Editing Slavey language

{{Short description|Athabaskan language group spoken in Canada}}
{{distinguish|Slavic languages|Slavery}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Slavey
| nativename       = ''North'':<br>{{lang|scs|Sahtúgot’įné Yatı̨́}}, {{lang|scs|K’ashógot’įne Goxedǝ́}}, {{lang|scs|Shíhgot’įne Yatı̨́}}<br>''South'':<br>{{lang|xsl|Dené Dháh}}, {{lang|xsl|Dene Yatıé}}, {{lang|xsl|Dene Zhatıé}}
| states           = Denendeh, [[Canada]]
| region           = [[Northwest Territories]]
| ethnicity        = [[Slavey people|Slavey]], [[Sahtu]]
| speakers         = 2,215
| date             = 2021 census
| ref              = <ref>{{Cite web |last=Government of Canada |first=Statistics Canada |date=2023-03-29 |title=Indigenous languages in Canada, 2021 |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/11-627-m/11-627-m2023029-eng.htm |access-date=2025-03-25 |website=www150.statcan.gc.ca}}</ref>
| familycolor      = Dené-Yeniseian
| fam2             = [[Na-Dené languages|Na-Dené]]
| fam3             = [[Athabaskan languages|Athabaskan]]
| fam4             = [[Northern Athabaskan languages|Northern Athabaskan]]
| nation           = [[Northwest Territories]], [[Canada]]<ref>[http://www.nwtlanguagescommissioner.ca/pdf/Official_Languages_Map.pdf Official Languages of the Northwest Territories] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323114247/http://www.nwtlanguagescommissioner.ca/pdf/Official_Languages_Map.pdf |date=2012-03-23 }} (map)</ref>
| iso2             = den
| iso3             = den
| lc1              = scs
| ld1              = North Slavey
| lc2              = xsl
| ld2              = South Slavey
| glotto           = slav1253
| glottorefname    = Slave
| notice           = IPA
| map2             = Lang Status 60-DE.svg
| mapcaption2      = {{center|{{small|North Slavey is classified as Definitely Endangered by the [[UNESCO]] ''[[Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]]''}}}}
| imagecaption     = North Slavey text carved into stone in Yellowknife
| image            = Yellowknife text.jpg
}}
{{infobox ethnonym|root=[[Dene]] / (<span style="text-decoration:line-through;">[[Slavey]]</span>)<ref name="SlaveyName">{{cite news |last1=Mandeville |first1=Curtis |title=Goodbye Great Slave Lake? Movement to decolonize N.W.T. maps is growing |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/north/decolonizing-nwt-place-names-1.3640819 |access-date=7 November 2023 |agency=CBC |quote= [T]he name Slavey is a colonial term that was imposed on the Dehcho Dene[, Nakehk'o said;] "It is a very terrible and horrible name." |date=21 June 2016}}</ref><br/><small>"people" / "''Awokanak''"</small><ref>Waldman, Carl (2006). [https://books.google.com/books?id=WxomdGVLjZ0C&pg=PA275 Facts on File Library of American History - Encyclopedia of Native American tribes]. Infobase Publishing. p. 275. {{ISBN|9781438110103}}. The name given to [[Dene]] by the [[Cree]] "who sometimes raided and enslaved their less aggressive northern neighbors".</ref>|person=[[Dene]]|people=[[Sahtu|Got'iné]] <small>(North)</small>{{indent|3}}Sahtúgot’įné ("[[Great Bear Lake]]"){{indent|3}}K’ashógot’įne ("Hareskin"){{indent|3}}Shíhgot’įne ("Mountain")<br/>[[Slavey#Groups|Deneke]] <small>(South)</small>|language=[[Slavey language|Got'iné Kedé / Got'iné Yatí]]{{indent|3}}Sahtúgot’įné Kədǝ́{{indent|3}}K’ashógot’įne Xədǝ́{{indent|3}}Shíhgot’įne Yatı̨́<br/>[[Slavey language|Dene Yatié / Dene Zhatié]]|country=[[Denendeh]],{{indent|3}}[[Sahtu Region|Got'iné Néné]] <small>(North)</small>,{{indent|6}}Sahtúgot’įné Nę́nę́{{indent|6}}K’ashógot’įne Nę́né{{indent|6}}Shıhgot’ıné Nę́nę́{{indent|3}}Dene Ndéh <small>(South)</small>,{{indent|6}}[[Deh Cho Region|Dehchondéh]]{{indent|6}}[[Dene Tha' First Nation|Dene Tha' Ndéh]]<br/>}}

