|Koreans being stabbed by vigilantes during the Kantō Massacre (1923)]]
In Japan during the 1923 [[Kantō Massacre]], in which ethnic [[Koreans in Japan]] were hunted down and killed by vigilantes after rumors spread that they were committing crimes,<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Ryang |first=Sonia |date=3 September 2007 |title=The Tongue That Divided Life and Death. The 1923 Tokyo Earthquake and the Massacre of Koreans. |url=https://apjjf.org/sonia-ryang/2513/article |journal=[[The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus]] |volume=5 |issue=9 |id=2513}}</ref> shibboleths were attested to having been used to identify Koreans. The Japanese poet [[Shigeji Tsuboi]] wrote that he overheard vigilantes asking people to pronounce the phrase ''jūgoen gojissen'' ({{Langx|ja|15円50銭|lit=fifteen [[Japanese yen|yen]], fifty sen}}).<ref name=":1" /> If the person pronounced it as ''chūkoen kochissen'', he was reportedly dragged away for punishment.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Haag |first=Andre |date=2019 |title=The Passing Perils of Korean Hunting: Zainichi Literature Remembers the Kantō Earthquake Korean Massacres |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/5/article/724761/pdf |journal=Azalea: Journal of Korean Literature & Culture |publisher=[[University of Hawai'i Press]] |volume=12 |issue= |pages=259–260 |doi=10.1353/aza.2019.0014 |issn=1944-6500 |via=Project MUSE|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=McNamara |first1=Tim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XrOE14OdUwEC&pg=PA152 |title=Language Testing: The Social Dimension |last2=Roever |first2=Carsten |date=2006-11-10 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=978-1-4051-5543-4 |language=en}}</ref> Both Korean and Japanese people recalled similar shibboleths being used, including ''ichien gojissen'' ({{Lit|one yen, fifty sen}}).<ref name=":0" /> Other strings attested to were ''ga-gi-gu-ge-go'' ({{Langx|ja|がぎぐげご}}) and ''ka-ki-ku-ke-ko'' ({{Langx|ja|かきくけこ}}), which were thought difficult for Koreans to pronounce.<ref name=":1" />

In October 1937, the Spanish word for parsley, {{lang|es|perejil}}, was used as a shibboleth to identify Haitian immigrants living along the border in the Dominican Republic. The Dominican dictator, [[Rafael Trujillo]], ordered the execution of these people. It is alleged that between 20,000 and 30,000 individuals were murdered within a few days in the [[Parsley Massacre]], although more recent scholarship and the lack of evidence such as mass graves puts the actual estimate closer to between 1,000 and 12,168.<ref>{{cite web|last=Vega|first=Bernardo|title=La matanza de 1937|url=http://www.lalupa.com.do/2012/10/la-matanza-de-1937/|work=La lupa sin trabas|access-date=7 January 2014|language=es|date=10 October 2012|quote=Durante los meses de octubre y diciembre de 1937, fuentes haitianas, norteamericanas e inglesas ubicadas en Haití dieron cifras que oscilaron entre 1,000 y 12,168|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203001432/http://www.lalupa.com.do/2012/10/la-matanza-de-1937/|archive-date=3 December 2013}}</ref>

During the [[Netherlands in World War II#German occupation|German occupation of the Netherlands]] in [[World War II]], the Dutch used the name of the seaside town of [[Scheveningen]] as a shibboleth to tell Germans from Dutch ("Sch" in [[Dutch language|Dutch]] is analyzed as the letter "[[s]]" combined with the [[digraph (orthography)|digraph]] "ch", producing the [[consonant cluster]] {{IPA|[sx]}}, while in [[German language|German]] "Sch" is read as the [[Trigraph (orthography)|trigraph]] "[[sch (trigraph)|sch]]", pronounced {{IPAblink|ʃ}}, closer to "sh" sound in English).<ref>[http://column.emea.nl/?p=3163 "Zonder ons erbij te betrekken"] Retrieved on 23 december 2011</ref><ref>Corstius, H. B. (1981) [http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/bran023oppe01_01/bran023oppe01_01_0011.php ''Opperlandse taal- & letterkunde''], Querido's Uitgeverij, Amsterdam. Retrieved on 23 december 2011</ref><ref name=McNamara >{{cite journal |last=McNamara |first=Tim |title=21st century shibboleth: language tests, identity and intergroup conflict |journal=Language Policy |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=351–370 |year=2005 |doi=10.1007/s10993-005-2886-0 |s2cid=145528271 }}</ref>

