Editing Smooth newt

{{Short description|Species of amphibian}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2024}}
{{Use British English|date=August 2016}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = Smooth newt
| image = Triturus_vulgaris_maennchen_cropped.jpg
| image_caption = Male during land phase
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = {{r|iucn}}
| genus = Lissotriton
| species = vulgaris
| authority = ([[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758)
| subdivision_ranks = Subspecies
| subdivision_ref = {{r|PabijanZielinski2017}}
| subdivision = 
*''L. vulgaris ampelensis'' {{small|([[Ion Eduard Fuhn|Fuhn]], 1951)}}
*''L. vulgaris meridionalis'' {{small|([[George Albert Boulenger|Boulenger]], 1882)}}
*''L. vulgaris vulgaris'' {{small|(Linnaeus, 1758)}}
| range_map = Lissotriton_vulgaris_distribution.svg
| synonyms =
48,{{r|Frost2020}} including:
*''Lacerta vulgaris'' {{small|Linnaeus, 1758}}
*''Salamandra exigua'' {{small|[[Josephus Nicolaus Laurenti|Laurenti]], 1768}}
*''Triton palustris'' {{small|Laurenti, 1768}}
*''Molge punctata'' {{small|[[Blasius Merrem|Merrem]], 1820}}
*''Triturus vulgaris'' {{small|[[Emmett Reid Dunn|Dunn]], 1918}}
}}

The '''smooth newt''', '''European newt''', '''northern smooth newt''' or '''common newt''' ('''''Lissotriton vulgaris''''') is a species of [[newt]]. It is widespread in [[Europe]] and parts of [[Asia]], and has been [[introduced species|introduced]] into [[Australia]]. Individuals are brown with a spotted underside that ranges in colour from orange to white. They reach an average length of {{cvt|8–11|cm|in|abbr=on}}; males are larger than females. The newts' skins are dry and velvety when they are living on land, but become smooth when they [[migration (ecology)|migrate]] into the water to breed. Males develop a more vivid colour pattern and a conspicuous skin seam (crest) on their back when breeding.

The smooth newt was originally described by [[Carl Linnaeus]] as a [[lizard]], and was then given different [[genus (biology)|genus]] names before the adoption of its current classification as a member of ''[[Lissotriton]]''. There are currently three accepted [[subspecies]] of smooth newt. Formerly, there were also four subspecies—all with more restricted ranges—that are now classified as separate species, because they have been found to be distinct genetically as well as in appearance: the [[Caucasian smooth newt]], the [[Greek smooth newt]], [[Kosswig's smooth newt]] and [[Schmidtler's smooth newt]]. Together with these four species and the [[Carpathian newt]], the smooth newt forms what is known as a [[species complex]]: some of the species [[hybrid (biology)|hybridise]] with each other.

For most of the year, smooth newts live on land, are mostly [[nocturnal]], and hide during the day. They can adapt to a wide range of natural or semi-natural [[habitat]]s, from forests at field edges to parks and gardens. They feed mainly on [[invertebrate]]s such as insects and earthworms and are themselves eaten mainly by fish, birds and snakes. Between spring and summer, they breed in [[pond]]s or similar bodies of water. Males court females with a ritualised underwater [[courtship display|display]]. Females lay their eggs on water plants, and larvae hatch after 10 to 20 days. The larvae develop for around three months before [[metamorphosis|metamorphosing]] into terrestrial juveniles, at which point they become known as [[eft]]s. They reach maturity after two to three years, and the adults live for up to 14 years.

The smooth newt is abundant over much of its range and is classified as a species of [[least concern]] by the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN). It has been negatively affected by habitat [[habitat destruction|destruction]] and [[habitat fragmentation|fragmentation]] and by the introduction of new species of fish. Like other European amphibians, the smooth newt has now been listed as a protected species by the [[Berne Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats|Berne Convention]].