'''Slavey''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|l|eɪ|v|i}};<ref>Laurie Bauer, 2007, ''The Linguistics Student’s Handbook'', Edinburgh</ref>  also '''Slave''', '''Slavé''') is a group of [[Athabaskan languages]] and a [[dialect continuum]] spoken amongst the [[Dene]] peoples of [[Canada]] in the [[Northwest Territories]] – or central Denendeh – where it also has official status.<ref name="lang">[http://www.justice.gov.nt.ca/PDF/ACTS/Official_Languages.pdf Northwest Territories Official Languages Act, 1988] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050408070402/http://www.justice.gov.nt.ca/PDF/ACTS/Official_Languages.pdf |date=2005-04-08 }} (as amended 1988, 1991-1992, 2003)</ref> The languages are primarily written using a modified [[Latin script]], with some using [[Canadian Aboriginal syllabics]]. In their own languages, these languages are referred to as: '''Sahtúgot’įné Yatı̨́''' (spoken by the [[Sahtu|Sahtu Dene]]), '''K’ashógot’įne Goxedǝ́''' (the Hare Dene dialect) and '''Shíhgot’įne Yatı̨́''' (the Mountain dialect) in the North, and '''Dené Dháh''' (primarily by the [[Dene Tha' First Nation|Dene Tha']] in [[Alberta]]), '''Dene Yatıé''' or '''Dene Zhatıé''' in the South.

==North Slavey and South Slavey ==
{{Location_map+
|Canada Northwest Territories 
| width = 240
| float = right
| caption = [[Sahtu Region|Sahtu]] (North Slavey) communities in the Northwest Territories
| places =
  {{Location map~|Canada Northwest Territories | label=[[Colville Lake, Northwest Territories|Colville Lake]] | lat=67.038 | long=-126.09 | label_size=75 | marksize=6| position=right}}
  {{Location map~|Canada Northwest Territories | label=[[Deline|Délįne]] | lat=65.1866 | long=-123.4216| label_size=75 | marksize=7|position=right}}
  {{Location map~|Canada Northwest Territories | label=[[Fort Good Hope]] | lat=66.258 | long=-128.628 | label_size=75 | marksize=7|position=left}}
  {{Location map~|Canada Northwest Territories | label=[[Norman Wells]] | lat=65.28 | long=-126.83 | label_size=75 | marksize=7| position=left}}
{{Location map~|Canada Northwest Territories | label=[[Tulita]] | lat=64.9 | long=-125.577 | label_size=75 | marksize=7| position=bottom}}
 }}'''North Slavey''' is spoken by the [[Sahtu|Sahtu (North Slavey)]] people in the [[District of Mackenzie|Mackenzie District]] along the middle [[Mackenzie River]] from [[Tulita]] (Fort Norman) north, around [[Great Bear Lake]], and in the [[Mackenzie Mountains]] of the [[Canadian territory]] of [[Northwest Territories]]. The dialect has around 800 speakers.<ref name="census">{{Cite web|url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/hlt-fst/lang/Table.cfm?Lang=E&T=41&Geo=01|title=Language Highlight Tables, 2016 Census - Aboriginal mother tongue, Aboriginal language spoken most often at home and Other Aboriginal language(s) spoken regularly at home for the population excluding institutional residents of Canada, provinces and territories, 2016 Census – 100% Data|last=Canada|first=Government of Canada, Statistics|website=www12.statcan.gc.ca|date=2 August 2017|language=en|access-date=2017-11-17}}</ref>
Northern Slavey is an amalgamation of three separate ''dialects'': 
* K’ashógot’įne ({{lang|scs-Cans|ᑲᑊᗱᑯᑎᑊᓀ}}) Goxedǝ́: Hare, spoken by the {{lang|scs|i=no|Gahwié got’iné}} - "Rabbitskin People" or {{lang|scs|i=no|K’áshogot’ıne}} - "Great Hare People", referring to their dependence on the varying hare for food and clothing, also called {{lang|fr|i=no|Peaux de Lièvre}} or {{lang|fr|i=no|Locheaux}}
* Sahtúgot’įné ({{lang|scs-Cans|ᓴᑋᕲᒼᑯᑎᑊᓀ}}) Yatı̨́: Bear Lake, spoken by the {{lang|scs|i=no|Sahtu Dene}} or {{lang|scs|i=no|Sahtú got’iné}} - "Bear Lake People", also known as {{lang|fr|i=no|Gens du Lac d'Ours}}
* Shíhgot’įne ({{lang|scs-Cans|ᗰᑋᑯᑎᑊᓀ}}) Yatı̨́: Mountain, spoken by the {{lang|scs|i=no|Shıhgot’ıné, Shuhtaot'iné}} or {{lang|scs|i=no|Shotah Dene}} - "Mountain People" or ''Mountain Indians'', also called {{lang|scs|i=no|Nahagot’iné, Nahaa}} or {{lang|scs|i=no|Nahane Dene}} - "People of the west", so called because they lived in the mountains west of the other Slavey groups, between the Mackenzie Mountains and the Mackenzie River, from the Redstone River to the Mountain River

'''South Slavey''' ({{lang|xsl-Cans|ᑌᓀ ᒐ}} {{lang|xsl|i=no|[[Dene Tha' First Nation|Dené Dháh]], Dene Yatıé}} or {{lang|xsl|i=no|Dene Zhatıé}}) is spoken by the [[Slavey]] people, who were also known as {{lang|xsl|i=no|Dehghaot'ine, Deh Cho, Etchareottine}}{{refn|Or ''A-cha-o-tin-ne'', ''Achaotinne'', ''Acheotenne'', ''A-che-to-e-ten-ni'', ''Achetoetenni'', ''Acheto-e-Tinne'', ''Achetoetinne'', ''Acheto-tena'', ''Achetotinna'', ''Ache-to-tin'neh'', ''Acheto-tinneh'', ''Achetotinneh'', ''Achoto-e-tenni'', ''Achotoetenni''.<ref name="clark">{{cite book |last1=Clark |first1=Patricia Roberts |title=Tribal Names of the Americas: Spelling Variants and Alternative Forms, Cross-Referenced |date=21 October 2009 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-0-7864-5169-2 |page=11 |language=en}}</ref>}} - "People Dwelling in the Shelter", in the region of [[Great Slave Lake]], upper Mackenzie River ({{lang|xsl|i=no|Deh Cho}} - "Big River") and its drainage, in the District of Mackenzie, northeast [[Alberta]], and northwest [[British Columbia]].

