Editing Slave rebellion

{{Short description|Armed uprising by slaves}}
[[File:Tod des Spartacus by Hermann Vogel.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Death of the gladiator [[Spartacus]] by Hermann Vogel, 1882]]
{{slavery}}
A '''slave rebellion''' is an armed uprising by [[Slavery|slaves]], as a way of fighting for their freedom. Rebellions of slaves have occurred in nearly all societies that practice slavery or have practiced slavery in the past. A desire for freedom and the dream of successful rebellion is often the greatest object of song, art, and culture amongst the enslaved population. These events, however, are often violently opposed and suppressed by slaveholders.

Ancient [[Sparta]] had a special type of [[Serfdom|serf]] called ''[[helots]]'' who were often treated harshly, leading them to rebel.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ancienthistory.about.com/cs/sparta/a/spartamilitstat.htm |title=Sparta – A Military City-State |publisher=Ancienthistory.about.com |access-date=2013-10-04 |archive-date=2005-11-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051107173313/http://ancienthistory.about.com/cs/sparta/a/spartamilitstat.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> According to [[Herodotus]] (IX, 28–29), helots were seven times as numerous as Spartans. Every autumn, according to [[Plutarch]] (''Life of Lycurgus'', 28, 3–7), the Spartan [[ephor]]s would [[pro forma]] declare war on the helot population so that any Spartan citizen could kill a helot without fear of blood or guilt in order to keep them in line (''[[crypteia]]''). In the [[Roman Empire]], though the heterogeneous nature of the slave population worked against a strong sense of solidarity, [[slave revolts in ancient Rome|slave revolts]] did occur and were severely punished.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/slavery_03.shtml |title=Resisting Slavery in Ancient Rome By Professor Keith Bradle |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |access-date=2013-10-04 |archive-date=2009-02-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090202114549/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/slavery_03.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> The most famous slave rebellion in [[Europe]] was led by [[Spartacus]] in [[Roman Republic|Roman]] [[Italy]], the [[Third Servile War]]. This war resulted in the 6,000 surviving rebel slaves being [[crucifixion|crucified]] along the main roads leading into Rome.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ancienthistory.about.com/cs/slavesandslavery/a/slavewars.htm |title=The Sicilian Slave Wars and Spartacus |publisher=Ancienthistory.about.com |access-date=2013-10-04 |archive-date=2013-10-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004215721/http://ancienthistory.about.com/cs/slavesandslavery/a/slavewars.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> This was the third in a series of unrelated [[Roman Servile Wars|Servile Wars]] fought by [[Slavery in ancient Rome|slaves against the Romans]].

The [[Mamluk Sultanate]] reigned for centuries out of a slave rebellion{{dubious|date=November 2022}} in Egypt.  It gave birth to both the [[Bahri dynasty]] and [[Burji dynasty]] and their countless artistic and scientific achievements.  Among many accomplishments, the Mamluks were responsible for turning back the [[Mongol]] conquest. In [[Russia]], the slaves were usually classified as [[kholop]]s. A kholop's master had unlimited power over his life. Slavery remained a major institution in [[Russia]] until 1723, when [[Peter the Great]] converted the household slaves into house [[Serfdom in Russia|serfs]]. Russian agricultural slaves were formally converted into serfs earlier in 1679.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24160 |title=Ways of ending slavery |encyclopedia=Britannica.com |date=1910-01-31 |access-date=2013-10-04 |archive-date=2013-03-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130309101044/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24160 |url-status=live }}</ref> During the 16th and 17th centuries, runaway serfs and kholops known as [[Cossacks]], ("outlaws") formed autonomous communities in the southern steppes.  There were numerous rebellions against slavery and [[serfdom]], most often in conjunction with Cossack uprisings, such as the uprisings of [[Ivan Bolotnikov]] (1606–1607), [[Stenka Razin]] (1667–1671),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fsmitha.com/h3/h20russ.htm |title=Russia before Peter the Great |publisher=Fsmitha.com |access-date=2013-10-04 |archive-date=2004-12-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041208163438/http://www.fsmitha.com/h3/h20russ.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Kondraty Bulavin]] (1707–1709), and [[Yemelyan Pugachev]] (1773–1775), often involving hundreds of thousands and sometimes millions.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://schools.cbe.ab.ca/b628/social/russia/rebellions.html |title=Rebellions |publisher=Schools.cbe.ab.ca |access-date=2013-10-04 |archive-date=2018-05-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180502113852/http://schools.cbe.ab.ca/b628/social/russia/rebellions.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Between the end of the [[Pugachev rebellion]] and the beginning of the 19th century, there were hundreds of outbreaks across Russia.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/4503 |title=The Slave Revolts |publisher=Nybooks.com |access-date=2013-10-04 |last1=Aptheker |first1=Herbert |last2=Woodward |first2=C. Vann |archive-date=2009-01-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090112151012/http://www.nybooks.com/articles/4503 |url-status=live }}</ref>

One of the most successful slave rebellions in history was the [[Haitian Revolution]], which saw self-emancipated slaves in the [[French colonial empire|French colony]] of [[Saint-Domingue]] overthrow the colonial government and repulse invasion attempts by the French, Spanish and British to establish the independent state of [[Haiti]]. In the 9th century, the poet Ali bin Muhammad led imported East African slaves against the [[Abbasid Caliphate]] in Iraq during the [[Zanj Rebellion]]. [[Nanny of the Maroons]] was an 18th-century leader of the [[Jamaican Maroons]] who led them to victory in the [[First Maroon War]]. The [[Palmares (quilombo)|Quilombo dos Palmares]] of Brazil flourished under [[Ganga Zumba]]. In the [[United States]], the [[1811 German Coast Uprising]] in the [[Territory of Orleans]] was the largest rebellion in the continental United States; [[Denmark Vesey]] and [[Madison Washington]] both launched slave rebellions in the U.S. as well.