==Taxonomy==

Swedish naturalist [[Carl Linnaeus]] described the smooth newt in 1758 as ''Lacerta vulgaris'', placing it in the same genus as the [[Lacerta (genus)|green lizards]].{{r|Linnaeus1767|p=370}} It was later re-described under several different species and [[genus (biology)|genus]] names, including ''[[Triton (newt genus)|Triton]]'', ''[[Molge]]'', ''[[Salamandra]]'' and ''[[Lissotriton]]'', with in total 48 species [[synonym (zoology)|synonyms]] published.{{r|Frost2020}} Most recently, it was included in the genus ''[[Triturus]]'', along with most European [[newt]]s.{{r|Sparreboom2014|p=221}} This genus was found to be [[polyphyletic]], containing several unrelated [[lineage (evolution)|lineages]],{{r|TitusLarson1995|WeisrockPapenfuss2006|SteinfartzVicario2007}} and the small-bodied newts, including the smooth newt, were therefore split off as separate genus in 2004 by García-París and colleagues.{{r|Garcia-Paris2004|p=233}} They used the name ''Lissotriton'', introduced by the English zoologist [[Thomas Bell (zoologist)|Thomas Bell]] in 1839 with the smooth newt as [[type species]]{{r|Bell1839|p=132}} but then considered a synonym of ''Triturus''.{{r|Frost2020}} "Lissotriton" is a combination of the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] {{lang|grc|[[wiktionary:λισσός|λισσός]]}} ({{transliteration|grc|lissós}}), meaning "smooth", and the name of [[Triton (mythology)|Triton]], an ancient Greek god of the sea, while the [[Specific name (zoology)|species epithet]] {{lang|la|[[wiktionary:vulgaris|vulgaris]]}} means "common" in [[Latin]].{{r|Grosse2011|p=17}}

Three [[subspecies]] are accepted by Pabijan, Wielstra and colleagues: ''L.&nbsp;v. vulgaris'', ''L.&nbsp;v. ampelensis'' and ''L.&nbsp;v. meridionalis''.{{r|PabijanZielinski2017|WielstraCanestrelli2018}} These authors, followed by ''Amphibian Species of the World'',{{r|Frost2020}} recognise four former subspecies from southern Europe and west Asia as separate species, as they are [[morphology (biology)|morphologically]] and genetically distinct: the [[Greek smooth newt]] (''L.&nbsp;graecus''), [[Kosswig's smooth newt]] (''L.&nbsp;kosswigi''), the [[Caucasian smooth newt]] (''L.&nbsp;lantzi'') and [[Schmidtler's smooth newt]] (''L.&nbsp;schmidtleri''). The five smooth newt species and the [[Carpathian newt]] (''L.&nbsp;montadoni''), which is their [[sister species]], have collectively been referred to as the "smooth newt [[species complex]]".{{r|WielstraCanestrelli2018}}

To distinguish the smooth newt from its close relatives, the English name "northern smooth newt" has been suggested.{{r|WielstraCanestrelli2018}} Other common names that have been used in the literature include: common newt, great water-newt, common water-newt, warty eft, water eft, common smooth newt, small newt, small eft, small evet, and brown eft.{{r|Frost2020}}

==Evolution==

[[Molecular phylogenetic]] analyses have shown that the smooth newt is distinct from its four close relatives''&nbsp;''– the Caucasian, Greek, Kosswig's, and Schmidtler's smooth newt – which were formerly considered subspecies (see section ''Taxonomy'' above). The relationships within this species complex have not been fully resolved. Within the smooth newt itself, genetic groups do not completely match the currently accepted subspecies (''ampelensis'', ''meridionalis'', ''vulgaris''), described based on morphology.{{r|PabijanZielinski2017}} The five smooth newt species collectively were estimated to have [[Genetic divergence|diverged]] from the Carpathian newt around four to six million years ago.{{r|ZielińskiNadachowska-Brzyska2016|PabijanZieliński2015}}

