Editing Song sparrow

{{Short description|Species of bird}}
{{Speciesbox
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 13 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International |date=2016 |title=''Melospiza melodia'' |volume=2016 |page=e.T22721058A94696727 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22721058A94696727.en |access-date=13 November 2021}}</ref>
| image = Song sparrow in Prospect Park (93031).jpg
| image_caption= in [[Brooklyn, New York]], USA
| image2 = Melospiza-melodia-001.ogg
| genus = Melospiza
| species = melodia
| authority = ([[Alexander Wilson (ornithologist)|Wilson]], 1810)
| range_map = Melospiza melodia map.svg
| range_map_caption = Part of the range of ''M. melodia'' {{leftlegend|#ff9955|Breeding range|outline=gray}}{{leftlegend|#aa87de|Year-round range|outline=gray}}{{leftlegend|#87aade|Wintering range|outline=gray}}
| synonyms =
''Melospiza cinerea''
}}

The '''song sparrow''' ('''''Melospiza melodia''''') is a medium-sized [[New World sparrow]]. Among the native sparrows in [[North America]], it is easily one of the most abundant, variable and adaptable species.

==Description==
[[File:SongSparrow-17DEC2016.jpg|alt=Song sparrow|thumb|295x295px|Song sparrow in coastal [[Marin County, California|Marin County]], California]]

Adult song sparrows have brown upperparts with dark streaks on the back and are white underneath with dark streaking and a dark brown spot in the middle of the breast. They have a brown cap and a long brown rounded tail. Their face is gray with a brown streak through each eye. They are highly variable in size across numerous subspecies (for subspecies details, see below). The body length ranges from {{convert|11|to|18|cm|in|abbr=on}} and wingspan can range from {{convert|18|to|25.4|cm|in|abbr=on}}.<ref name="enature"/><ref name="allaboutbirds"/> Body mass ranges from {{convert|11.9|to|53|g|oz|abbr=on}}.<ref name="CRC"/> The average of all races is {{convert|32|g|abbr=on}} but the widespread nominate subspecies (''M. m. melodia'') weighs only about {{convert|22|g|oz|abbr=on}} on average. The maximum lifespan in the wild is 11.3 years.<ref name="avianlong"/> The eggs of the song sparrow are brown with greenish-white spots. Females lay three to five eggs per clutch, with an average incubation time of 13–15 days before hatching.

In the field, they are most easily confused with the [[Lincoln's sparrow]] and the [[Savannah sparrow]]. The former can be recognized by its shorter, grayer tail and the differently-patterned head, the brown cheeks forming a clear-cut angular patch. The Savannah sparrow has a forked tail and yellowish flecks on the face when seen up close.

==Distribution and life history==
Though a habitat generalist, the song sparrow favors brushland and marshes, including salt marshes across most of [[Canada]] and the United States. They also thrive in human dominated areas such as in suburbs, agricultural fields, and along roadsides. Permanent residents of the southern half of their range, northern populations of the song sparrow [[bird migration|migrate]] to the southern United States or [[Mexico]] during winter and intermingle with the native, non-migratory population. The song sparrow is a very rare vagrant to western [[Europe]], with a few recorded in [[Great Britain]] and [[Norway]].

These birds forage on the ground, in shrubs or in very shallow water. They eat mainly insects and seeds. Birds in salt marshes may also eat small [[crustaceans]]. They nest either in a sheltered location on the ground or in trees or shrubs. Song sparrows with areas of shrub cover in their territory, away from the intertidal coastline, have greater over-winter survival, as well as higher reproductive success.<ref name="adultsurvival"/>

== Physiology ==
The song sparrow has been the subject of several studies detailing the physiological reactions of bird species to conditions such as daylight length and differing climatic conditions. Most birds gain mass in their reproductive organs in response to some signal, either internal or external as the breeding season approaches. The exact source of this signal varies from species to species &ndash; for some, it is an endogenous process separate from environmental cues, while other species require extensive external signals of changing daylight length and temperature before beginning to increase the mass of their reproductive organs. Male specimens of ''M. melodia'' gain significant testicular mass in response both to changes in the daily photoperiod and as a result of endogenous chemical signals.<ref name="controlof"/> Females also undergo significant ovarian growth in response to both photo-period and endogenous signals. Hormone levels in both males and females fluctuate throughout the breeding season, having very high levels in March and late April and then declining until May.<ref name="environcontroll"/> These studies suggest that there are multiple factors at work that influence when and how the song sparrow breeds other than just increasing day length.