==Africa==

In 1808 and 1825, there were slave rebellions in the [[Cape Colony]], newly acquired by the British. Although the slave trade was officially abolished in the [[British Empire]] by the [[Slave Trade Act 1807]], and slavery itself a generation later with the [[Slavery Abolition Act 1833]], it took until 1850 to be halted in the territories which were to become [[South Africa]].<ref>Giliomee, Hermann (2003). "The Afrikaners", Chapter 4 – Masters, Slaves and Servants, the fear of gelykstelling, pp. 93–94</ref>

===São Tomé and Príncipe===
On 9 July 1595, [[Rei Amador]], and his people, the Angolars, allied with other enslaved Africans of its plantations, marched into the interior woods and battled against the Portuguese. It is said that day, Rei Amador and his followers raised a flag in front of the settlers and proclaimed Rei Amador as king of [[São Tomé and Príncipe]], making himself as "Rei Amador, liberator of all the black people".

Between 1595 and 1596, part of the island of São Tomé was ruled by the Angolars, under the command of Rei Amador. On 4 January 1596, he was captured, sent to prison and was later executed by the Portuguese. Still today, they remember him fondly and consider him a national hero of the islands.

In the first decades of the 17th century, there were frequent slave revolts in the Portuguese colony of [[Portuguese São Tomé and Príncipe|São Tomé and Príncipe]], off the African shore, which damaged the sugar crop cultivation there.

==Asia==
{{expand section|date=March 2013}}

The [[Zanj Rebellion]] against the [[slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate]] was the culmination of a series of small revolts. It took place near the city of [[Basra]], in southern Iraq over fifteen years (869−883 AD). It grew to involve over 500,100 slaves, who were imported from across the Muslim empire.{{citation needed|date=December 2024}}

The [[Mamluk Sultanate]] reigned for centuries out of a slave rebellion{{dubious|date=November 2022}} in Egypt.  It gave birth to both the [[Bahri dynasty]] and [[Burji dynasty]] and their countless artistic and scientific achievements.  Among many accomplishments, the Mamluks were responsible for turning back the [[Mongol]] conquest.{{citation needed|date=December 2024}}

When the Russian general [[Konstantin Petrovich von Kaufmann]] and his army approached the city of Khiva during the [[Khivan campaign of 1873]], the Khan [[Muhammad Rahim Khan II of Khiva]] fled to hide among the Yomuts, and the slaves in Khiva rebelled, informed about the imminent downfall of the city, resulting in the [[Khivan slave uprising]].<ref>Eden, J. (2018). ''Slavery and Empire in Central Asia''. Storbritannien: Cambridge University Press. pp. 187–189</ref>
When Kaufmann's Russian army entered Khiva on 28 March, he was approached by Khivans who begged him to put down the ongoing slave uprising, during which slaves avenged themselves on their former enslavers.<ref>Eden, J. (2018). Slavery and Empire in Central Asia. Storbritannien: Cambridge University Press. pp. 187–189</ref>
When the Khan returned to his capital after the Russian conquest, the Russian General Kaufmann presented him with a demand to abolish the [[Khivan slave trade]] and slavery, which he did.<ref>Eden, J. (2018). Slavery and Empire in Central Asia. Storbritannien: Cambridge University Press. pp. 187–189</ref>

==Europe==
{{stub section|date=March 2013}}

In the 3rd century BCE, Drimakos (or Drimachus) led a slave revolt on the slave entrepot of [[Chios]], took to the hills and directed a band of runaways in operations against their ex-masters.<ref>{{cite book
| editor1-last = Cartledge
| editor1-first = Paul A.
| editor1-link = Paul Cartledge
| editor2-last = Harvey
| editor2-first = F. David
| title = Crux: Essays in Greek History Presented to G.E.M. De Ste. Croix on His 75th Birthday
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ZjVoAAAAMAAJ
| series = History of Political Thought
| volume = 6
| issue = 1–2
| edition = Reprint
| publisher = Duckworth
| date = 1985
| page = 39
| isbn = 9780715620922
| access-date = 2018-11-14
| quote = [Drimakos] took to the mountains of Chios and organized a band of runaways to carry out guerilla operations against the landed property of their former masters.
| archive-date = 2022-09-14
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220914075627/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZjVoAAAAMAAJ
| url-status = live
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
| last1 = Urbainczyk
| first1 = Theresa
| year = 2008
| chapter = Maintaining resistance
| title = Slave Revolts in Antiquity
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=QOdmDAAAQBAJ
| location = London
| publisher = Routledge
| publication-date = 2016
| pages = 30–31
| isbn = 9781315478807
| access-date = 2018-11-14
| archive-date = 2022-09-14
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220914075627/https://books.google.com/books?id=QOdmDAAAQBAJ
| url-status = live
}}</ref>

The [[Servile Wars]] (135 to 71 BCE) were a series of slave revolts within the [[Roman Republic]].{{citation needed|date=December 2024}}
* The [[First Servile War|First]] and [[Second Servile War]] occurred in [[Sicily]].{{citation needed|date=December 2024}}
* The [[Third Servile War]] (73 to 71 BCE) occurred in mainland [[Italy]]. [[Spartacus]], an escaped [[gladiator]] supposedly from [[Thrace]], became the most prominent of the rebel leaders; [[Marcus Licinius Crassus]] suppressed the insurgents. Many modern rebels (such as the [[Spartacus League]]) have since regarded Spartacus as a heroic figure.{{citation needed|date=December 2024}}
According to the [[Icelandic sagas]], [[Swedish slave trade#Migration period: Semi legend|Swedish slave revolts]] occurred at some time between the 5th and 6th centuries, and resulted in the Swedish king [[Ongentheow]] being deposed. These large-scale slave revolts were reportedly led by a [[thrall]] known as Tunni. According to the sagas, it resulted in the Swedish king [[Ongentheow]] being deposed. Tunni subsequently became king of [[Svealand]] after defeating the Swedish king. <ref> Marold, Edith (2012). "Þjóðólfr ór Hvini, Ynglingatal". In Whaley, Diana (ed.). Poetry from the Kings' Sagas 1: From Mythical Times to c. 1035. Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages 1. Turnhout: Brepols. p. 16. ISBN 978-2-503-51896-1.</ref>