Some communities are bilingual, with the children learning Slavey at home and English when they enter school. Still other communities are monolingual in Slavey<ref name="Rice" /> The dialect has around 1,000 speakers.<ref name="census"/>

''Alternative names:'' Slavi, Slave, Dené, Mackenzian

The division of Slavey dialects is based largely on the way each one pronounces the old Proto-Athapaskan sounds *dz *ts *ts’ *s and *z.

== Status ==
North and South Slavey are recognized as official languages of the Northwest Territories; they may be used in court and in debates and proceedings of the Northwest Territories legislature. However, unlike English and French, the government only publishes laws and documents in North and South Slavey if the legislature requests it, and these documents are not authoritative.<ref>Nitah, S. (2002). One land - many voices: report of the NWT Special Committee on the Review of the Official Languages Act. ''Canadian Parliamentary Review'' 25(3), 4-8.</ref>

In 2015, a Slavey woman named Andrea Heron challenged the territorial government over its refusal to permit the [[Glottal stop (letter)|ʔ]] character, representing the Slavey glottal stop, in her daughter's name, Sakaeʔah, despite Slavey languages being official in the NWT. The territory argued that territorial and federal identity documents were unable to accommodate the character. Heron had registered the name with a hyphen instead of the ʔ when her daughter was born, but when Sakaeʔah was 6, Ms. Heron joined a challenge by a [[Chipewyan]] woman named Shene Catholique-Valpy regarding the same character in her own daughter's name, Sahaiʔa.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Browne |first1=Rachel |date=12 March 2015 |title=What's in a name? A Chipewyan's battle over her native tongue |url=http://www.macleans.ca/society/life/all-in-the-family-name/ |access-date=5 April 2015 |work=Maclean's}}</ref>

Also in 2015, the [[University of Victoria]] launched a language revitalization program in the NWT, pairing learners of indigenous languages including Slavey with fluent speakers. The program requires 100 hours of conversation with the mentor with no English allowed, as well as sessions with instructors in [[Fort Providence, Northwest Territories|Fort Providence]].<ref>{{cite news |author1=Erin Brohman |author2=Garrett Hinchey |date=16 March 2015 |title=UVic program aims to revitalize South Slavey language in N.W.T. |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/north/uvic-program-aims-to-revitalize-south-slavey-language-in-n-w-t-1.2996608 |access-date=5 April 2015 |work=CBC News}}</ref>

==Phonology==
===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|-
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | 
! rowspan="2" | [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! colspan="3" | [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Postalveolar consonant|Post-<br />alveolar]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Dorsal consonant|Dorsal]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! <small>plain</small>
! <small>[[sibilant]]</small>
! <small>[[Lateral consonant|lateral]]</small>
|-
! rowspan="3" | [[Plosive]]/<br />[[Affricate]]
! <small>plain</small>
| {{IPAlink|p}}
| {{IPAlink|t}}
| {{IPAlink|ts}}
| {{IPAlink|tɬ}}
| {{IPAlink|tʃ}}
| {{IPAlink|k}}
| rowspan="3" | {{IPAlink|ʔ}}
|-
! <small>[[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]]</small>
|
| {{IPAlink|tʰ}}
| style="background:#FFDDDD" | {{IPAlink|tsʰ}}
| style="background:#FFDDDD" | {{IPAlink|tɬʰ}}
| style="background:#FFDDDD" | {{IPAlink|tʃʰ}}
| {{IPAlink|kʰ}}
|-
! <small>[[Ejective consonant|ejective]]</small>
|
| {{IPAlink|tʼ}}
| {{IPAlink|tsʼ}}
| {{IPAlink|tɬʼ}}
| {{IPAlink|tʃʼ}}
| {{IPAlink|kʼ}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Fricative]]
! <small>[[Voicelessness|voiceless]]</small>
|
|
| {{IPAlink|s}}
| {{IPAlink|ɬ}}
| {{IPAlink|ʃ}}
| {{IPAlink|x}}
| {{IPAlink|h}}
|-
! <small>[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
|
|
| {{IPAlink|z}}
| {{IPAlink|ɮ}}
| {{IPAlink|ʒ}}
| {{IPAlink|ɣ}}
|
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPAlink|m}}
| {{IPAlink|n}}
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Approximant]]
| style="background:#DDDDFF" | {{IPAlink|w}}
|
|
|
|
| {{IPAlink|j}}
|
|}

The consonant inventories in the dialects of Slavey differ considerably. The table above lists the 30 consonants common to most or all varieties. Hare lacks aspirated affricates (on red background), which have lenited into fricatives, whereas Mountain lacks {{IPA|/w/}} (on blue). In addition, for some speakers of Hare, an [[alveolar flap]] {{IPA|/ɾ/}} has developed into a separate phoneme. Prenasalized stops {{IPA|/ᵐb, ⁿd/}} may appear in Slavey proper.