Due to the myriad subspecies of the song sparrow and the extremely varied climate of southern [[California]], where many of these subspecies make their homes, physiological studies were undertaken to determine how climatic conditions and local environment influenced the bill size of ''M. melodia'' subspecies. The bill of a bird is highly important for thermoregulation as the bare surface area makes a perfect place to radiate excess heat or absorb solar energy to maintain homeostasis.<ref name="environphys"/> Knowing this, comparisons of bill length between individual song sparrows collected in different habitats were made with regard to the primary habitat type or microclimate that they were collected in. Larger beaked subspecies were strongly correlated with hotter microclimates - a correlation that follows from the conditions of [[Allen's rule|Allen's Rule]].<ref name="influence"/>

==Song==
[[File:Melospiza melodia -Battery Park, New Castle, Delaware, USA -singing-8.jpg|thumb|right|A song sparrow singing in [[Delaware]], USA]]
The sparrow species derives its name from its colorful repertoire of songs. Enthusiasts report that one of the songs heard often in suburban locations closely resembles the opening four notes of [[Ludwig van Beethoven]]'s [[Symphony No. 5 (Beethoven)|Symphony No. 5]]. The male uses a fairly complex song to declare ownership of its territory and attract females.

Singing itself consists of a combination of repeated notes, quickly passing isolated notes, and trills. The songs are very crisp, clear, and precise, making them easily distinguishable by human ears. A particular song is determined by not only pitch and rhythm but also the timbre of the trills. Although one bird will know many songs—as many as 20 different tunes with as many as 1000 improvised variations on the basic theme,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nichols |first=John T. |date=1 July 1924 |title=The Song of the Song Sparrow. (A Systematic Study of Its Construction) |journal=The Auk |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=444–451 |doi=10.2307/4074494|jstor=4074494 |doi-access=free }}</ref>—unlike [[thrush (bird)|thrushes]], the song sparrow usually repeats the same song many times before switching to a different song.

Song sparrows typically learn their songs from a handful of other birds that have neighboring territories. They are most likely to learn songs that are shared between these neighbors. Ultimately, they will choose a territory close to or replacing the birds that they have learned from. This allows the song sparrows to address their neighbors with songs shared with those neighbors. It has been demonstrated that song sparrows are able to distinguish neighbors from strangers on the basis of song, and also that females are able to distinguish (and prefer) their mate's songs from those of other neighboring birds, and they prefer songs of neighboring birds to those of strangers.<ref name="mateneighbour"/>

A 2022 study by Duke University also found that male song sparrows memorize a 30-minute long playlist of their songs and use that information to curate both their current playlist and the following one. The findings suggest that male song sparrows deliberately shuffle and repeat their songs possibly to keep a female's attention.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Searcy|first1=William A.|last2=Soha|first2=Jill|last3=Peters|first3=Susan|last4=Nowicki|first4=Stephen|date=2022-01-26|title=Long-distance dependencies in birdsong syntax|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|volume=289|issue=1967|pages=20212473|doi=10.1098/rspb.2021.2473|pmc=8790354|pmid=35078357}}</ref>

==Predators and parasites==
Common predators of the song sparrow include [[cat]]s, [[hawk]]s, and [[owl]]s; however [[snake]]s, [[dog]]s, and the [[American kestrel]] are treated ambiguously, suggesting that they are less of a threat{{citation needed |date=May 2017}}. The song sparrow recognizes enemies by both instinctual and learned patterns (including [[cultural learning]]), and adjusts its future behavior based on both its own experiences in encounters, and from watching other birds interact with the enemies. Comparisons of experiments on hand-raised birds to observation of birds in the wild suggest that the fear of owls and hawks is instinctual, but fear of cats is learned.<ref name="enemy"/>