A number of slave revolts occurred in the Mediterranean area during the early modern period:
* 1531: 16 slaves who were imprisoned at [[Fort St. Angelo]] in [[Hospitaller Malta]] [[Slavery in Malta#Revolt of 1531|revolted]] and briefly took control of the fort. The revolt was put down and the leaders were killed.<ref name=mfc2>{{cite book |language=fr |last1=Brogini |first1=Anne |date=2005 |title=Malte, frontière de chrétienté (1530-1670) |url=http://books.openedition.org/efr/132 |publisher=Publications de l’École française de Rome |pages=663–664 |isbn=9782728307425 }}</ref>
* 1596: a number of slaves in [[Birgu]] and [[Valletta]] on Malta mutinied, stole the keys to the gates of Valletta and escaped into the Maltese countryside.<ref name=mfc2/>
* 1748: Hungarian, Georgian and Maltese slaves on board an Ottoman [[galley]] named ''[[Lupa (ship)|Lupa]]'' revolted against [[slavery in the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman slavery]] and sailed the ship to Malta.<ref name=castillo>{{cite book|last1= Castillo|first1= Dennis Angelo|title= The Maltese Cross: A Strategic History of Malta|date= 2006|publisher= [[Greenwood Publishing Group]]|location= [[Westport, Connecticut|Westport]]|isbn= 9780313323294|page= 91|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=i5ns5LNtoiUC&pg=PA91|access-date= 2017-08-22|archive-date= 2022-09-14|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220914075627/https://books.google.com/books?id=i5ns5LNtoiUC&pg=PA91|url-status= live}}</ref>
* 1749: Muslim slaves in Malta [[1749 Muslim slave revolt plot in Malta|plotted to rebel and take over the island]], but plans leaked out beforehand and the would-be rebels were arrested and many were executed.<ref name=castillo/>
* 1760: Christian slaves on board the Ottoman ship ''[[Corona Ottomana]]'' revolted and sailed the ship to Malta.<ref name=castillo/>

== North America ==
{{More citations needed|section|date=November 2022}}
Numerous slave rebellions and insurrections took place in [[North America]] during the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries. There is documentary evidence of more than 250 uprisings or attempted uprisings involving ten or more slaves. One of the first was at [[San Miguel de Gualdape]], the first European settlement in what would become the [[United States]]. Three of the best known in the United States during the 19th century are the revolts by [[Gabriel Prosser]] in [[Virginia]] in 1800, [[Denmark Vesey]] in [[Charleston, South Carolina]] in 1822, and [[Nat Turner's Rebellion]] in [[Southampton County, Virginia]], in 1831.{{citation needed|date=December 2024}}

[[Drapetomania]] was a supposed mental illness invented by American physician [[Samuel A. Cartwright]] in 1851 that allegedly caused black slaves to run away. Today, drapetomania is considered an example of [[pseudoscience]], and part of the edifice of [[scientific racism]].{{citation needed|date=December 2024}}

Slave resistance in the [[Antebellum era|antebellum]] [[Southern United States|South]] did not gain the attention of academic historians until the 1940s, when historian [[Herbert Aptheker]] started publishing the first serious scholarly work <ref>{{cite journal| title= The Impact of the Aptheker Thesis: A Retrospective View of American Negro Slave Revolts| publisher= Science and Society | last= Shapiro | first = Herbert}}</ref> on the subject. Aptheker stressed how rebellions were rooted in the exploitative conditions of the Southern slave system. He traversed libraries and archives throughout the South, managing to uncover roughly 250 similar instances.{{citation needed|date=December 2024}}

The [[1811 German Coast Uprising]], which took place in rural southeast [[Louisiana]], at that time the [[Territory of Orleans]], early in 1811, involved up to 500 [[insurgent]] [[History of slavery in Louisiana|slaves]]. It was suppressed by local militias and a detachment of the [[United States Army]]. In retaliation for the deaths of two white men and the destruction of property, the authorities killed at least 40 black men in a violent confrontation (the numbers cited are inconsistent); at least 29 more were executed (combined figures from two jurisdictions, [[St. Charles Parish, Louisiana|St. Charles Parish]] and [[Orleans Parish, Louisiana|Orleans Parish]]). There was a third jurisdiction for a tribunal and what amounted to [[summary judgment]]s against the accused, [[St. John the Baptist Parish, Louisiana|St. John the Baptist Parish]]. Fewer than 20 men are said to have escaped; some of those were later caught and killed, on their way to freedom.{{citation needed|date=December 2024}}

Although only involving about seventy slaves and free blacks, [[Nat Turner's slave rebellion|Turner's 1831 rebellion]] is considered to be a significant event in American history. The rebellion caused the slave-holding South to go into a panic. Fifty-five men, women, and children were killed, and enslaved blacks were freed on multiple plantations in [[Southampton County, Virginia]], as Turner and his fellow rebels attacked the white institution of plantation slavery. Turner and the other rebels were eventually stopped by state militias.<ref>{{cite book |last= Aptheker |first= Herbert |authorlink= Herbert Aptheker |title= American Negro Slave Revolts |year= 1983 |publisher= [[International Publishers]] |page=324 |isbn= 9780717806058}}</ref> The rebellion resulted in the hanging of about 56 slaves, including Nat Turner himself. Up to 200 other blacks were killed during the [[hysteria]] that followed, few of whom likely had anything to do with the uprising.<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part3/3p1518.html| title=Nat Turner's Rebellion| publisher=PBS| access-date=November 15, 2014| archive-date=August 7, 2011| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807220410/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part3/3p1518.html| url-status=live}}</ref> White fear led to new legislation passed by Southern states prohibiting the movement, assembly, and education of slaves, and reducing the rights of [[free people of color]]. In 1831–32, the Virginia legislature considered a gradual emancipation law to prevent future rebellions. In a close vote, however, the state decided to keep slaves.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Root |first=Erik S. |title=Virginia Slavery Debate of 1831–1832, The |url=https://encyclopediavirginia.org/entries/virginia-slavery-debate-of-1831-1832-the/ |access-date=2024-06-05 |website=[[Encyclopedia Virginia]] |language=en-US}}</ref>