The most pronounced difference is however the realization of a series of consonants that vary greatly in their place of articulation:<ref>Krauss, Michael E. & Golla, Victor K. (1981) Northern Athapaskan Languages. ''Handbook of North American Indians'', p. 79.</ref>
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
! !! Slavey proper !! Mountain !! Bearlake !! Hare
|- 
! Plain stop/affricate
|  {{IPA|t̪θ}} || {{IPA|p}} || {{IPA|kʷ}} || {{IPA|kʷ}}, {{IPA|p}}
|- 
! Aspirated
| {{IPA|t̪θʰ}} || {{IPA|pʰ}} || {{IPA|kʷʰ}} || {{IPA|f}}
|- 
! Ejective
| {{IPA|t̪θʼ}} || {{IPA|pʼ}} || {{IPA|kʷʼ}} || {{IPA|ʔw}}
|- 
! Voiceless fricative
| {{IPA|θ}} || {{IPA|f}} || {{IPA|ʍ}}||{{IPA|w}}
|- 
! Voiced fricative / semivowel
| {{IPA|ð}} || {{IPA|v}} || {{IPA|w}} || {{IPA|w}}
|}

In Slavey proper, these are [[Dental consonant|dental]] affricates and fricatives; comparative Athabaskan work reveals this to be the oldest sound value. Mountain has labials, with the voiceless stop coinciding with pre-existing {{IPA|/p/}}. Bearlake has [[labialization|labialized]] velars, but has lenited the voiced fricative to coincide with pre-existing {{IPA|/w/}}. The most complicated situation is found in Hare, where the plain stop is a labialized velar, the ejective member is replaced by a {{IPA|/ʔw/}} sequence, the aspirated affricate has turned into a fricative {{IPA|/f/}}, and both the voiceless and voiced fricatives have been lenited to {{IPA|/w/}}.

====Phonological processes====

The following phonological and phonetic statements apply to all four dialects of Slavey.

* Unaspirated obstruents are either voiceless or weakly voiced, e.g.
** {{IPA|/k/}} → {{IPA|[k]}} or {{IPA|[k̬]}}
* Aspirated obstruents are strongly aspirated.
* Ejectives are strongly ejective.
* When occurring between vowels, ejectives are often voiced, e.g.
** {{IPA|/kʼ/}} → {{IPA|[ɡˀ]}} or {{IPA|[kʼ]}}
* {{IPA|/t͡sʰ/}} is usually strongly velarized, i.e. {{IPA|[tˣ]}}.
* Velar obstruents are palatalized before front vowels, e.g.
** {{IPA|/kɛ/}} → {{IPA|[cɛ]}}
** {{IPA|/xɛ/}} → {{IPA|[çɛ]}}
** {{IPA|/ɣɛ/}} → {{IPA|[ʝɛ]}}
* Velar fricatives may be labialized before round vowels.
** The voiceless fricative is usually labialized, e.g.
*** {{IPA|/xo/}} → {{IPA|[xʷo]}}
** The voiced fricative is optionally labialized and may additionally be deaffricated e.g.
*** {{IPA|/ɣo/}} → {{IPA|[ɣo]}} or {{IPA|[ɣʷo]}} or {{IPA|[wo]}}
* Velar stops are also labialized before round vowels. These labialized velars are not as heavily rounded as labial velars (which occur in Bearlake and Hare), e.g.
** {{IPA|/ko/}} → {{IPA|[kʷo]}}
** {{IPA|/kʷo/}} → {{IPA|[k̹ʷwo]}}
* Lateral affricates are generally alveolar, but sometimes velar, i.e.
** {{IPA|/tɬ/}} → {{IPA|[tɬ]}} or {{IPA|[kɬ]}}
** {{IPA|/tɬʰ/}} → {{IPA|[tɬʰ]}} or {{IPA|[kɬʰ]}}
** {{IPA|/tɬʼ/}} → {{IPA|[tɬʼ]}} or {{IPA|[kɬʼ]}}
* {{IPA|/x/}} may be velar or glottal, i.e.
** {{IPA|/x/}} → {{IPA|[x]}} or {{IPA|[h]}}

===Vowels===

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+Oral
!&nbsp;
![[Front vowel|Front]]
![[Central vowel|Central]]
![[Back vowel|Back]]
|- class="nounderlines"
![[Close vowel|Close]]
|{{IPA link|i}}
|
|{{IPA link|u}}
|- class="nounderlines"
![[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]
|{{IPA link|e}} ⟨ə⟩
|
|{{IPA link|o}}
|- class="nounderlines"
![[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]
|{{IPA link|ɛ}}
|
|
|- class="nounderlines"
![[Open vowel|Open]]
|
|{{IPA link|ä|a}}
|
|}
* a {{IPA|[a]}}
* e {{IPA|[ɛ]}} or {{IPA|[æ]}} when followed by a back vowel
* ə {{IPA|[e]}} or {{IPA|[ie]}}
* i {{IPA|[i]}} or {{IPA|[ɪ]}} in syllable onset
* o {{IPA|[o]}}
* u {{IPA|[u]}}
* nasal vowels are marked with an ogonek accent, e.g. {{angle bracket|ą}} {{IPA|[ã]}}
*Vowel length is distributed as /VV/ in the dialects of Bearlake, Slavey and Mountain.
* South Slavey does not have the {{angle bracket|ə}} vowel.