Song sparrows' nests are parasitized by the [[brown-headed cowbird]]. The cowbirds' eggs closely resemble song sparrows' eggs, although the cowbirds' eggs are slightly larger. Song sparrows recognize cowbirds as a threat and attack the cowbirds when they are near the nest. There is some evidence that this behavior is learned rather than instinctual.<ref name="enemy"/> A more recent study found that the behavior of attacking female cowbirds near nests may actually attract cowbird parasitism because the female cowbirds use such behavior to identify female song sparrows that are more likely to successfully raise a cowbird chick.<ref name="Smith"/> One study found that while cowbird parasitism did result in more nest failure, overall there were negligible effects on song sparrow populations when cowbirds were introduced to an island. The study pointed to a number of explanatory factors including song sparrows raising multiple broods, and song sparrows' abilities to raise cowbird chicks with their own.<ref name="Smith2"/>

==Subspecies==

The song sparrow is one of the most [[Polytypic taxon|polytypic]] bird species in [[North America]], rivaling other variable species on a global scale, such as the [[horned lark]], the [[yellow wagtail (disambiguation)|yellow wagtail]], the [[golden whistler]], and the [[Tasman Sea island thrush|island thrush]]. There have been a total of 52 [[subspecies]] named altogether, of which 25 are still recognized following a systematic morphological review.<ref name="melospiza"/> A high quality [[reference genome]] has recently been created for this species, which will allow for comprehensive genomic analyses of the differences between the several morphologically diverged subspecies.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Louha |first1=Swarnali |last2=Ray |first2=David A. |last3=Winker |first3=Kevin |last4=Glen |first4=Travis C. |title=A High-Quality Genome Assembly of the North American Song Sparrow, ''Melospiza melodia'' |journal=G3 |date=2020 |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=1159–1166 |doi=10.1534/g3.119.400929|pmid=32075855 |pmc=7144075 }}</ref>

===Eastern group===
Small, brownish, long-winged forms with strong black streaks.
* ''Melospiza melodia melodia'' <small>(Wilson, 1810)</small>. The [[nominate subspecies]]. Eastern half of North American range except coastal areas south from [[New York State]]. In winter, they migrate southeastwards. Very contrasting, very light with black streaks below, and gray margins to back feathers. This population includes the forms named as ''M. m. juddi'' <small>Bishop, 1896</small>; ''M. m. acadica'' <small>Thayer and Bangs, 1914</small>; ''M. m. beata'' <small>(''non'' Bangs) Todd, 1930</small>; ''M. m. euphonia'' <small>Wetmore, 1936</small>; ''M. m. callima'' <small>Oberholser, 1974</small>; and ''M. m. melanchra'' <small>Oberholser, 1974</small>.
* ''Melospiza melodia atlantica'' <small>Todd, 1924</small>. Inhabits the Atlantic Coast sand dunes and salt marshes from New York State southwards. Differs from nominate by a gray back. Includes ''M. m. rossignolii'' <small>Bailey, 1936</small>.
* ''Melospiza melodia montana'' <small>Henshaw, 1884</small>. The subspecies west of ''melodia'' to the [[Rocky Mountains]]. Some birds from the northern part of its range migrate to north-west Mexico in winter. Similar to nominate, but larger, duller coloration and more slender bill. Includes ''M. m. fisherella'' <small>Oberholser, 1911</small>.