Genetic analyses have also demonstrated ongoing [[gene flow]] between the smooth newt and its relatives. Although the Carpathian newt is morphologically clearly different, [[hybridisation (biology)|hybridisation]] between the two species is frequent;{{r|Grosse2011|p=26}} it has been shown that smooth newt [[mitochondrial DNA]] has [[introgression|introgressed]] into and completely replaced that of the Carpathian newt populations.{{r|BabikBranicki2005}} Partial introgression also occurred from the smooth newt to the Greek smooth newt.{{r|PabijanZielinski2017}} These patterns are likely due to the range expansion and [[secondary contact]] of species after the [[Last Glacial Maximum]], which they likely survived in [[refugium (population biology)|refugia]] mainly in southern and eastern Europe.{{r|BabikBranicki2005|PabijanZieliński2015|SkorinovLitvinchuk2016}} The [[palmate newt]] (''Lissotriton helveticus''), although often occurring in the same habitats, almost never hybridises with the smooth newt.{{r|Grosse2011|p=25}} Artificial crosses with even more distant species such as the [[alpine newt|alpine]] (''Ichthyosaura alpestris'') and [[northern crested newt|northern crested]] (''Triturus cristatus'') newts were successful in laboratory experiments.{{r|Grosse2011|p=29}}

==Description==

[[File:Schiermonnikoog - Kleine watersalamander (Lissotriton vulgaris) cropped.jpg |thumb|right |alt=Newt held between fingers, exposing its orange–white, black-spotted underside |Throat and belly are spotted. The spots are larger in males (pictured) than in females.]]
[[File:Teichmolch maennchen web.jpg |thumb|right |alt=Swimming male newt, with well developed crest and bright colours |During breeding season, males develop vivid colours and a crest.]]
[[File:Schwanheim_fg17.JPG|thumb|right|alt=Detail of male newt showing swollen, dark-coloured cloaca | The [[cloaca]] is swollen in breeding males.]]
[[File:Triturus vulgaris.jpg |thumb|right |alt=Female newt under water, sitting on leaf | Breeding females are drab in colour and have no dorsal crest.]]

===General characteristics===

Adult males of the smooth newt reach around {{cvt|9–11|cm|in|abbr=on}} head-to-tail length and are thus slightly larger than the females, which reach {{cvt|8–9.5|cm|in|abbr=on}}. The body weight of adults varies between {{cvt|0.3|-|5.2|g}}, and decreases during the breeding season. The head is longer than it is wide, with 2–3 longitudinal grooves on the top, and the elongated snout is blunt in the male and rounded in the female. The skin is velvety and water-repellent on land but smooth during the aquatic phase; it contains [[mucus]] and [[toxin]] glands and its upper layer is [[moulting|shed off]] regularly.{{r|1=Grosse2011|p1=80–93|2=Sparreboom2014|p2=233–234}}

Outside the breeding season, both sexes are yellow-brown, brown or olive-brown. The male has dark, round spots, while the female has smaller spots of the same colour, which sometimes form two or more irregular lines along the back. The male has an orange strip on the tail underside, and the throat and belly in males are orange to white with small dark, rounded spots (these are lighter with smaller spots in the female). Size and colour vary with the environment, and the newts tend to be smaller in northern latitudes.{{r|1=Grosse2011|p1=80–93|2=Sparreboom2014|p2=233–234}} [[Albinistic]] and [[leucistic]] individuals have been described.{{r|Grosse2011|p=94|Modesti2011}}

The smooth newt is [[diploid]] (i.e. it has two copies of each [[chromosome]]), with 24 chromosomes in total.{{r|Grosse2011|p=107}}

===Breeding characteristics===

During the aquatic breeding season, males develop a skin seam or crest, which runs uninterrupted along the back and the tail. It is {{cvt|1|–|1.5|mm}} high at mid-body, but higher along the tail. The tail also has a lower fin, and its end is pointed. The [[cloaca]] (the single digestive, urinary and reproductive orifice) of breeding males is swollen, round and dark-coloured. The hindfeet have more or less developed toe flaps, depending on the subspecies. Colours in general are more vivid than during the land phase. The dark spots grow larger, and the crest often has vertical dark and bright bands. There are five to seven longitudinal stripes on the head. The lower edge of the tail is red with a silver-blue flash and black spots. Females only develop low, straight tail fins but no crest or toe flaps, and are more drably coloured.{{r|1=Beebee2000|p1=26|2=Sparreboom2014|p2=233–234}}