Some American soldiers in the Pacific theater in World War II used the word ''[[wikt:lollapalooza|lollapalooza]]'' as a shibboleth to [[Countersign (military)|challenge]] unidentified persons, on the premise that Japanese people [[Perception of /r/ and /l/ by the Japanese|would often pronounce both letters L and R]] as rolled Rs.<ref>US Army & Navy, 1942. [http://www.ep.tc/howtospotajap/howto06.html HOW TO SPOT A JAP Educational Comic Strip], (from US govt's POCKET GUIDE TO CHINA, 1st edition). Retrieved 10-10-2007</ref> In Oliver Gramling's ''Free Men Are Fighting: The Story of World War II'' (1942) the author notes that, in the war, Japanese spies would often approach checkpoints posing as American or [[Filipino people|Filipino]] military personnel. A shibboleth such as ''lollapalooza'' would be used by the sentry, who, if the first two syllables come back as ''rorra,'' would "open fire without waiting to hear the remainder".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gramling|first1=Oliver|title=Free Men Are Fighting: The Story of World War II|date=1942|publisher=Farrar and Rinehart, Inc|page=315|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ljfPAAAAMAAJ&q=lollapalooza}}</ref> Another sign/countersign used by the Allied forces: the challenge/sign was "flash", the [[password]] "thunder", and the countersign "Welcome".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Jon E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CSKJVDBWlSkC&pg=PA40 |title=D-Day as They Saw it |date=2004 |publisher=Carroll & Graf |isbn=978-0-7867-1381-3 |pages=40 |language=en}}</ref>  This was used during [[D-Day]] during [[World War II]] due to the rarity of the [[voiceless dental fricative]] (th-sound) and [[voiced labial–velar approximant]] (w-sound) in German.{{Citation needed|date=November 2024}}

During [[The Troubles]] in Northern Ireland, use of the name [[Derry/Londonderry name dispute|Derry or Londonderry]] for the province's second-largest city was often taken as an indication of the speaker's political stance, and as such frequently implied more than simply naming the location.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/northern_ireland/4887352.stm |title=Court to rule on city name |work=BBC News |date=7 April 2006 |access-date=30 November 2015}}</ref> The pronunciation of the name of the letter [[H]] is a related shibboleth, with Catholics pronouncing it as "haitch" and Protestants often [[H#Name in English|pronouncing the letter differently]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uPo0oB19gDUC|title=A Dictionary of Hiberno-English: The Irish Use of English|first=T. P.|last=Dolan|date=1 January 2004|publisher=Gill & Macmillan Ltd|isbn=9780717135356}}</ref>

During the [[Black July]] riots of Sri Lanka in 1983, many Tamils were massacred by Sinhalese youths. In many cases these massacres took the form of boarding buses and getting the passengers to pronounce words that had {{IPAblink|b}} at the beginning (like {{transliteration|ta|baldiya}} 'bucket') and executing the people who found it difficult.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hyndman|first1=Patricia|title=-Democracy in Peril, June 1983 |url=http://blackjuly.info/quotestext.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071006140749/http://www.blackjuly.info/quotestext.html|url-status=usurped|archive-date=6 October 2007|publisher=Lawasia Human Rights Standing Committee Report -Democracy in Peril, June 1983}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Passport to life|url=http://archives.dailynews.lk/2011/10/05/art12.asp|website=Daily News|publisher=Daily News (Sri Lanka's state broadsheet)|access-date=27 April 2015}}</ref>

In Australia and New Zealand, the words "fish and chips" are often used to highlight the difference in each country's short-i vowel sound [ɪ] and asking someone to say the phrase can identify which country they are from. Australian English has a higher forward sound [i], close to the y in happy and city, while New Zealand English has a lower backward sound [ɘ], a slightly higher version of the a in about and comma. Thus, New Zealanders hear Australians say "feesh and cheeps", while Australians hear New Zealanders say "fush and chups".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/cartoon/40131/fush-chups|access-date=18 January 2019|title=Speech and accent|date=5 September 2013|encyclopedia=Te Ara – The Encyclopedia of New Zealand}}</ref> A long drawn out pronunciation of the names of the cities [[Brisbane]] and [[Melbourne]] rather than the typically Australian rapid "bun" ending is a common way for someone to be exposed as new to the country. Within Australia, what someone calls "[[Devon (sausage)|devon]]", or how he names the size of beer he orders can often pinpoint what state he is from, as both of these have varied names across the country.{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}