===Northwestern group===
Large, dark, diffuse dark streaks. A study of [[mtDNA]] [[allozyme]] variation of most forms in this group concluded that they are of comparatively recent origin and that island populations are apparently derived independently from each other.<ref name="Hare" />
[[File:Melospiza melodia 4522.JPG|thumb|Taken near [[Anacortes, Washington]] in March, this individual is most likely ''M. m. morphna'']]
[[File:Melospiza melodia 01450t.JPG|thumb|upright|Taken at [[Springfield, Oregon]] in early April, this photo probably shows ''M. m. cleonensis'' or a "''phaea''" hybrid]]
* ''Melospiza melodia maxima'' <small>Gabrielson & Lincoln, 1951</small>, '''giant song sparrow'''. W [[Aleutian Islands]] ([[Attu Island|Attu]] to [[Atka Island]]), resident. The largest subspecies, about the size of the [[California towhee]]. Very gray overall, long, diffuse streaks. Bill long and slender.
* ''Melospiza melodia sanaka'' <small>McGregor, 1901</small>, '''Aleutian song sparrow'''. Aleutians from [[Seguam Island]] east to [[Stepovak Bay]], [[Alaska]], and islands to the south of [[Alaskan Peninsula]]; resident. Similar to ''maxima''; grayer still and bill even more slender. Includes the '''Semidi song sparrow''', ''M. m. semidiensis'' <small>Brooks, 1919</small>, which may be a distinct subspecies however.<ref name="Gabrielson"/> Also includes the population from [[Amak Island]]<ref name="Pruett"/> named ''M. m. amaka'' <small>Gabrielson & Lincoln, 1951</small> ('''Amak song sparrow''') which was extirpated due to habitat destruction, apparently disappearing in the weeks around New Year's Eve, 1980/1981 (there were unconfirmed sightings in 1987 and 1988).
* ''Melospiza melodia insignis'' <small>Baird, 1869</small>, '''Bischoff song sparrow'''. [[Kodiak Island|Kodiak]], [[Afognak]], [[Sitkalidak]], and [[Raspberry Island, Alaska|Raspberry Island]]s, and [[Mount Kukak|Kukak]] and [[Katmai National Park and Preserve|Katmai]] on Alaska Peninsula; many migrate south in winter. A darkish gray, medium-sized form.
* ''Melospiza melodia kenaiensis'' <small>[[Robert Ridgway|Ridgway]], 1900</small>, '''Kenai song sparrow'''. Resident; Pacific coast of [[Kenai Peninsula]] and [[Prince William Sound]] islands; some resident, some migrant. Smaller and browner than ''insignis''.
* ''Melospiza melodia caurina'' <small>Ridgway, 1899</small>, '''Yakutat song sparrow'''. Northern [[Gulf of Alaska]] coast, many migrate to [[Pacific Northwest]] in winter. A smaller version of ''kenaiensis''.
* ''Melospiza melodia rufina'' <small>(Bonaparte, 1850)</small>, '''sooty song sparrow'''. Outer islands of [[Alexander Archipelago]] and [[Haida Gwaii]] (Queen Charlotte Islands); most are resident. A very dark, rufous, and small form. Includes ''M. m. kwaisa'' <small>Cumming, 1933</small>.
* ''Melospiza melodia morphna'' <small>Oberholser, 1899</small>. Coastal region of central [[British Columbia]] south to NW [[Oregon]]; resident. Lighter, more rufous than ''rufina''. Previously ''M. m. cinerea'' <small>(''non'' Gmelin) (Audubon, 1839)</small>; ''M. m. phaea'' <small>Fisher, 1902</small> are Central Oregon hybrids between this subspecies and ''M. m. cleonensis''.
* ''Melospiza melodia merrilli'' <small>Brewster, 1896</small>. Occurs between the ranges of ''morphna'' and ''montana'' south to N [[Nevada]]; some migrate south in winter. Includes ''M. m. ingersolli'' <small>McGregor, 1899</small> and ''M. m. inexspectata'' <small>Riley, 1911</small> ('''Riley song sparrow'''; ''inexpectata'' is a common ''[[lapsus]]''). Doubtfully distinct; intermediate between ''morphna'' and ''montana'' in appearance also and may be hybrid birds.
* ''Melospiza melodia cleonensis'' <small>McGregor, 1899</small>. SW Oregon west of [[Cascade Mountains]] south to NW [[California]]. Brownish-buffish, notably on the flanks; no gray on back; underside with somewhat diffuse chestnut streaks.