Subspecies differ slightly in male [[Secondary sex characteristic|secondary characteristics]]: ''L.&nbsp;v. ampelensis'' has strongly developed toe flaps, its tail tapers into a fine thread (but not a distinct filament), and the body is slightly square in cross-section. ''L.&nbsp;v. meridionalis'' also has toe flaps and a pointed tail, its crest is smooth-edged, and its body is square-shaped. In the nominate subspecies, ''L.&nbsp;v. vulgaris'', the crest is clearly [[Wiktionary:denticulated|denticulated]], toe flaps are only weakly developed and the body is round.{{r|Sparreboom2014|p=234–236}}

===Larvae===

The aquatic [[larvae]] are {{cvt|6.5|–|7|mm}} long and yellow-brown with two longitudinal stripes at hatching. They initially have, in addition to their [[gills]], only two balancers at the sides of the head, short appendages for attaching to plants which get [[wiktionary:resorb|resorbed]] within a few days.{{r|Sparreboom2014|p=237}} As in all salamanders, forelegs develop before the hindlegs. The colour becomes a more cryptic, darkly marbled yellow to brown in the growing larvae. Larvae are very slender and similar to the palmate newt. They develop a skin seam from the neck to the pointed tail; the tail is as long as the head and trunk. The larvae grow to {{cvt|3–4.5|cm|in|abbr=on}}, which is also the size of the [[eft]]s (terrestrial juveniles) just after [[metamorphosis]].{{r|Grosse2011|p=188–192}}

===Similar species===

The smooth newt resembles the other, less widespread ''[[Lissotriton]]'' species. It can be confused especially with the closely related "smooth newt complex" species (marked with * in the table below) and the more distant palmate newt, which often occurs in the same area.{{r|1=WielstraCanestrelli2018|2=Grosse2011|p2=25}} Females are especially difficult to tell apart, as distinguishing features are mainly observed in the males at breeding season.{{r|1=Grosse2011|p1=19–41|2=Sparreboom2014|p2=225–235}}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ style="font-size: 85%" | Comparison of the smooth newt and related ''Lissotriton'' species{{r|1=Grosse2011|p1=19–41|2=Sparreboom2014|p2=225–235}}

|- style="font-size: 85%" |
! style="background: rgb(235,235,210)" rowspan=2 | Species !! style="background: rgb(235,235,210)" rowspan=2 | Distribution !! style="background: rgb(235,235,210)" colspan=4 | Breeding male characteristics !! style="background: rgb(235,235,210)" rowspan=2 | Other

|- style="font-size: 85%" |
! style="background: rgb(235,235,210)" | Body shape !! style="background: rgb(235,235,210)" | Dorsal crest !! style="background: rgb(235,235,210)" | Toe flaps (hind feet) !! style="background: rgb(235,235,210)" | Tail end

|- style="font-size: 85%"|
| '''Smooth newt*'''{{pb}}'''''L. vulgaris''''' || widespread from [[British Isles]] to [[Central Asia]] || round to square (depending on subspecies) || smooth or denticulated (depending on subspecies) || weakly to well developed (depending on subspecies) || pointed to elongated, no filament ||

|- style="font-size: 85%" |
| [[Bosca's newt]]{{pb}}''L. boscai'' || West [[Iberian Peninsula]] || slightly square || none || none || short filament || belly with some dark spots, especially at sides

|- style="font-size: 85%" |
| [[Carpathian newt]]*{{pb}}''L. montandoni'' || [[Carpathians]] || square || very low, smooth-edged || weakly developed || blunt, with filament || belly unspotted

|- style="font-size: 85%" |
| [[Caucasian smooth newt]]*{{pb}}''L. lantzi'' || [[Caucasus]] || slightly square || high (less than {{cvt|1|mm}} at mid-body), denticulated (almost spine-shaped) || moderately developed || pointed, but no filament ||

|- style="font-size: 85%" |
| [[Greek smooth newt]]*{{pb}}''L. graecus'' || Southern [[Balkans]] || square || low (less than {{cvt|1|mm}} at mid-body), smooth-edged || well developed || long filament || lower tail fin unspotted

|- style="font-size: 85%" |
| [[Italian newt]]{{pb}}''L. italicus'' || Southern Italy || slightly square || none || none || pointed, no filament || very small, {{cvt|4.5–7.5|cm|in|abbr=on}}; throat with few or no spots; golden-yellow patch behind eyes in both sexes