=== Tone ===

Slavey has two tones:

* high
* low

In Slavey orthography, high tone is marked with an acute accent, and low tone is unmarked.

Tones are both lexical and grammatical.

Lexical: {{IPA|/ɡáh/}} 'along' vs. {{IPA|/ɡàh/}} 'rabbit'

===Syllable structure===
Slavey morphemes have underlying syllable structures in the stems: CV, CVC, CVnC, V, and VC. The prefixes of the stem occur as Cv, CVC, VC, CV, and C.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Stem structure !! Example !! English gloss
|-
| CV || tu || "water"
|-
| CVC || ʔah || "snowshoe"
|-
| CVnC || mį́h || "net"
|-
| V || -e || Postposition
|-
| VC || -éh || "with"
|} <ref name=Rice/>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Prefix structure !! Example !! English gloss
|-
| CV || de- || inceptive
|-
| CVC || teh- || "into water"
|-
| V || í- || seriative
|-
| VC || ah- || second-person singular subject
|-
| C || h- || classifier (voice element)
|}<ref name=Rice/>

==Writing system==
Slavey alphabet (1973)<ref>{{cite web |title=Slavey alphabet |url=https://www.sil.org/resources/archives/16133 |website=SIL International |language=en |date=15 September 2022}}</ref>
{|
| a || c || chʼ || d || ddh
| dh || dl || dz || e || g
|-
| {{IPA|/a/}} || {{IPA|/tʃʰ/}} || {{IPA|/tʃʼ/}} || {{IPA|/t/}} || {{IPA|/t̪θ/}}
| {{IPA|/ð/}} || {{IPA|/tɬ/}} || {{IPA|/ts/}} || {{IPA|/e/}} || {{IPA|/k/}}
|-
| gh || h || i || j || k
| kʼ || l || ł || m || mb
|-
| {{IPA|/ɣ/}} || {{IPA|/h/}} || {{IPA|/i/}} || {{IPA|/tʃ/}} || {{IPA|/kʰ/}}
| {{IPA|/kʼ/}} || {{IPA|/l/}} || {{IPA|/ɬ/}} || {{IPA|/m/}} || {{IPA|/ᵐb/}}
|-
| n || nd || o || r || s
| sh || t || th || tł || tłʼ
|-
| {{IPA|/n/}} || {{IPA|/ⁿd/}} || {{IPA|/o/}} || {{IPA|/ɾ/}} || {{IPA|/s/}}
| {{IPA|/ʃ/}} || {{IPA|/tʰ/}} || {{IPA|/θ/}} || {{IPA|/tɬʰ/}} || {{IPA|/tɬʼ/}}
|-
| ts || tsʼ || tth || tthʼ || tʼ
| u || w || y || z || zh
| ʔ
|-
| {{IPA|/tsʰ/}} || {{IPA|/tsʼ/}} || {{IPA|/t̪θʰ/}} || {{IPA|/t̪θʼ/}} || {{IPA|/tʼ/}}
| {{IPA|/u/}} || {{IPA|/w/}} || {{IPA|/j/}} || {{IPA|/z/}} || {{IPA|/ʒ/}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ/}}
|}
Tone is indicated with an acute accent and the [[ogonek]] indicates nasalization.

North Slavey alphabet
{{hlist|indent=1|style=font-size:110%
| ʔ | a | b | ch | chʼ
| d | dl | dz | e | ǝ
| f | g | gh | gw | h
| ı | j | k | kw | kʼ
| kwʼ | l | ł
| m | n
| o | p | pʼ | r | s
| sh | t | tʼ | tł | tłʼ
| ts | tsʼ | u | v | w
| wh | wʼ | x | y | z
| zh
}}

South Slavey alphabet
{{hlist|indent=1|style=font-size:110%
| ʔ | a | b | ch | chʼ
| d | dh | ddh | dl | dz
| e | f | g | gh | h
| ı | j | k | kʼ | l
| ł | m | mb | n
| nd
| o | p | pʼ | r | s
| sh | t | tʼ | th | tth
| tthʼ | tł | tłʼ | ts | tsʼ
| u | v | w | x | y
| z | zh
}}