The [[abolitionist]] [[John Brown (abolitionist)|John Brown]] had already fought against pro-slavery forces in [[Bleeding Kansas]] for several years when he decided [[John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry|to lead a raid]] on a Federal [[arsenal]] in [[Harpers Ferry, Virginia]]. This raid was a joint attack by freed blacks and white men who had corresponded with slaves on plantations in order to create a general uprising among slaves. Brown carried hundreds of copies of the constitution for a new republic of former slaves in the Appalachians. But they were never distributed, and the slave uprisings that were to have helped Brown did not happen. Some believe that he knew the raid was doomed but went ahead anyway, because of the support for abolition it would (and did) generate. The U.S. military, led by Lieutenant Colonel [[Robert E. Lee]], easily overwhelmed Brown's forces. But directly following this, slave disobedience and the number of runaways increased markedly in Virginia.<ref>Louis A. DeCaro Jr., ''John Brown – The Cost of Freedom: Selections from His Life & Letters'' (New York: International Publishers, 2007), p. 16.</ref>

The historian [[Steven Hahn]] proposes that the self-organized involvement of slaves in the [[Union Army]] during the [[American Civil War]] composed a slave rebellion that dwarfed all others.<ref>{{cite web
 |url=http://southernspaces.org/2004/greatest-slave-rebellion-modern-history-southern-slaves-american-civil-war
 |first=Steven
 |last=Hahn
 |year=2004
 |title=The Greatest Slave Rebellion in Modern History: Southern Slaves in the American Civil War
 |work=southernspaces.org
 |access-date=August 22, 2010
 |archive-date=April 16, 2021
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416075830/https://southernspaces.org/2004/greatest-slave-rebellion-modern-history-southern-slaves-american-civil-war
 |url-status=live
 }}</ref> Similarly, tens of thousands of slaves joined British forces or escaped to British lines during the [[American Revolution]], sometimes using the disruption of war to gain freedom.  For instance, when the British evacuated from Charleston and Savannah, they took 10,000 freed slaves with them. They also evacuated slaves from New York, taking more than 3,000 for resettlement to Nova Scotia, where they were recorded as [[Black Loyalists]] and given land grants.<ref>Peter Kolchin, ''American Slavery: 1619–1877'', New York: Hill and Wang, 1993, pp. 73–77</ref>

===List===
{{See also|Negro Fort|Igbo Landing}}
{{further|Slave rebellion and resistance in the United States}}
{{North American Slave Revolts}}
{{expand section|date=May 2020}}
*[[1521 Santo Domingo Slave Revolt|Santo Domingo Slave Revolt]] (1521)
*[[San Miguel de Gualdape#Slavery and rebellion|San Miguel de Gualdape Rebellion]] (1526)
*[[Bayano Wars]] (1548)
*[[Gaspar Yanga]]'s Revolt (c. 1570) near the Mexican city of [[Veracruz (city)|Veracruz]]; the group escaped to the highlands and built a [[maroons|free colony]]
*[[Gloucester County Conspiracy]] (1663)<ref>Joseph Cephas Carroll, ''Slave Insurrections in the United States, 1800–1865'', p. 13</ref>
*[[New York Slave Revolt of 1712]]
*[[Samba Rebellion]] (1731)
*[[1733 slave insurrection on St. John|Slave Insurrection on St. John]] (1733)
*[[Stono Rebellion]] (1739)
*[[New York Conspiracy of 1741]] (alleged)
*During the [[American Revolutionary War]], slaves reacted to [[Dunmore's Proclamation]] and the [[Philipsburg Proclamation]], fleeing and sometimes taking up arms in the British military against their former masters (for example in the [[Ethiopian Regiment]])
*[[Pointe Coupée Slave Conspiracy of 1791]]
*[[Pointe Coupée Slave Conspiracy of 1795]] 
*[[Gabriel's Rebellion]] (1800)
*Rebellions in a dozen North Carolina counties (May and June, 1802)<ref name=Horton>{{cite book|title=Black Bard of North Carolina : George Moses Horton and His Poetry.|first=Joan R|last=Sherman|location=Chapel Hill|publisher=[[University of North Carolina Press]]|year=1997|page=4|isbn=0807823414}}</ref>
*[[Chatham Manor]] Rebellion (1805)
* Slaves in three North Carolina counties conspire to poison their owners, in some cases successfully (1805)<ref name=Horton/>
*[[1811 German Coast uprising|German Coast uprising]] (1811)<ref>{{cite book|last=Rasmussen|first=Daniel|title=American Uprising: The Untold Story of America's Largest Slave Revolt|url=https://archive.org/details/americanuprising00dani|url-access=registration|year=2011|publisher=HarperCollins|page=288|isbn=9780061995217 }}</ref>
*[[Aponte Conspiracy]] (1812)
*[[George Boxley]] Rebellion (1815)
*[[Denmark Vesey's Rebellion]] (1822)
*[[Nat Turner's Rebellion]] (1831)
*[[Baptist War]] (1831)
*[[Second Seminole War|Black Seminole Slave Rebellion]] (1835–1838) <ref>{{cite web |author=J.B. Bird |url=http://www.johnhorse.com/black-seminoles/black-seminole-slave-rebellion.htm |title=Black Seminole slave rebellion, introduction – Rebellion |publisher=Johnhorse.com |access-date=2013-10-04 |archive-date=2006-08-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060828060934/http://www.johnhorse.com/black-seminoles/black-seminole-slave-rebellion.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[Amistad (case)|''Amistad'' seizure]] (1839)<ref name="WDL">{{cite web |url = http://www.wdl.org/en/item/3080/ |title = Unidentified Young Man |website = [[World Digital Library]] |date = 1839–1840 |access-date = 2013-07-28 |archive-date = 2013-09-27 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130927124613/http://www.wdl.org/en/item/3080/ |url-status = live }}</ref>
*[[Creole case|''Creole'' case]] (1841) (the most successful slave revolt in US history)
*[[1842 Slave Revolt in the Cherokee Nation]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://digital.library.okstate.edu/encyclopedia/entries/S/SL002.html |title=Slave Revolt of 1842 |publisher=Digital.library.okstate.edu |access-date=2013-10-04 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103030206/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/encyclopedia/entries/S/SL002.html |archive-date=2012-11-03 }}</ref>
*[[Charleston Workhouse Slave Rebellion]] (1849)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Strickland |first=Jeff |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/9781108592345 |title=All for Liberty |date=2021 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/9781108592345 |isbn=978-1-108-59234-5}}</ref>
*[[John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry]] (1859) (failed attempt to organize a slave rebellion)