===Cismontane California group===
Small, well-marked and short-winged brownish forms. All resident, except occasional birds from upland populations.
* ''Melospiza melodia gouldii'' <small>Baird, 1858</small>. Coastal central California, except [[San Francisco Bay]]. A very brown and clear-marked subspecies; buffish (not light gray) fringes of upper back. ''M. m. santaecrucis'' <small>Grinnell, 1901</small> are hybrids with birds from southwards and Central Valley populations.
* ''Melospiza melodia samuelis'' <small>(Baird, 1858)</small>, '''San Pablo song sparrow'''. N San Francisco Bay and [[San Pablo Bay]] saltmarshes. A small, tiny-billed subspecies with dirty olive upperpart background.
* ''Melospiza melodia maxillaris'' <small>Grinnell, 1909</small>, '''Suisun song sparrow'''. [[Suisun Bay]] marshes. Dark upperparts; brown with gray mantle edges; plump bill base.
* ''Melospiza melodia pusillula'' <small>Ridgway, 1899</small>, '''Alameda song sparrow'''. E San Francisco Bay saltmarshes. Yellowest subspecies, paler than ''samuelis'' and clear yellow hue below.
* ''Melospiza melodia heermanni'' <small>Baird, 1858</small>. Central coastal California and [[Central Valley (California)|Central Valley]] south to N [[Baja California]]. Similar in color to ''maxillaris'' but medium-sized mainland subspecies. Some N-S variation with birds becoming blacker on backs, local populations once separated as ''M. m. cooperi'' <small>Ridgway, 1899</small> and ''M. m. mailliardi'' <small>Grinnell, 1911</small>. The latter, occurring around Modesto, may be distinct.
* ''Melospiza melodia graminea'' <small>Townsend, 1890</small>. Described from [[Santa Barbara Island]], [[California Channel Islands]]. A smaller, pale-gray version of ''heermanni''. Originally called '''Santa Barbara song sparrow'''; birds from the [[Coronado Islands]] were described as ''M. m. coronatorum'' <small>Grinnell and Daggett, 1903</small>, those from [[San Miguel Island]] as ''M. m. micronyx'' <small>Grinnell, 1928</small> and those from [[San Clemente Island|San Clemente]], [[Santa Rosa Island, California|Santa Rosa]] and [[Anacapa Island]]s as ''M. m. clementae'' <small>Townsend, 1890</small>. Hybrid population with ''heermanni'' on [[Santa Cruz Island]]. Extirpated on Santa Barbara (and possibly San Clemente) by feral cats, c. 1967–1970.

===Southwestern group===
Small, pale, streaks rufous; all resident.
* ''Melospiza melodia fallax'' <small>(Baird, 1854)</small>, '''desert song sparrow'''. [[Sonoran Desert|Sonoran]] and parts of [[Mojave Desert]]s to E [[Arizona]]. A pale ruddy desert form. Synonyms are ''M. m. saltonis'' <small>Grinnell, 1909</small>, ''M. m. virginis'' <small>Marshall and Behle, 1942</small> and ''M. m. bendirei'' <small>Phillips, 1943</small>.
* ''Melospiza melodia rivularis'' <small>Bryant, 1888</small>. Central Baja California. Similar to ''fallax'', lightly streaked breast and long slender bill.
* ''Melospiza melodia goldmani'' <small>Nelson, 1899</small>. Not yet found outside El Salto<!-- Someone please gazetteer this --> area, [[Sierra Madre Oriental]]. Dark reddish brown back with brownish streaks just as in ''morphna''.