|- style="font-size: 85%" |
| [[Kosswig's smooth newt]]*{{pb}}''L. kosswigi'' || Northern [[Anatolia]] || square || low (less than {{cvt|1|mm}} at mid-body) but higher at tail base || strongly developed || long filament ||

|- style="font-size: 85%" |
| [[Palmate newt]]{{pb}}''L. helveticus'' || Western Europe || square || low, smooth-edged || strongly developed || long filament (both sexes) || throat unspotted

|- style="font-size: 85%" |
| [[Schmidtler's smooth newt]]*{{pb}}''L. schmidtleri'' || Anatolia and eastern Balkans || slightly square || high (more than {{cvt|2|mm}} at mid-body), denticulated || weakly developed || elongated, no filament || very small, {{cvt|5–7|cm|in|abbr=on}}

|}

==Distribution==

===Native range===

The smooth newt has been described as "the most ubiquitous and widely distributed newt of the Old World".{{r|Sparreboom2014|p=237}} The nominate subspecies, ''L.&nbsp;v. vulgaris'', is most widespread and ranges natively from [[Ireland]] (where the smooth newt is the only newt species){{r|Grosse2011|p=42}} and [[Great Britain]] in the west to [[Siberia]] and northern Kazakhstan in the east. In the north it reaches central [[Fennoscandia]], and its southern limit is central France, northern Italy, the central [[Balkans]] and the dry [[Eurasian steppe]] of Ukraine and Russia.{{r|1=Kuzmin1999|2=WielstraCanestrelli2018|3=Sparreboom2014|p3=234–238|4=Grosse2011|p4=42–44}} The subspecies ''L.&nbsp;v. ampelensis'' only occurs in the Carpathians of Ukraine and the [[Danube delta]] of northern Romania, and ''L.&nbsp;v. meridionalis'' in the northern half of Italy, southern Switzerland, Slovenia and Croatia.{{r|Sparreboom2014|p=234–235}}

In the [[Carpathians]], the smooth newt generally prefers lower elevations than the Carpathian newt. In the Balkans, the precise contact zones with the Greek smooth newt and Schmidtler's smooth newt are not yet clear.{{r|WielstraCanestrelli2018}} In central Italy, where the range of the smooth newt subspecies ''L.&nbsp;v. meridionalis'' overlaps with that of the [[Italian newt]] (''L.&nbsp;italicus''), it was found that the latter prefers a warmer and drier climate.{{r|IannellaCerasoli2017}}

===Introduced range===

The nominate subspecies, ''L.&nbsp;v. vulgaris'', has been [[introduced species|introduced]] to Australia, which has no native [[salamander]] species. The smooth newt was available in the Australian [[pet trade]] until 1997, when it was declared a "controlled pest animal" because of the risk of introduction. The first record in the wild was made near [[Melbourne]] in 2011, and larvae were later found, indicating successful reproduction. Negative impacts on the native fauna are feared, including predation on and competition with native [[frog]]s and freshwater [[invertebrate]]s, toxicity, and disease spread. The smooth newt could spread further in south-eastern Australia, where wide areas have a suitable climate.{{r|TingleyWeeks2014}}

Within Europe, the subspecies ''L.&nbsp;v. meridionalis'' was introduced north of the [[Alps]] near [[Geneva]], where it hybridises with the native ''L.&nbsp;v. vulgaris''.{{r|DubeyLavanchy2019}}

==Habitat and ecology==

[[File:Fosse Houssen Lissotriton vulgaris.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Sunny, water-filled ditch at the edge of a forest| Sun-exposed, stagnant, shallow water bodies with abundant vegetation but without fish, such as this ditch, are typical breeding sites.]]

