Editing Single-mode optical fiber

{{Short description|Optical fiber designed to carry only a single mode of light, the transverse mode}}
{{Use American English|date=March 2021}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2021}}
[[Image:Singlemode fibre structure.svg|thumb|right|The structure of a typical single-mode fiber.
{{ordered list
| Core 8–9&nbsp;μm diameter
| Cladding 125&nbsp;μm diameter
| Buffer 250&nbsp;μm diameter
| Jacket 900&nbsp;μm diameter
}}]]

In [[fiber-optic communication]], a '''single-mode optical fiber''', also known as fundamental- or mono-mode,<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1016/B978-075064637-6/50037-X |quote=Single-mode fibre (also referred to as fundamental or mono-mode fibre)... |chapter=Optical Fibres in Power Systems |title=Electrical Engineer's Reference Book |date=2003 |last1=Tricker |first1=R. |isbn=978-0-7506-4637-6 |quote-page=37/4 }}</ref> is an [[optical fiber]] designed to carry only a single [[mode (electromagnetism)|mode]] of light - the [[transverse mode]]. Modes are the possible solutions of the [[Helmholtz equation]] for waves, which is obtained by combining [[Maxwell's equations]] and the boundary conditions. These modes define the way the wave travels through space, i.e. how the wave is distributed in space. Waves can have the same mode but have different frequencies. This is the case in single-mode fibers, where we can have waves with different frequencies, but of the same mode, which means that they are distributed in space in the same way, and that gives us a single ray of light. Although the ray travels parallel to the length of the fiber, it is often called [[transverse mode]] since its [[Electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic]] oscillations occur perpendicular (transverse) to the length of the fiber. The 2009 [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] was awarded to [[Charles K. Kao]] for his theoretical work on the single-mode optical fiber.<ref>Nobel Prize Citation http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2009/kao-facts.html</ref> The standards [[G.652]] and [[G.657]] define the most widely used forms of single-mode optical fiber.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://community.fs.com/blog/what-kind-of-single-mode-fiber-should-you-choose.html|title=What Is G.652 Fiber? G.652 vs G.652.D, G.652 vs G.655|last=FS.COM|date=2015-12-29|website=Blog|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191113072458/https://community.fs.com/blog/what-kind-of-single-mode-fiber-should-you-choose.html|archive-date=2019-11-13|access-date=2019-11-13}}</ref>

==History==
In 1961, [[Elias Snitzer]] while working at American Optical published a comprehensive theoretical description of single mode fibers in the [[Journal of the Optical Society of America]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.osa.org/en-us/about_osa/newsroom/obituaries/2012/elias_snitzer/|title=Elias Snitzer {{pipe}} In Memoriam {{pipe}} The Optical Society}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.m2optics.com/blog/history-of-optical-fiber|title=History of Optical Fiber|first=Tiffany San|last=Souci|website=www.m2optics.com}}</ref>

At the Corning Glass Works (now [[Corning Inc.]]), Robert Maurer, Donald Keck and Peter Schultz started with fused silica, a material that can be made extremely pure, but has a high melting point and a low refractive index. They made cylindrical preforms by depositing purified materials from the vapor phase, adding carefully controlled levels of dopants to make the refractive index of the core slightly higher than that of the cladding, without raising attenuation dramatically. In September 1970, they announced they had made single-mode fibers with attenuation at the 633-nanometer helium-neon line below 20&nbsp;dB/km.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jeffhecht.com/history.html|title=Fiber Optic History {{pipe}} Jeff Hecht|website=www.jeffhecht.com}}</ref>

==Characteristics==
Unlike [[multi-mode optical fiber]], single-mode fiber does not exhibit [[modal dispersion]]. This is due to the fiber having such a small cross section that only the first mode is transported. Single-mode fibers are therefore better at retaining the fidelity of each light pulse over longer distances than multi-mode fibers. For these reasons, single-mode fibers can have a higher [[Bandwidth (computing)|bandwidth]] than multi-mode fibers. Equipment for single-mode fiber is more expensive than equipment for multi-mode optical fiber, but the single-mode fiber itself is usually cheaper in bulk. {{Citation needed|date=June 2013}}
[[File:Single mode fiber1.jpg|thumb|Cross section of a single-mode optical fiber patch cord end, taken with a [[fiberscope]]. The outermost circle is the cladding, {{val|125|ul=μm}} in diameter. Debris is visible as a streak on the cross-section, and glows due to the illumination.]]
A typical single-mode optical fiber has a core diameter between 8 and 10.5&nbsp;[[μm]]<ref name="arcelect">{{cite web | title = Fiber Optic Cable Tutorial | url = http://www.arcelect.com/fibercable.htm | author = ARC Electronics | date = 2007-10-01 | access-date = 2007-07-25 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181023040952/https://arcelect.com/fibercable.htm | archive-date = 2018-10-23 | url-status = dead }}</ref> and a cladding diameter of 125&nbsp;μm. There are a number of special types of single-mode optical fiber which have been chemically or physically altered to give special properties, such as [[dispersion-shifted fiber]] and [[nonzero dispersion-shifted fiber]]. Data rates are limited by [[polarization mode dispersion]] and [[chromatic dispersion]]. {{asof|2005}}, data rates of up to 10 gigabits per second were possible at distances of over {{convert|80|km|0|abbr=on}} with commercially available transceivers ([[Xenpak]]). By using [[optical amplifier]]s and dispersion-compensating devices, state-of-the-art [[DWDM]] optical systems can span thousands of kilometers at {{nowrap|10 Gbit/s}}, and several hundred kilometers at {{nowrap|40 Gbit/s}}.{{fact|date=May 2025}}