==Slave ship revolts==
{{See also|United States v. The Amistad}}

There are 485 recorded instances of slaves revolting on board slave ships.<ref name="richardson72">{{cite journal|last=Richardson|first=David|title=Shipboard Revolts, African Authority, and the Atlantic Slave Trade|journal=The William and Mary Quarterly|date=January 2001|volume=58|series=3|issue=1|page=72|doi=10.2307/2674419|jstor=2674419|pmid=18634185}}</ref> A few of these ships endured more than one uprising during their career.<ref name="richardson72"/>

Most accounts of revolts aboard slave ships are given by Europeans. There are few examples of accounts by slaves themselves. [[William Snelgrave]] reported that the slaves who revolted on the British ship ''Henry'' in 1721 claimed that those who had captured them were "Rogues to buy them" and that they were bent on regaining their liberty.<ref name="richardson2001">{{cite journal|last=Richardson|first=David|title=Shipboard Revolts, African Authority, and the Atlantic Slave Trade|journal=The William and Mary Quarterly|date=January 2001|volume=58|series=3|issue=1|pages=69–92|doi=10.2307/2674419|jstor=2674419|pmid=18634185}}</ref>  Another example that Richardson gives is that of James Towne who gives the account of slaves stating that Europeans did not have the right to enslave and take them away from their homeland and "wives and children".<ref name="richardson11"/>

Richardson compares several factors that contributed to slave revolts on board ships: conditions on the ships, geographical location, and proximity to the shore.<ref name="richardson2001"/>  He suggests that revolts were more likely to occur when a ship was still in sight of the shore. The threat of attack from the shore by other Africans was also a concern. If the ship was hit by disease and a large portion of the crew had been killed, the chances of insurrection were higher.<ref name="richardson2001"/>  Where the slaves were captured also had an effect on the number of insurrections.<ref name="richardson2001"/> In many places, such as the [[Bight of Benin]] and the [[Bight of Biafra]], the percentage of revolts and the percentage of the slave trade match up.<ref name="richardson2001"/> Yet ships taking slaves from [[Senegambia]] experienced 22 percent of shipboard revolts while only contributing to four and a half percent of the slave trade.<ref name="richardson11">{{cite journal|last=Richardson|first=David|title=Shipboard Revolts, African Authority, and the Atlantic Slave Trade|journal=The William and Mary Quarterly|year=2001|volume=58|issue=1|pages=69–92|doi=10.2307/2674419|jstor=2674419|pmid=18634185}}</ref> Slaves coming from West Central Africa accounted for 44 percent of the trade while only experiencing 11 percent of total revolts.<ref name="richardson11"/>  
	
Lorenzo J. Greene gives many accounts of slave revolts on ships coming out of New England. These ships belonged to Puritans who controlled much of the slave trade in New England.<ref>{{cite book|last=Greene|first=Lorenzo|title=Mutiny on Slave Ships|page=346}}</ref> Most revolts on board ships were unsuccessful.  The crews of these ships, while outnumbered, were disciplined, well fed, and armed with muskets, swords, and sometimes cannons, and they were always on guard for resistance.<ref name="greene1">{{cite book|last=Greene|first=Lorenzo|title=Mutiny on Slave Ships}}</ref> The slaves on the other hand were the opposite, armed only with bits of wood and the chains that bound them.<ref>{{cite book|title=Mutiny on Slave Ships|last=Greene|page=347}}</ref>

However, some captives were able to take over the ships that were their prisons and regain their freedom.  On October 5, 1764 the New Hampshire ship ''Adventure'' captained by John Millar was successfully taken by the enslaved aboard.<ref name="greene1"/> The slaves on board revolted while the ship was anchored off the coast and all but two of the crew, including Captain Millar, had succumbed to disease.<ref>{{cite book|title=Mutiny on Slave Ships|last=Greene|page=349}}</ref>  Another successful slave revolt occurred six days after the ship ''Little George'' had left the Guinea coast.  The ship carried ninety-six slaves, thirty-five of which were male.<ref name="greene1"/> The slaves attacked in the early hours of the morning, easily overpowering the two men on guard.  The slaves were able to load one of the cannons on board and fire it at the crew.  After taking control of the ship they sailed it up the [[Sierra Leone River]] and escaped.<ref name="greene1"/> After having defended themselves with muskets for several days below decks the crew lowered a small boat into the river to escape.  After nine days of living on raw rice they were rescued.<ref>{{cite book|title=Mutiny on Slave Ships|last=Greene|page=351}}</ref>

Mariana P. Candido notes that enslaved Africans worked on the ships that transported other Africans into slavery.  These men, 230 in all,<ref name="candido400">{{cite journal|last=Candido|first=Mariana P.|title=Different Slave Journeys: Enslaved African Seamen on Board Portuguese Ships c. 1760–1820s|date=September 2010|volume=31|issue=3|page=400}}</ref> were used onboard slave ships for their ability to communicate with the slaves being brought on board and to translate between Captain and slaver.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Candido|page=397}}</ref> Enslaved sailors were able to alleviate some of the fears that newly boarded slaves had, such as fear of being eaten.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Candido|first=Mariana P.|title=Different Slave Journeys: Enslaved African Seamen on Board Portuguese Ships c. 1760–1820s|date=September 2010|volume=31|issue=3}}</ref> This was a double-edged sword.  The enslaved sailors sometimes joined other slaves in the revolts against the captain they served.  In 1812 enslaved sailors joined a revolt on board the Portuguese ship ''Feliz Eugenia'' just off the coast of [[Benguela]].<ref name="candido400"/> The revolt took place below decks.  The sailors, along with many of the children who were on board, were able to escape using small boats.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Candido|page=398}}</ref>