Mainly a lowland species, the smooth newt is only exceptionally found above {{convert|1000|m|ft|abbr=on}}.{{r|Grosse2011|p=78–80}} This species shows a wide [[habitat]] breadth, as it's able to thrive in a wide array of terrestrial and aquatic environments. On land, it occurs in wooded areas (dense [[conifer]] woods are avoided) but also in more open areas such as damp meadows, field edges, parks and gardens. It can also tolerate human disturbance and urban environments. The newts hide under structures such as logs or stones or in small mammal burrows.{{r|1=Grosse2011|p=120–134|2=Kuzmin1999|3=Sparreboom2014|p3=238}} Smooth newts may also climb vegetation, although the exact function of this is not currently known.{{r|LynnAllain2022}}

Freshwater breeding sites are typically sun-exposed, free from fish, stagnant, water-filled permanently or for at least three months of the year, close to similar water bodies, and have shallow areas with abundant water plants. They can range from small puddles to larger [[pond]]s or shallow parts of lakes. Water quality is less important; [[pH]] values from 4 (more acidic) to 9.6 (more alkaline) are tolerated and in Germany, smooth newts have even been found in slightly [[brackish]] water.{{r|Grosse2011|p=121–129}} They often share breeding sites with other amphibians, including other newts; in northern France, ponds with five newt species – smooth, palmate, alpine, northern crested and [[marbled newt|marbled]] (''T. marmoratus'') newt – have been described.{{r|Grosse2011|p=151–152}}

==Lifecycle and behaviour==

Smooth newts live on land during most of the year and are mainly [[nocturnal]]. They also usually [[hibernate]] on land, often in congregations of several newts in [[hibernaculum (zoology)|winter shelters]] such as under logs or in burrows (but they can be active during mild weather).{{r|Kaczmarek2018}} The [[eft]]s turn into mature adults at two to three years, and the newts can reach an age of 6–14 years in the wild.{{r|Sparreboom2014|p=238}} The newts recognise familiar territory using smell and visual cues, but could not orient themselves in experiments when they were transported far away from the home range.{{r|SinschKirst2015}}

===Reproduction===

{{external media
| float  = right
| video1 = ''[https://film.britishcouncil.org/resources/film-archive/the-life-cycle-of-the-newt The life cycle of the newt]'', [[British Council]], 1942. Educational film on the smooth newt (10:08 min).
}}
[[File:TriturusVulgarisLarva.JPG|thumb|right|alt=Newt larva with feathery gills in side view|Well-developed larva shortly before [[metamorphosis]]]]
[[File:Smooth_Newt_Juveniles_(Lissotriton_vulgaris)_(8618458053).jpg|thumb|right|alt=Two brown juvenile newts sitting closely together|Two juveniles ([[eft]]s) after the transition to land]]

[[Migration (ecology)|Migration]] to the breeding sites occurs as soon as February, but in the northern parts of the range and at higher altitudes, it may not start before summer. After entering the water, the breeding characters, especially the male's crest, take a few weeks to develop.{{r|Sparreboom2014|p=238}}

Mating involves an intricate [[courtship display]]: the male attempts to attract a female by swimming in front of her and sniffing her cloaca. He then vibrates his tail against his body, sometimes violently lashing it, thereby fanning [[pheromones]] towards her. In the final phase, he moves away from her, the tail quivering. If she is still interested, she will follow him and touch his cloaca with her snout, whereupon he deposits a packet of sperm (a [[spermatophore]]). He then guides her over the spermatophore so she picks it up with her cloaca. Males often try to lead females away from displaying competitors.{{r|Sparreboom2014|p=238–240}}

Eggs are fertilised internally, and progeny of one female usually has multiple fathers. Females tend to mate preferentially with unrelated males, probably to avoid [[inbreeding depression]].{{r|Jehle2007}}

Females lay 100–500 eggs, usually folding them into waterplants. The eggs are {{cvt|1.3|–|1.7|mm}} in diameter ({{cvt|2.7|–|4|mm}} with jelly capsule) and light brown to greenish or grey in colour. Larvae typically hatch after 10–20 days, depending on temperature, and metamorphose into terrestrial efts after around three months.{{r|Sparreboom2014|p=238–240}}

[[Paedomorphism]], where adults stay aquatic and retain their gills and skin seams or only resorb them partially, occurs regularly but only in a small proportion of individuals. It does not appear to be determined genetically but favoured by cold water, a low density of individuals and abundant aquatic prey. Wild paedomorphic individuals often metamorphosed when they were transferred into an [[aquarium]].{{r|Grosse2011|p=192–193}}