===Mexican Plateau group===
[[File:Song sparrow (Melospiza melodia mexicana) Almoloya.jpg|thumb|''M. m. mexicana''<br />Almoloya del Rio, Mexico]]
Black-spotted, white throats; all resident.
* ''Melospiza melodia adusta'' <small>Nelson, 1899</small>. [[Río Lerma]] drainage from [[Zacapú]] to [[Lake Yuriria]]. Bold black pattern on belly and back, clear white throat. Birds become less ruddy brown going east.
* ''Melospiza melodia villai'' <small>Phillips and Dickerman, 1957</small>. Headwaters of Río Lerma near [[Toluca]]. Darker and duller brown than ''adusta'', distinctly large.
* ''Melospiza melodia mexicana'' <small>Ridgway, 1874</small>. [[Hidalgo (Mexico)|Hidalgo]] to [[Puebla]]. Duller and paler than ''adusta'', birds becoming grayish going south. Includes ''M. m. azteca'' <small>Dickerman, 1963</small> and ''M. m. niceae'' <small>Dickerman, 1963</small>. "''M. m. pectoralis''" <small>(''ex'' von Müller, 1865)</small> cannot be assigned to a known song sparrow population.<!-- Please someone check Ridgway, Birds N. Middle Am. I (Bull.U.S.Natl.Mus.50) -->
* ''Melospiza melodia zacapu'' <small>Dickerman, 1963</small>.

==Conservation status==
Seen as a whole, the song sparrow is widespread and common enough to be classified as Species of Least Concern by the [[IUCN]]. The taxa ''mailliardi'', ''maxillaris'', ''samuelis'' (all Category 3), ''pusillula'' (Category 2), and ''graminea'' (Category 1) are listed as '''Species of Special Concern''' in [[California]].<ref name="CDFG"/>

==References==<!-- WilsonBull18:47 (compare to current Ohio checklist http://www.ohiobirds.org/publications/OBRClist.pdf). ZoolJLinnSoc122:427. -->
{{Reflist|35em|refs=

<ref name="adultsurvival">{{cite journal | author1= Germain, R.R. |author2= Schuster, R. | author3= Tarwater, C.E. | author4= Hochachka, W.M. | author5= Arcese, P. | year=2018| title= Adult survival and reproductive rate are linked to habitat preference in territorial, year-round resident Song Sparrows ''Melospiza melodia''| journal=Ibis| volume=160| pages= 568–581 | doi=10.1111/ibi.12557| issue=3}}</ref>

<ref name="allaboutbirds">[http://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Song_Sparrow/lifehistory The Cornell lab of ornithology: Song Sparrow ''Melospiza melodia'']</ref>

<ref name="avianlong">{{Cite journal | last1 = Wasser | first1 = D. E. | last2 = Sherman | first2 = P. W. | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-7998.2009.00671.x | title = Avian longevities and their interpretation under evolutionary theories of senescence | journal = Journal of Zoology | volume = 280 | issue = 2 | pages = 103 | year = 2010 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

<ref name="CDFG">California Department of Fish and Game (CDFG) (2006). California Bird Species of Special Concern.<!-- [http://www.dfg.ca.gov/hcpb/bsscrevu/bsscindex.shtml Linked PDf fulltext] [requires password?] --></ref>

<ref name="controlof">{{Cite journal|last=Wingfield|first=John C.|date=1993|title=Control of Testicular Cycles in the Song Sparrow, Melospiza melodia melodia: Interaction of Photoperiod and an Endogenous Program?|journal=General and Comparative Endocrinology|doi=10.1006/gcen.1993.1176|pmid=8138105|volume=92|issue=3|pages=388–401}}</ref>

<ref name="CRC">''CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses'' by John B. Dunning Jr. (Editor). CRC Press (1992). {{ISBN|978-0849342585}}.</ref>

<ref name="enature">{{Cite web |url=http://www.enature.com/fieldguides/detail.asp?allSpecies=y&searchText=Song%20Sparrow |title=eNature: Song Sparrow ''Melospiza melodia'' |access-date=2012-04-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413125107/http://www.enature.com/fieldguides/detail.asp?allSpecies=y&searchText=Song%20Sparrow |archive-date=2014-04-13 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