The lowest-order bounds mode is ascertained for the wavelength of interest by solving [[Maxwell's equations]] for the boundary conditions imposed by the fiber, which are determined by the [[Fiber optics#Principle of operation|core]] diameter and the refractive indices of the core and [[Cladding (fiber optics)|cladding]]. The solution of Maxwell's equations for the lowest order bound mode will permit a pair of orthogonally polarized fields in the fiber, and this is the usual case in a [[telecommunications|communication]] fiber.

In step-index guides, single-mode operation occurs when the [[Normalized frequency (fiber optics)|normalized frequency]], ''V'', is less than or equal to 2.405. For [[Power law|power-law]] profiles, single-mode operation occurs for a normalized frequency, ''V'', less than approximately 
:<math>2.405 \sqrt{\frac{g+2}{g}}</math>, 
where ''g'' is the profile parameter.

In practice, the orthogonal polarizations may not be associated with degenerate modes.

OS1 and OS2 are standard single-mode optical fiber used with wavelengths 1310&nbsp;nm and 1550&nbsp;nm (size 9/125&nbsp;μm) with  a maximum attenuation of 1&nbsp;dB/km (OS1) and 0.4&nbsp;dB/km (OS2). OS1 is defined in [[ISO/IEC 11801]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iso.org/cms/render/live/en/sites/isoorg/contents/data/standard/03/64/36491.html|title=ISO/IEC 11801:2002|website=ISO}}</ref> and OS2 is defined in ISO/IEC 24702.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iso.org/cms/render/live/en/sites/isoorg/contents/data/standard/03/88/38812.html|title=ISO/IEC 24702:2006|website=ISO}}</ref>

==Connectors==
[[Optical fiber connector]]s are used to join optical fibers where a connect/disconnect capability is required. The basic connector unit is a connector assembly. A connector assembly consists of an adapter and two connector plugs. 
Due to the sophisticated polishing and tuning procedures that may be incorporated into optical connector manufacturing, connectors are generally assembled onto optical fiber in a supplier's manufacturing facility. However, the assembly and
polishing operations involved can be performed in the field, for example to make cross-connect jumpers to size.

Optical fiber connectors are used in telephone company central offices, at installations on customer premises, and in outside plant applications. Their uses include:
* Making the connection between equipment and the telephone plant in the central office
* Connecting fibers to remote and outside plant electronics such as optical network units (ONUs) and digital loop carrier (DLC) systems
* Optical cross connects in the central office
* Patching panels in the outside plant to provide architectural flexibility and to interconnect fibers belonging to different service providers
* Connecting couplers, splitters, and wavelength-division multiplexers (WDMs) to optical fibers
* Connecting optical test equipment to fibers for testing and maintenance.

Outside plant applications may involve locating connectors underground in subsurface enclosures that may be subject to flooding, on outdoor walls, or on utility poles. The closures that enclose them may be hermetic, or may be "free-breathing". Hermetic closures will prevent the connectors within being subjected to temperature swings unless they are breached. Free-breathing enclosures will subject them to temperature and humidity swings, and possibly to condensation and biological action from airborne bacteria, insects, etc. Connectors in the underground plant may be subjected to groundwater immersion if the closures containing them are breached or improperly assembled.

The latest industry requirements for optical fiber connectors are in [[Telcordia]] [http://telecom-info.njdepot.ericsson.net/site-cgi/ido/docs.cgi?ID=SEARCH&DOCUMENT=GR-326& GR-326], ''Generic Requirements for Single-Mode Optical Connectors and Jumper Assemblies''.

A ''multi-fiber'' optical connector is designed to simultaneously join multiple optical fibers together, with each optical fiber being joined to only one other optical fiber.

The last part of the definition is included so as not to confuse multi-fiber connectors with a branching component, such as a coupler. The latter joins one optical fiber to two or more other optical fibers.

Multi-fiber optical connectors are designed to be used wherever quick and/or repetitive connects and disconnects of a group of fibers are needed. Applications include telecommunications companies' central offices (COs), installations on customer premises, and outside plant (OSP) applications.

The multi-fiber optical connector can be used in the creation of a low-cost switch for use in fiber optical testing. Another application is in cables delivered to a user with pre-terminated multi-fiber jumpers. This would reduce the need for field splicing, which could greatly reduce the number of hours necessary for placing an [[optical fiber cable]] in a telecommunications network. This, in turn, would result in savings for the installer of such cable.