==Morphology==
Slavey, like many Athabascan languages, has a very specific morpheme order in the verb in which the stem must come last. The morpheme order is shown in the following chart.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Position !! Description
|-
| Position 000 || Adverb
|-
| Position 00 || Object of incorporated postposition
|-
| Position 0 || Incorporated postposition
|-
| Position 1 || Adverbial
|-
| Position 2 || Distributive (yá-)
|-
| Position 3 || Customary (na-)
|-
| Position 4 || Incorporated stem
|-
| Position 5 || Number
|-
| Position 6 || Direct Object
|-
| Position 7 || Deictic
|-
| Position 8 || Theme/derivation
|-
| Position 9 || Aspect/derivation
|-
| Position 10 || Conjugation
|-
| Position 11 || Mode
|-
| Position 12 || Subject
|-
| Position 13 || Classifier
|-
| Position 14 || Stem
|}<ref name=Rice>{{cite book|last=Rice|first=Keren|title=A Grammar of Slave|date=1989|publisher=Walter de Gruyter & Co|location=Berlin|isbn=3110107791}}</ref>

A Slavey verb must minimally have positions 13 and 14 to be proper. Here are some examples:<ref name="Rice" />

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="7" |xayadedhtí
|-
|Morphemes
|'''xa'''
|'''ya'''
|'''de'''
|'''d'''
|'''h'''
|'''tí'''
|-
|Position
|1
|1
|9
|13
|13
|14
|-
|Translation
| colspan="6" |'S/he prayed'
|}
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="4" |godee
|-
|Morphemes
|'''go'''
|'''∅'''
|'''deeh'''
|-
|Position
|6
|13
|14
|-
|Translation
| colspan="3" |'S/he talks'
|}
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="5" |dagodee
|-
|Morphemes
|'''da'''
|'''go'''
|'''∅'''
|'''dee'''
|-
|Position
|4
|6
|13
|14
|-
|Translation
| colspan="4" |'S/he stutters' 
|}

==Person, number and gender==

===Gender===
Slavey marks gender by means of prefixation on the verb theme. There are three different genders, one of which is unmarked; the other two are marked by prefixes '''[go-]''' and '''[de-]'''. However, only certain verb themes allow gender prefixes.<ref name=Rice/>

'''[go-]''' is used for nouns which mark location in either time or space. Some examples of these areal nouns are house (kǫ́é), land (déh), river (deh), and winter (xay).<ref name="Rice" /> The gender pronoun can be a direct object, an oblique object or a possessor.<ref name="Rice" />

{{interlinear|number=ex:
|kų́é '''go'''detl’éh
|house 3SG.paints.area
|'S/he is painting the house.'}}

{{interlinear|number=ex:
|kǫ́é '''go'''cha
|house {area.in shelter}
|'in the shelter of the house'}}

{{interlinear|number=ex:
|kǫ́é '''go'''deshįtée
|house area.floor
|'floor of the house'}}

'''[de-]''' marks wood, leaves and branches. This gender is optional: some speakers use it and others do not.<ref name=Rice/>

{{interlinear|number=ex:
|tse '''dé'''la
|wood {}
|'wood is located'}}

{{interlinear|number=ex:
|ʔǫ́k’ay t’oge '''dé'''ʔo̜
|bird nest {wooden O is located}
|'A bird’s nest is located'}}

{{interlinear|number=ex:
|tse ts’e'''de'''hdlá
|wood 3SG.split.wood
|'S/he is splitting wood.'}}

===Number===
Slavey marks number in the subject prefixes in position 12. The dual is marked by the prefix łéh- (Sl)/łe- (Bl)/le- (Hr).

:''ni̒łe̒gehtthe''
:'They two got stuck in a narrow passage.'


The plural is marked with the prefix '''go-'''.

:''Dah'''go'''gehthe''
:'They dance.'

:''ʔeha̒'''go'''ni̒dhe''
:'We go for meat.'

===Person===
Slavey has first, second, third, and fourth person. When in position 12, acting as a subject, first-person singular is /h-/, second-person singular is /ne-/, first-person dual/plural is /i̒d-/, and second person plural is marked by /ah-/. Third person is not marked in this position. When occurring as a direct or indirect object, the pronoun prefixes change and fourth person becomes relevant.

* First-person singular takes se-.
* Second-person singular takes ne-
* Third person is marked by be-/me-
* Fourth person is marked by ye-<ref name=Rice/>

==Classification==
Like most Athabaskan languages, Slavey has a multitude of classifications. There  are five basic categories that describe the nature of an object. Some of these categories are broken up further.<ref name="Rice"/>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Class !! Description !! Locative prefix !! Active Prefix !! Examples
|-
| 1a || One dimensional slender, rigid and elongated objects || Ø-to || ∅-tį́,-tǫ, -tǫ́ || gun, canoe, pencil
|-
| 1b || One directions flexible objects, ropelike; plurals || ∅-ɫa || ∅-ɫee, -ɫa, -ɫee || thread, snowshoes, rope
|-
| 2a || two dimensional flexible || h-chú || h-chuh, -chú, -chu  || open blanket, open tent, paper
|-
| 2b || Two dimensional rigid objects || N/A || N/A || no specific lexical item
|-
| 3 || Solid roundish objects; chunky objects || ∅-ʔǫ || ∅-ʔáh, -ʔǫ, -ʔá || ball, rock, stove, loaf of bread
|-
| 4a || Small containerful || ∅-kǫ || ∅-káh, -kǫ, -kah || pot of coffee, puppies in a basket, cup of tea
|-
| 4b || Large containerful || h-tǫ || h-tį́h, -tǫ, tǫ́ || full gas tank, bucket of water, bag of flour
|-
| 5 || Animate || ∅-tí͔ || ∅-téh, -tį́, -té, h-téh, -tį || Any living thing
|}

{{interlinear|number=ex:
|tewhehchú
|water.CL
|'A clothlike object is in the water'<ref name="Rice"/>}}

==Tense and aspect==

===Tense===

Slavey has only one structural tense: future. Other tenses can be indicated periphrastically.<ref name=Rice/>

An immediate future can be formed by the ''de-'' inceptive (position 9) plus ''y-.''