==South America and the Caribbean==
[[Slave Rebellion of December 25, 1522|December 25, 1521]] rebellion in [[Diego Colón de Toledo, 4th Admiral of the Indies|Diego Colón de Toledo]]'s plantation in what is known today as [[Dominican Republic]] is the first known slave rebellion of the region.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Deive|first=Carlos Esteban|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/21435953|title=Los guerrilleros negros: esclavos fugitivos y cimarrones en Santo Domingo|date=1989|publisher=Fundación Cultural Dominicana|location=Santo Domingo, República Dominicana|language=es|oclc=21435953|access-date=2020-07-20|archive-date=2020-07-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200721115346/https://www.worldcat.org/title/guerrilleros-negros-esclavos-fugitivos-y-cimarrones-en-santo-domingo/oclc/21435953|url-status=live}}</ref> Despite the suppression of this revolt, many of the slaves successfully escaped, which led to the establishment of the first [[Maroons|Maroon]] communities of the Americas. It would also open the doors for more slave revolts to transpire in the region. In 1532, [[Sebastián Lemba]], of the [[Lemba people|Lemba]] tribe, rebelled against the Spanish colonists and for the next 15 years, attacked various other villages on the island liberating other slaves and ransacking from the Spaniards. Other leaders such as Juan Vaquero, Diego del Guzmán, Fernando Montoro, Juan Criollo, and [[Diego del Ocampo]] followed in Lemba's footsteps. [[Dominican Republic|Dominican]] slave revolts continued throughout the 18th and 19th century such as the slave insurrections of Hincha and Samaná in the spring of 1795, the [[1796 Boca de Nigua slave revolt|Boca de Nigua revolt in 1796]], the Gambia revolt of 1802, and the revolt led by José Leocadio, Pedro de Seda, and Pedro Henríquez in 1812.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Milagros |last=Ricourt |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1020852484 |title=The Dominican Racial Imaginary Surveying the Landscape of Race and Nation in Hispaniola |date=2016 |publisher=Rutgers University Press |isbn=978-0-8135-8450-8 |oclc=1020852484}}</ref>

In 1552 [[Miguel de Buría ]]<ref name=" Rodríguez224">{{Harvnb|Rodríguez |2006|p=224}}</ref> a former slave in [[San Juan, Puerto Rico]],<ref name="Simón83">{{Harvnb|Simón|1627|p=83}}</ref> reigned as the King of Buría Golden mines in the modern-day state of [[Lara (state)|Lara]], [[Venezuela]], after leading the first African rebellion in the country's history.<ref name="Duque325">{{Harvnb|Duque|2013|p=325}}</ref>  His incumbency began in 1552 and lasted until 1554 after a failed attempt to take Barquisimeto city was killed by Spanish forces.{{citation needed|date=December 2024}}

Between 1538 and 1542, a [[Guaraní people|Guaraní]] slave from present-day [[Paraguay]] named [[India Juliana|Juliana]] killed her Spanish master and urged other indigenous women to do the same, ending up executed by order of [[Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ultimahora.com/en-busca-la-india-juliana-n2917140.html|title=En busca de la India Juliana|accessdate=December 12, 2021|language=es|first=Andrés|last=Colmán Gutiérrez|location=Asunción|date=December 5, 2020|work=[[Última Hora (Paraguay)|Última Hora]]|archive-date=April 23, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220423112023/https://www.ultimahora.com/en-busca-la-india-juliana-n2917140.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ea.com.py/blogs/relatos-sobre-la-india-juliana-entre-la-construccion-de-la-memoria-y-la-ficcion-historica/|language=es|accessdate=December 12, 2021|title=Relatos sobre la India Juliana. Entre la construcción de la memoria y la ficción histórica|first=Gabriela|last=Schvartzman|date=September 19, 2020|work=Periódico E'a|location=Asunción|publisher=Atycom|archive-date=April 8, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408032622/http://ea.com.py/blogs/relatos-sobre-la-india-juliana-entre-la-construccion-de-la-memoria-y-la-ficcion-historica/|url-status=live}}</ref> Her rebellion is regarded as one of the earliest recorded indigenous uprisings against the [[Spanish colonization of the Americas]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ultimahora.com/las-kuna-cerveza-como-simbolo-cultural-n2871068.html|language=es|accessdate=January 16, 2022|title=Las Kuña: cerveza como símbolo cultural|first=Romina|last=Aquino González|date=February 20, 2020|work=[[Última Hora (Paraguay)|Última Hora]]|archive-date=January 18, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220118182333/https://www.ultimahora.com/las-kuna-cerveza-como-simbolo-cultural-n2871068.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ea.com.py/personajes-historicos-del-paraguay-india-juliana/|language=es|accessdate=January 19, 2022|title=Personajes históricos del Paraguay: India Juliana|first=Diana|last=Viveros|date=April 28, 2011|work=Periódico E'a|location=Asunción|publisher=Atycom|archive-date=January 19, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119234719/http://ea.com.py/personajes-historicos-del-paraguay-india-juliana/|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Quilombo dos Palmares]] in [[Brazil]], 1605 to 1694, led by [[Zumbi|Zumbi dos Palmarés]].{{citation needed|date=December 2024}}

[[San Basilio de Palenque]] in [[Colombia]], 16th century to the present, led by [[Benkos Biohó]].{{citation needed|date=December 2024}}

[[Saint John, U.S. Virgin Islands|St. John]], 1733, in what was then the [[Danish West Indies]]. [[1733 slave insurrection on St. John|The St. John's Slave Rebellion]] is one of the earliest and longest lasting slave rebellions in the Americas. It ended with defeat, however, and many rebels, including one of the leaders [[Breffu]], committed suicide rather than being recaptured.<ref name=norton>{{cite thesis|title=Estate by Estate: The Landscape of the 1733 St. Jan Slave Rebellion|author=Holly Kathryn Norton|date=2013|type=PhD|publisher=Syracuse University|page=90|id={{ProQuest|1369397993}}}}</ref>