Industry requirements for multi-fiber optical connectors are covered in [http://telecom-info.njdepot.ericsson.net/site-cgi/ido/docs.cgi?ID=SEARCH&DOCUMENT=GR-1435& GR-1435], ''Generic Requirements for Multi-Fiber Optical Connectors''.

==Fiber optic switches==
An [[optical switch]] is a component with two or more ports that selectively transmits, redirects, or blocks an optical signal in a transmission medium.<ref>[http://telecom-info.njdepot.ericsson.net/site-cgi/ido/docs.cgi?ID=SEARCH&DOCUMENT=GR-1073& GR-1073-CORE], ''Generic Requirements for Single-mode Fiber Optic Switches,'' Telcordia.</ref> According to [[Telcordia]] [http://telecom-info.njdepot.ericsson.net/site-cgi/ido/docs.cgi?ID=SEARCH&DOCUMENT=GR-1073& GR-1073], an optical switch must be actuated to select or change between states. The actuating signal (also referred to as the control signal) is usually electrical, but in principle, could be optical or mechanical. (The control signal format may be Boolean and may be an independent signal; or, in the case of optical actuation, the control signal may be encoded in the input data signal. Switch performance is generally intended to be independent of wavelength within the component passband.)

==Quadruply clad fiber==
In [[fiber optics]], a '''quadruply clad fiber''' is a single-mode optical fiber that has four claddings.<ref>{{FS1037C}}</ref> Each [[Cladding (fiber optics)|cladding]] has a [[refractive index]] lower than that of the [[Fiber_optics#Principle_of_operation|core]]. With respect to one another, their relative refractive indices are, in order of distance from the core: lowest, highest, lower, higher. 

A quadruply clad fiber has the advantage of very low macrobending losses. It also has two zero-[[dispersion (optics)|dispersion]] points, and moderately low dispersion over a wider [[wavelength]] range than a singly clad fiber or a [[doubly clad fiber]].

==Advantages==
'''Low Attenuation'''

Single-mode optical fibers exhibit very low signal attenuation, typically around 0.2&nbsp;dB/km at 1550&nbsp;nm. This allows for signal transmission over distances exceeding 100 kilometers without the need for electrical repeaters, making them suitable for wide-area and submarine networks. <ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Single Mode Fiber Cable |url=https://www.stanfordoptics.com/single-mode-fiber-cable.html |access-date=2025-05-16 |website=Stanford Optics}}</ref>

'''High Bandwidth and Data Rate Capacity'''

Thanks to single-path light propagation, single-mode fiber avoids modal [[Dispersion (optics)|dispersion]] entirely. This allows support for extremely high data rates and advanced technologies like [[dense wavelength-division multiplexing]] (DWDM), enabling efficient use of fiber infrastructure.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Sunak |first=H.R.D. |date=December 1988 |title=Single-mode fiber measurements |url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9812 |journal=IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=557–560 |doi=10.1109/19.9812|bibcode=1988ITIM...37..557S }}</ref>

'''Low Dispersion and High Signal Integrity'''

With a core diameter of approximately 8–10&nbsp;μm, light travels in a single mode, minimizing modal distortion. Although chromatic dispersion still occurs, it can be compensated using specialized fiber types or signal processing. The result is a high-fidelity signal over long distances.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Agrawal |first=G. P. |title=Fiber-optic communication systems |date=2022 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-1-119-73738-4 |edition=Fifth |series=Wiley series in microwave and optical engineering |location=Hoboken, NJ}}</ref>

'''Scalability for Future Networks'''

Single-mode fibers support high transmission frequencies and are compatible with future optical technologies, making them ideal for long-term infrastructure investment. They are standard in backbone, metro, and data center interconnect networks.<ref name=":1" /><ref>Tompkins, J., Farber, D., Boyer, R., & Esty, S. (n.d.). ''[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/297052762_The_role_of_optical_fibre_in_future_networks The role of optical fibre in future networks]''. Researchgate. Retrieved May 16, 2025</ref>

'''Immunity to Interference and Crosstalk'''

The confined propagation of light within a single mode improves signal-to-noise ratio and reduces vulnerability to external interference and crosstalk, particularly in dense network environments.<ref name=":0" />
==Disadvantages==
* More difficult manufacturing and handling
* Higher price
* Difficult coupling of light into the fiber

==See also==
* [[Graded-index fiber]]
* [[Multi-mode optical fiber]]
* [[Optical waveguide]]

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
* {{FS1037C}}
* {{cite web |url = http://www.fiber-optics.info/articles/types_of_optical_fiber |title = Types of Optical Fiber |access-date = 2013-11-08 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180621154027/http://www.fiber-optics.info/articles/types_of_optical_fiber |archive-date = 2018-06-21 |url-status = dead }}
*
==External links==
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=45X0puB3YK0 Optics: Single mode fiber | MIT Video Demonstrations in Lasers and Optics]
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uzXLhTW9wWQ Optics: Multi-mode fiber | MIT Video Demonstrations in Lasers and Optics]

[[Category:Optical fiber]]