In Canada, the name of Canada's second largest city, [[Montreal]], is pronounced {{IPAc-en|ˌ|m|ʌ|n|t|r|i|ˈ|ɔː|l}} by English-speaking locals. This contrasts with the typical American pronunciation of the city as {{IPAc-en|ˌ|m|ɒ|n|t|r|i|ˈ|ɔː|l}}.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Chaar |first1=Mike |title=Here's Why Americans Pronounce Montreal THAT Way |url=https://www.mtlblog.com/montreal/americans-some-canadians-are-pronouncing-montreal-really-weirdly-heres-why |website=[[MTL Blog]] |access-date=14 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230301162634/https://www.mtlblog.com/montreal/americans-some-canadians-are-pronouncing-montreal-really-weirdly-heres-why |archive-date=Mar 1, 2023 |language=en-ca |date=Jan 25, 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In the United States, the name of the state [[Nevada]] comes from the Spanish {{lang|es|nevada}} {{IPA|es|neˈβaða|}}, meaning 'snow-covered'.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wordreference.com/es/en/translation.asp?spen=nevada|title=Nevada|access-date=February 24, 2007|publisher=Wordreference.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071225103913/http://www.wordreference.com/es/en/translation.asp?spen=nevada|archive-date=December 25, 2007|url-status=live}}</ref> Nevadans pronounce the second syllable with the "a" as in "trap" ({{IPAc-en|n|ɪ|ˈ|v|æ|d|ə}}) while some people from outside of the state can pronounce it with the "a" as in "palm" ({{IPAc-en|n|ɪ|ˈ|v|ɑː|d|ə}}).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.unlv.edu/news/article/you-say-nevada-i-say-nevada |title=You Say Nevada, I Say Nevada… |author=Francis McCabe |access-date=November 26, 2019 |date=October 18, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190801193302/https://www.unlv.edu/news/article/you-say-nevada-i-say-nevada |archive-date=August 1, 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> Although many Americans interpret the latter back vowel as being closer to the Spanish pronunciation, it is not the pronunciation used by Nevadans. Likewise, the same test can be used to identify someone unfamiliar with southwest [[Missouri]], as the city of [[Nevada, Missouri]] is pronounced with the "a" as in "cape" ({{IPAc-en|n|ɪ|ˈ|v|eɪ|d|ə}}).

During the [[Russo-Ukrainian War]] (2014–present), Ukrainians have used the word {{transliteration|uk|[[palianytsia]]}} (a type of Ukrainian bread) to distinguish between Ukrainians and Russians.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-04-02/state-of-ukraine-cities-kyiv-kherson-mariupol-chernihiv-mykolaiv/100946086 |title=Snapshots from Ukrainian cities under siege or facing threat of Russian bombardment |last1=Handley |first1=Erin |last2=Adams |first2=Mietta |website=ABC News |date=2 April 2022 |access-date=2 April 2022}}</ref>

==Furtive shibboleths==
A ''furtive shibboleth'' is a type of a shibboleth that identifies individuals as being part of a group, not based on their ability to pronounce one or more words, but on their ability to recognize a seemingly innocuous phrase as a secret message. For example, members of [[Alcoholics Anonymous]] sometimes refer to themselves as "a friend of Bill W.", which is a reference to AA's founder, [[Bill W.|William Griffith Wilson]]. To the uninitiated, this would seem like a casual – if off-topic – remark, but other AA members would understand its meaning.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cruisecritic.com/articles.cfm?ID=2971|access-date=19 January 2019|title=What is Friends of Bill W. on a Cruise?|website=cruisecritic|last=<!---staff writer; no byline--->}}</ref>

Similarly, during [[World War II]], a homosexual [[United States Navy|US sailor]] might call himself a "[[friend of Dorothy]]", a tongue-in-cheek acknowledgment of a stereotypical [[Judy Garland as a gay icon|affinity for Judy Garland]] in ''[[The Wizard of Oz (1939 film)|The Wizard of Oz]]''. This code was so effective that the [[Naval Criminal Investigative Service|Naval Investigative Service]], upon learning that the phrase was a way for gay sailors to identify each other, undertook a search for this "Dorothy", whom they believed to be an actual woman with connections to homosexual servicemen in the Chicago area.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Casey |first1=Constance |title='Conduct Unbecoming': In Defense of Gays on the Front Line |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1993-03-29-vw-16447-story.html |access-date=2021-11-11 |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |date=1993-03-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190904131834/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1993-03-29-vw-16447-story.html |archive-date=2019-09-04}}</ref>{{cbignore}}<ref>{{cite book|last=Shilts|first=Randy|author-link=Randy Shilts |title=Conduct Unbecoming: Gays & Lesbians in the U.S. Military |publisher=[[St. Martin's Press]] |year=1993 |via=[[Google Books]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iOAmL6JPCE0C |location=New York |page=387 |isbn=0-312-34264-0 }}</ref> Many cruise lines still host "Friends of Dorothy" meetings for LGBT guests to gather.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wallace |first1=Doug |title=What Is a Friend of Dorothy on a Cruise Ship? Exploring LGBTQ+ Meetups at Sea |url=https://www.cruisecritic.com/articles/what-is-a-friend-of-dorothy-on-a-cruise-ship-exploring-lgbtq-meetups-at-sea |website=Cruise Critic |publisher=Trip Advisor |access-date=23 January 2025}}</ref>