The most successful slave uprising was the [[Haitian Revolution]], which began in 1791 and was eventually led by [[Toussaint L'Ouverture]], culminating in the independent black republic of [[Haiti]].<ref name="WDL1">{{cite web|title=An Historical Account of the Black Empire of Hayti: Comprehending a View of the Principal Transactions in the Revolution of Saint Domingo: with Its Ancient and Modern State|url=http://www.wdl.org/en/item/381|publisher=World Digital Library|access-date=23 April 2013|archive-date=19 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131219041358/http://www.wdl.org/en/item/381/|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Panama]] also has an extensive history of slave rebellions going back to the 16th century. Slaves were brought to the [[isthmus]] from many regions in [[Africa]], including the modern day countries of the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo]], [[Senegal]], [[Guinea]], and [[Mozambique]].  Immediately before their arrival on shore, or very soon after, many enslaved Africans revolted against their captors or participated in mass [[maroon (people)|maroon]]age or desertion. The freed Africans founded communities in the forests and mountains, organized [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] bands known as [[Cimarron people (Panama)|Cimarrones]]. They began a long guerrilla war against the [[Spain|Spanish]] [[Conquistadores]], sometimes in conjunction with nearby indigenous communities like the [[Guna people|Guna]] and the [[Guaymí]]. Despite massacres by the Spanish, the rebels fought until the Spanish crown was forced to concede to treaties that granted the Africans a life without Spanish violence and incursions. The leaders of the guerrilla revolts included [[Felipillo of Panama|Felipillo]], [[Bayano]], [[Juan de Dioso]], [[Domingo Congo]], Antón Mandinga, and [[Luis de Mozambique]].{{cn|date=October 2023}}

In the 1730s, the militias of the [[Colony of Jamaica]] fought the [[Jamaican Maroons]] for a decade, before agreeing to sign peace treaties in 1739 and 1740, which recognised their freedom in five separate Maroon Towns.{{cn|date=October 2023}}

[[File:Soulèvement des esclaves à la Jamaïque en 1759 (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Tacky's War]] in Jamaica (1760)]]

[[Tacky's War]] (1760) was a slave uprising in [[Jamaica]], which ran from May to July before it was put down by the British colonial government.{{cn|date=October 2023}}

The [[Suriname]] slave rebellion was marked by constant [[guerrilla]] warfare by [[Maroon (people)|Maroons]] and in 1765–1793 by the [[Aluku]]. This rebellion was led by [[Boni (Maroon leader)|Boni]].{{cn|date=October 2023}}

The [[Berbice Slave Rebellion]] in [[Guyana]] in 1763 was led by [[Cuffy (person)|Cuffy]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Berbice Uprising in 1763 |url=https://eenigheid.slavenhandelmcc.nl/trajecten-van-de-reis-en/west-indie-en/grote-slavenopstand-1763/?lang=en |access-date=2025-03-13 |website=eenigheid.slavenhandelmcc.nl |language=en-US}}</ref>

[[Cuba]] had slave revolts in 1795, 1798, 1802, 1805, 1812 (the [[José Antonio Aponte|Aponte]] revolt), 1825, 1827, 1829, 1833, 1834, 1835, 1838, 1839–43 and 1844 (the La Escalera conspiracy and revolt).{{cn|date=October 2023}}

===Revolts on the Caribbean Islands===

[[File:Plate 2 Retreat of Lt Brady.jpg|thumb|Slaves force the retreat of European soldiers led by Lt Brady during [[Demerara rebellion of 1823]]]]

Vincent Brown, a professor of History and of African and African-American Studies at Harvard, has made a study of the Transatlantic Slave Trade. In 2013, Brown teamed up with Axis Maps to create an interactive map of Jamaican slave uprisings in the 18th century called, "Slave Revolt in Jamaica, 1760–1761, A Cartographic Narrative".<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://revolt.axismaps.com/map/ |title=Axismaps.com |access-date=2014-03-05 |archive-date=2021-04-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413060826/http://revolt.axismaps.com/map/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Brown's efforts have shown that the slave insurrection in Jamaica in 1760-61 was a carefully planned affair and not a spontaneous, chaotic eruption, as was often argued (due in large part to the lack of written records produced by the insurgents).<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://colorlines.com/archives/2013/10/this_scholar_created_an_interactive_map_of_slave_rebellions.html |title=Colorlines.com |access-date=2014-03-05 |archive-date=2014-03-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140318163744/http://colorlines.com/archives/2013/10/this_scholar_created_an_interactive_map_of_slave_rebellions.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>  [[Tacky's War]] was a widespread slave uprising across Jamaica in the 1760s.

Later, in 1795, several slave rebellions broke out across the Caribbean, influenced by the [[Haitian Revolution]]: {{Citation needed|reason=Your explanation here|date=January 2023}}