{{interlinear|number=ex:
|dałe
|{3.FUT.start out}
|'S/he is just ready to go.'}}

{{interlinear|number=ex:
|nadedajéh
|{3.FUT.start to heal}
|'It is just starting to heal.'}}

===Aspect===
Slavey has two semantic aspects: perfective and imperfective.

The perfective is represented in position 11:

{{interlinear|number=ex:
|déhtla
|{3SG.PFV.start off}
|'S/he started off.'}}

{{interlinear|number=ex:
|whá goyįdee
|long 3SG.PFV.talk
|'S/he talked for a long time.'}}

The perfective can also be used with a past tense marker to indicate that at the point of reference, which is sometime in the past, the event was completed<ref name=Rice/>

{{interlinear|number=ex:
|kǫ́é góhtsį yįlé
|house {3SG.PFV.build area} PAST
|'He had built a house.'}}

The imperfective indicates that the reference time precedes the end of the event time:

{{interlinear|number=ex:
|hejį
|3.IPFV.sing 
|'S/he sings, s/he is singing.'}}

{{interlinear|number=ex:
|kǫ́é gohtsį begháyeyidá
|house {3.IPFV.build area} 1SG.PFV.see.3
|'I saw him building a house.'}}

==Word order==
Slavey is a verb-final language. The basic word order is SOV.<ref name=Rice/>

{{interlinear|number=ex:
|dene ʔelá thehtsį
|man boat 3SG.made
|'The man made the boat.'}}

{{interlinear|number=ex:
|tlį ts’ǫ́dani káyįk’á
|dog child 3SG.bit
|'The dog bit the child.'}}

Oblique objects precede the direct object.<ref name="Rice" />

{{interlinear|number=ex:
|t’eere denǫ  gha ʔerákeeʔee wihsį
|girl mother for parka 3SG.made
|'The girl made a parka for her mother.'}}

==Case==
Slavey has no case markings. To differentiate between subject, direct object, and oblique objects, word order is used. The subject will be the first noun phrase, and the direct object will occur right before the verb. The oblique objects are controlled by postpositions.<ref name=Rice/>

==Possessives==
<ref name=Rice/>

Possessive pronoun prefixes are found in Slavey. These pronouns have the same forms as the direct and oblique object pronouns. The prefixes are listed below with examples.

===''se-'' first-person singular===

:''bá'' 'mitts'
:''sebáré'' 'my mitts'

:''mbeh'' 'knife'
:''sembehé'' 'my knife'

===''ne-'' second-person singular===

:''ts'ah'' 'hat'
:''net'saré'' 'your (SG) hat'

:''tl'uh'' 'rope'
:''netl'ulé'' 'your (SG) rope'

===''be-/me-'' third-person singular===
{{interlinear|number=ex:
|melįé nátla
|3.POSS.dog 3SG.is.fast
|'His/her dog is fast.'}}

{{interlinear|number=ex:
|bekée whihtsį
|3SG.POSS.slippers 1SG.made
|'I made his/her slippers.'}}

===''ye-'' fourth person===
{{interlinear|number = ex:
|yekée whehtsį
|{{gcl|4|fourth person}}.POSS.slippers 3SG.made
|'S/he made his/her slippers.'}}

===''ʔe-'' unspecified possessor===

:''ʔelįé'' 'someone's dog'

===''naxe-/raxe-'' first-person plural, second-person plural.===

:''ts'éré'' 'blanket'
:''naxets'éré'' 'our blanket, your (PL) blanket'

===''ku-/ki-/go-'' third-person plural===
{{interlinear|number=ex:
|kulí̜é rała
|3PL.POSS.dog  3SG.is.fast
|'Their dog is fast.'}}

{{interlinear|number=ex:
|goyúé k'enáʔeniihtse
|3PL.POSS.clothes 1SG.washed
|'I washed their clothes.'}}

==Clauses==

===Conjunctions===

There are both coordinating and subordinating conjunctions in Slavey.