Likewise, homosexuals in Britain might use the [[cant (language)|cant language]] [[Polari]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Polari, the secret gay argot, is making a surprising comeback|work=The Spectator|author=Hensher, Philip|date=22 June 2019}}</ref>

[[Mark Twain]] used an explicit shibboleth to conceal a furtive shibboleth.  In ''[[The Innocents Abroad]]'' he told the Shibboleth story in seemingly "inept and uninteresting" detail. To the initiated, however, the wording revealed that Twain was a [[freemason]].<ref>{{cite journal|title= Mark Twain and Freemasonry|last=Jones|first=Alexander E.|journal=American Literature|volume=26|issue=3|year=1954|pages=368–9|publisher=Duke University Press|jstor=2921690|doi=10.2307/2921690}}</ref>

[[Fourteen Words|"Fourteen Words", "14", or "14/88"]] are furtive shibboleths used among [[White Supremacy|white supremacists]] in the Anglosphere.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/uselectionroadtrip/2008/oct/28/uselections-obama-racism|title=US elections: Fourteen Words that spell racism|last=Ridgeway|first=James|date=2008-10-28|work=The Guardian|access-date=2019-10-17|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>

==In art==
[[File:Shibboleth Tate Modern.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Doris Salcedo]]'s artwork ''[[Shibboleth (artwork)|Shibboleth]]'', at [[Tate Modern]], London]]
Colombian conceptual artist [[Doris Salcedo]] created a work titled ''[[Shibboleth (artwork)|Shibboleth]]'' at [[Tate Modern]], London, in 2007–2008. The piece consisted of a 548-foot-long crack that bisected the floor of the Tate's lobby space.

Salcedo said of the work:
{{blockquote|It represents borders, the experience of immigrants, the experience of segregation, the experience of racial hatred. It is the experience of a Third World person coming into the heart of Europe. For example, the space which illegal immigrants occupy is a negative space. And so this piece is a negative space.<ref>{{cite news |last=Alberge|first=Dalya|title=Welcome to Tate Modern's floor show – it's 167m long and is called Shibboleth|work=The Times|date=9 October 2007|location=London|issue=69137|page=33}}</ref>}}

==See also==
{{Columns-list|
* [[Argot]]
* [[Countersign (military)]]
* [[Dog whistle (politics)]]
* [[Glottophobia]]
* [[Glottopolitics]]
* [[Identification friend or foe]]
* [[Jargon]]
* [[Language analysis for the determination of origin]]
* [[Linguistics]]
* [[Litmus test (politics)]]
* [[Passing (sociology)]]
* [[Phonology]]
* [[Pons asinorum]]
* [[Pronoun game]]
* [[Rhyming slang]]
* [[Shibboleth Single Sign-on architecture]]
* [[Sociolect]]
* [[Parsley massacre|The Parsley Massacre]]
* [[Tongue-twister]]
* [[U and non-U English]]
}}

==References==
===Notes===
{{notelist|refs=

{{efn|name=liberman|Although the website [http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/003344.html Language Log: Born on the 11th of July] says that the {{IPA|/sχ/}} cluster in ''schild'' that makes it difficult for French-speakers to pronounce had not yet developed in the 14th century, the phrase "{{lang|fr|scilt en vrient}}" is referenced in primary sources such as the Chronique of [[Gilles Li Muisis]] as distinguishing French from Flemish.}}

}}

===Citations===
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
*{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Shibboleth}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Wiktionary|shibboleth}}
{{Commons category|Shibboleth}}

[[Category:Shibboleths| ]]
[[Category:Authentication methods]]
[[Category:Gilead]]
[[Category:Hebrew words and phrases in the Hebrew Bible]]
[[Category:Ethnic cleansing]]
[[Category:Book of Judges]]