===Diet, predators and parasites===

[[File:Ringelnatter, Natrix natrix mit Teichmolch edit.JPG|thumb|right|alt=Close-up view of snake eating a newt|[[Grass snake]] eating a smooth newt]]

Smooth newts, including the larvae, are unselective carnivores, feeding mainly on diverse [[invertebrate]]s such as earthworms, snails, slugs, bivalves, spiders, ticks, mites, springtails or insects and insect larvae, or smaller [[plankton]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://amphibiaweb.org/species/4303 | title=AmphibiaWeb – Lissotriton vulgaris }}</ref> [[Cannibalism]] also occurs, mainly by preying on eggs of its own species. Various predators eat smooth newts, including waterbirds, snakes and frogs, but also larger newts such as the northern crested newt.{{r|Sparreboom2014|p=238}}

Various pathogens and parasites have been found to infect smooth newts, including [[ranavirus]]es,{{r|SaucedoGarner2019}} a [[picornavirus]],{{r|PankovicsBoros2016}} various [[protozoa]]ns,{{r|Grosse2011|p=164}} [[trematodes]]{{r|1=CaffaraBruni2013|2=Grosse2011|p2=164}} (of which ''[[Parastrigea robusta]]'' was found to cause the local decline of a population in Germany){{r|SinschHilgendorf2018}} and at least 31 species of [[helminth]]s.{{r|SinschHeneberg2018}}

==Threats and conservation==

The smooth newt is common over much of its range.{{r|1=iucn|2=Sparreboom2014|p2=237}} The [[IUCN]], in 2008, assessed its threat status as [[Least Concern]] and found no general decline in populations.{{r|iucn}} This assessment included subspecies now recognised as separate species (see section ''Taxonomy'' above) and needs updating.{{r|WielstraCanestrelli2018}} Despite the overall low concern, the smooth newt is listed in some national [[red list]]s, e.g. in Switzerland, the Czech Republic, and the Netherlands.{{r|Grosse2011|p=196}} Like all amphibians, it is also listed as protected species in the [[Berne Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats|Berne Convention]] (Appendix III).{{r|bern-convention}} Disturbance, capture, killing and trade are prohibited in Ireland under the [[Wildlife Act 1976]],{{r|Ireland}} and trade in the UK under the [[Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981]].{{r|UK}}

Threats to smooth newts are similar to those affecting other amphibians. They include especially the loss of breeding ponds through [[habitat destruction|destruction]] or introduction of fish, and the [[habitat fragmentation|fragmentation]] of population through roads.{{r|Grosse2011|p=196–197}} Secondary habitats can help sustain the species, e.g. former [[gravel pit]]s or [[quarries]] left open.{{r|Grosse2011|p=204–205}} The value of artificial water bodies as habitat can be improved when nearby hiding structures like stones or wood are added on land.{{r|MulkeenGibson-Brabazon2017}} Garden ponds are readily colonised if they are sun-exposed, have abundant water plants, no fish, and nearby hiding structures.{{r|Grosse2011|p=206–218}} Artificial hibernation sites ("newt hotels") were readily used in a study in Norway, especially by juveniles.{{r|DervoMuseth2018}}

To [[Mark and recapture|mark and track]] individuals and monitor populations, researchers have often amputated [[phalanges]] of fingers and toes but these re-grow quickly; a safer and less harmful alternative is recording the individual belly patterns through photography.{{r|Grosse2011|p=223–224}} Researchers have also developed genetic methods based on [[microsatellite]] distribution to assess patterns of [[genetic diversity]].{{r|BuonoGalliani2018}}

==Captivity==

Smooth newts can be kept in captivity, but must come from a legal source under the applicable legislation given their protected status (see above). They need a land and water phase, with hibernation for two to three months at {{cvt|5|–|10|C|F}}.{{r|Grosse2011|p=210–215}} The juveniles remain terrestrial and will only return to water at maturity. Individuals have reached ages of 4–8, exceptionally up to 20 years, in captivity.{{r|Sparreboom2014|p=240}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em|refs=

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}}

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[[Category:Lissotriton]]
[[Category:Amphibians described in 1758]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]
[[Category:Amphibians of Europe]]
[[Category:Amphibians of Asia]]
[[Category:Habitats Directive species]]