====Coordinating====

=====''gots'éh'' "and, and then"=====
{{interlinear|number=ex:
|tse tádiihtthį gots'ę goyíi naehddhí
|wood 1SG.cut and area.in 1SG.warmed
|'I cut some wood and then I warmed myself up inside.'}}

{{interlinear|number=ex:
|dene ʔéhdá jíye kanįwę gots'ę ʔéhdá daʔuʔa
|people some berry 3SG.picks and some 3.OPT.fish
|'Some people will pick berries and some will fish.'}}

=====''kúlú, kólí, kúú, kóó, ékóó, góa'' "but"=====
{{interlinear|number=ex:
|ʔekǫ́ náohtlah nehthę góa nehji 
|there 1SG.opt.go 1SG.want but 1SG.be.afraid
|'I want to go there but I'm afraid.'}}

{{interlinear|number=ex:
|sine ts'ǫ́dane gogháiidá kúlú dedine gołį ʔajá 
|1SG child 1SG.saw.3PL but 3SG instead 3.became
|"I was supposed to watch the children, but he did it instead."}}

====Subordinating conjunctions====

=====''ʔenįdé, nįdé, ndé, néh'' "if, when, whenever"=====
{{interlinear|number=ex:
|ʔįts'é gehk'é nįdé segha máhsi
|moose 3PL.shoot if 1SG.for thanks
|'If they shoot a moose, I'll be grateful.'}}

{{interlinear|number=ex:
|Dora bekwí ohts'í nįwę nįdé yehts'í
|Dora 3.head 1SG.OPT.comb 3SG.wants if 3SG.combs.{{gcl|4|fourth person}}
|'Whenever Dora wants to comb my hair, she combs it.'}}

=====''-were'' "before"=====
{{interlinear|number=ex:
|shuruhté were selejée daderéʔǫ ʔagúlá
|{1SG.OPT.go to sleep} before woodbox 3.is.full 1SG.made.area
|'Before I went to bed, I filled to woodbox.'}}

=====''-ts'ę'' "since, from"=====
{{interlinear|number=ex:
|segǫ́łį gots'ę jǫ deneilé
|1SG.was.born area.from here 1SG.lived
|'I lived here since I was born.'}}

=====-''hé'' "because, so"=====
{{interlinear|number=ex:
|se wehse yihé godihk'ǫ yíle
|wood 3.is.wet because 1SG.make.fire NEG
|'Because the wood is wet, I can't make fire.'}}

<ref name=Rice/>

===Relative clauses===

There are three important parts to a relative clause. There is the head, which is the noun that is modified or delimited. The second part is the restricting sentence. The sentence modifies the head noun. The last part is the complementizer.<ref name=Rice/>

{{interlinear|number=ex:
|ʔeyi [dene] goyidee i hįshá
|the [man] 1SG.talked COMP 3SG.is.tall
|'The man whom I talked to is tall.'}}

{{interlinear|number=ex:
|lį gah hedéhfe i gháyeyidá
|dog rabbit 3SG.chased COMP 1SG.saw
|'I saw the dog that chased the rabbit.'}}

==In popular culture==
Slavey was the native language spoken by the fictional band in the Canadian television series ''[[North of 60]]''. [[Nick Sibbeston]], a former [[Premier of the Northwest Territories]], was a Slavey language and culture consultant for the show.

==See also==
* [[Broken Slavey]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}

* Howard, Philip G. 1990. ''A Dictionary of the Verbs of South Slavey''. Yellowknife: Dept. of Culture and Communications, Govt. of the Northwest Territories,  {{ISBN|0-7708-3868-5}}
* Isaiah, Stanley, et al. 1974. ''Golqah Gondie = Animal Stories - in Slavey''. Yellowknife: Programme Development Division, Government of the Northwest Territories, .
* Mithun, Marianne. 1999. ''The Languages of Native North America''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-23228-7}} (hbk); {{ISBN|0-521-29875-X}}.
* Monus, Vic, and Isaiah, Stanley. 1977. ''Slavey Topical Dictionary: A Topical List of Words and Phrases Reflecting the Dialect of the Slavey Language Spoken in the Fort Simpson Area''. [Yellowknife: Government of the Northwest Territories, Canada?].
* Northwest Territories. 1993. ''South Slavey Legal Terminology''. [Yellowknife, N.W.T.]: Dept. of Justice, Govt. of the Northwest Territories.
* Northwest Territories. 1981. ''Alphabet Posters in the Wrigley Dialect of the Slavey Language''. [Yellowknife?]: Dept. of Education, Programs and Evaluation Branch.
* Tatti, Fibbie, and Howard, Philip G.. 1978. ''A Slavey Language Pre-Primer in the Speech of Fort Franklin''. [Yellowknife]: Linguistic Programmes Division, Dept. of Education, Northwest Territories.
* Anand, Pranav and Nevins, Andrew. ''Shifty Operators in Changing Contexts''. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. https://web.archive.org/web/20050517022822/http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~lingdept/IndexicalityWorkshop/anandnevins04.pdf
* Rice, Keren. 1989. ''A Grammar of Slave''. Mouton Grammar Library (No. 5). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. {{ISBN|3-11-010779-1}}.
* Sabourin, Margaret. 1975. ''Readers: Slavey Language''. Yellowknife: Dept. of Education, Programme Development Division.

{{incubator|den|wiktionary}}
{{refend}}

{{Athabaskan languages}}
{{First Nations in Alberta}}
{{Languages of Canada}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Northern Athabaskan languages]]
[[Category:First Nations languages in Canada]]
[[Category:First Nations in the Northwest Territories]]
[[Category:Indigenous languages of the North American Subarctic]]