*In [[Martinique]] the slave rebellion broke out during the [[French Revolution]] which compared to the [[Haitian Revolution]] led by [[Toussaint Louverture]].
*In [[Jamaica]], the descendants of Africans who fought and escaped from slavery and established free communities in the mountainous interior of Jamaica ([[Jamaican Maroons|Maroons]]), fought to preserve their freedom from British colonialists, in what came to be known as the [[Second Maroon War]]. However, this featured just one of the five Maroon towns in Jamaica. 
*In [[Dominica]] there was the [[Colihault Uprising]]. 
*In [[Saint Lucia]] there was the [[Bush War (disambiguation)|Bush War]] in 1795.
*In the [[Saint Vincent (island)|Saint Vincent islands]] the [[Second Carib War]] broke out.
*In [[Grenada]] there was the [[Fedon Rebellion]].<ref name=cavehill>[http://www.cavehill.uwi.edu/BNCCde/grenada/conference/papers/jacobsc.html "The fédons of Grenada, 1763–1814"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080831201746/http://www.cavehill.uwi.edu/BNCCde/grenada/conference/papers/jacobsc.html |date=2008-08-31 }}. Posted by Curtis Jacobs. Retrieved March 10, 2013, to 18: 25 pm.</ref>
*[[Curaçao]] had a slave revolt in 1795, led by [[Tula (Curaçao)|Tula]].
*In [[Venezuela]], the insurrection led by [[José Leonardo Chirino]] occurred in 1795.
*In [[Barbados]], a slave revolt occurred in 1816, led by [[Bussa]].
*In [[Guyana]] there was the [[Demerara]] Rebellion of 1795.<ref name="McGowan">{{cite web|url=http://www.stabroeknews.com/index.pl/article?id=56501710
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927221229/http://www.stabroeknews.com/index.pl/article?id=56501710
|url-status = dead
|archive-date=September 27, 2007
|title=The 1763 and 1823 slave rebellions
|author=McGowan, Winston
|year=2006
|access-date=December 7, 2006
|publisher=Starbucks News}}</ref>
*In the [[British Virgin Islands]], minor slave revolts occurred in 1790, 1823 and 1830.
*In [[Cuba]], there were several revolts starting in 1825 with an uprising in Guamacaro and ending with the revolts of 1843 in Matanzas. These revolts have been widely studied by scholars such as Robert L. Paquette, Gloria García, Manuel Barcia, Aisha K. Finch and Michele Reid-Vazquez.
*In the [[Danish West Indies]] an 1848 slave revolt led to emancipation of all slaves in the Danish West Indies.
*In [[Puerto Rico]] in 1821, [[Marcos Xiorro]] planned and conspired to lead a slave revolt against the sugar plantation owners and the Spanish Colonial government. Even though the conspiracy was unsuccessful,  Xiorro achieved legendary status among the slaves and is part of Puerto Rico's folklore.<ref name="GB">"Slave revolts in Puerto Rico: conspiracies and uprisings, 1795–1873"; by: Guillermo A. Bar alt; Publisher Markus Wiener Publishers;  {{ISBN|978-1-55876-463-7}}</ref>
*The [[St. Joseph Mutiny]] of 1837 in [[Trinidad]], which was led by mutineers from the [[British Army]]'s [[West India Regiments|1st West India Regiment]]  (many of whom had been liberated from illegal [[slave ship]]s by the [[Royal Navy]]).<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1080/01440399108575034|first=Thomas|last=August|year=1991|title=Rebels with a cause: The St. Joseph Mutiny of 1837|journal=Slavery & Abolition|volume=12|issue=2|pages=73–91}}</ref>

===Brazil===
Many slave rebellions occurred in [[Brazil]], most famously the [[Malê Revolt]] of 1835<ref name="19th Century Jihad Movements of Western Sudan">{{cite web|url=http://www.africanholocaust.net/news_ah/bahiaslaverevolts.html|publisher=[[Muhammad Sharif]]|title=A Continuity of the 19th Century Jihaad Movements of Western Sudan|access-date=2006-12-02|archive-date=2007-02-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070228055953/http://www.africanholocaust.net/news_ah/bahiaslaverevolts.html|url-status=live}}</ref> by the predominantly Muslim [[West African]] slaves at the time. The term ''malê'' was commonly used to refer to Muslims at the time from the [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]] word ''imale''.{{citation needed|date=December 2024}}

== See also ==
* [[History of slavery]]
* [[Labour revolt]]
* [[List of revolutions and rebellions]]
* [[Slave ship]]

==Bibliography==
*Herbert Aptheker, ''American Negro Slave Revolts'', 6. ed., New York: International Publ., 1993 – classic
*Matt D. Childs, ''The 1812 Aponte Rebellion in Cuba and the Struggle Against African Slavery'', Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006
*{{cite book| title=Aportes Del Pueblo Afrodescendiente: La Historia Oculta De América Latina| first=Elvia|last=Duque|publisher=iUniverse|date=2013|isbn=978-1475965834}}
*David P. Geggus, ed., T''he Impact of the Haitian Revolution in the Atlantic World'', Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2001
*Eugene D. Genovese, ''From Rebellion to Revolution: Afro-American Slave Revolts in the Making of the Modern World'', Louisiana State University Press 1980
*Joao Jose Reis, ''Slave Rebellion in Brazil: The Muslim Uprising of 1835 in Bahia'' (Johns Hopkins Studies in Atlantic History and Culture), Johns Hopkins Univ Press 1993
*{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Slave Resistance and Rebellion, Vol. 1 |first=Junius P.|last=Rodríguez|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=0313332711|date=2006}}
*Rodriguez, Junius P., ed. ''Slavery in the United States: A Social, Political, and Historical Encyclopedia''. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2007.
*{{cite book|title=Noticias historiales de Venezuela|first=Pedro|last=Simón|publisher=Fundación Biblioteca Ayachucho|isbn=9802762105|date=1627}}
*Urbainczky, Theresa ''Slave Revolts in Antiquity'' (University of California Press, Berkley), 2008

==References and notes==
{{Reflist|30em}}

===Further reading===
*{{cite news|work=PBS|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part1/1p285.html |title=New York: The Revolt of 1712}}

==External links==
*{{cite web|url=http://www.africanholocaust.net/news_ah/bahiaslaverevolts.html |website=africanholocaust.net|title=Bahia Revolt}}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.brh.org.uk/shh/index.html#invisibleAbolitionists|author=Hart, Richard (Ex-Attorney General of Grenada)|title=Invisible Abolitionists|website=brh.org.uk}} Audio on slave revolts in the Caribbean
*{{cite web|url=http://slaverebellion.org/index.php?page=home|website=The Slave Rebellion Website|title=Home|access-date=2016-03-25|archive-date=2016-03-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160317004538/http://slaverebellion.org/index.php?page=home|url-status=dead}}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.johnhorse.com|title= Rebellion: John Horse and the Black Seminoles, First Black Rebels to Beat American Slavery|website=johnhorse.com}} These maroons affiliated with Seminole Indians in Florida led a slave rebellion that would be the largest in U.S. history.
*{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24175|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History}}

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[[Category:Slave rebellions| ]]
[[Category:Pre-emancipation African-American history]]