<ref name="enemy">{{cite journal|author1=Nice, Margaret M. |author2=Ter Pelkwyk |author3=Joost |name-list-style=amp |title=Enemy Recognition by the Song Sparrow|journal=The Auk|volume= 58|issue= 2|year=1941|pages= 195–214|jstor=4079104|url=http://sora.unm.edu/node/18148|doi=10.2307/4079104|doi-access=free|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

<ref name="environcontroll">{{Cite journal|last=Wingfield|first=John C.|date=1984|title=Environmental and endocrine control of reproduction in the song sparrow, Melospiza melodia: I. Temporal organization of the breeding cycle|journal=General and Comparative Endocrinology|doi=10.1016/0016-6480(84)90083-2|pmid=6510698|volume=56|issue=3|pages=406–416}}</ref>

<ref name="environphys">{{Cite book|title=Environmental Physiology of Animals|last=Wilmer|first=Pat|publisher=Wiley|year=2009|isbn=9781405107242|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/environmentalphy00will}}</ref>

<ref name="Gabrielson">{{cite journal|author=Gabrielson, Ira N.|author2=Lincoln, Frederick C.|name-list-style=amp |date=1951|title=The Races of Song Sparrows in Alaska|journal=[[Condor (journal)|Condor]]|volume=53|issue=5|pages= 250–255|url=http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/condor/v053n05/p0250-p0255.pdf|doi=10.2307/1364957|jstor=1364957}}</ref>

<ref name="Hare">{{cite journal|author=Hare, M.P.|author2=Shields, G.F.|name-list-style=amp|title=Mitochondrial-DNA variation in the polytypic Alaskan song sparrow|journal=[[Auk (journal)|Auk]]|volume=109|issue=1|pages= 126–132|url=http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v109n01/p0126-p0132.pdf|doi=10.2307/4088273|year=1992|jstor=4088273}}</ref>

<ref name="influence">{{Cite journal|author=Greenberg, Danner|author2=R., R.M|date=2012|title=The influence of the California marine layer on bill size in a generalist songbird|journal=Evolution|doi=10.1111/j.1558-5646.2012.01726.x|pmid=23206140|volume=66|issue=12|pages=3825–35|doi-access=free}}</ref>

<ref name="mateneighbour">{{cite journal |last1=O'Loghlen |first1=A. L. |last2=Beecher |first2=M.D. |title=Mate, neighbour and stranger songs: a female song sparrow perspective |journal=Animal Behaviour |date=1999 |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=13–20 |doi=10.1006/anbe.1999.1125 |pmid=10413536 |s2cid=8210185 }}</ref>

<ref name="melospiza">{{cite journal |last1=Patten |first1=Michael |last2=Pruett |first2=Christin |title=The Song Sparrow, ''Melospiza melodia'', as a ring species: patterns of geographic variation, a revision of subspecies, and implications for speciation |journal=Systematics and Biodiversity |date=2009 |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=33–62 |doi=10.1017/S1477200008002867 |bibcode=2009SyBio...7...33P |s2cid=154943 |url=https://www.suttoncenter.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/publications/2009%20Patten%20and%20Pruett%20Song%20Sparrows.pdf}}</ref>

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<ref name="melospiza2">{{cite journal |last1=Louha |first1=Swarnali |last2=Ray |first2=David |last3=Winker |first3=Kevin |last4=Glenn |first4=Travis |title=A high-quality genome assembly of the North American Song Sparrow, ''Melospiza melodia'' |journal=bioRxiv |date=2019 |doi=10.1101/850990 |url=https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/850990v2|doi-access=free }}</ref>
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<ref name="Pruett">{{cite journal|author=Pruett, Christin|author2=Gibson, Daniel D. & Winker, Kevin (2003|title=Amak Island Song Sparrows (''Melospiza melodia amaka'') are not evolutionarily significant|journal=Ornithological Science|year=2004|volume=3|issue=2|pages=133–138 |doi=10.2326/osj.3.133 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/250157614|doi-access=free}}</ref>

<ref name="Smith">{{cite journal|doi=10.1007/BF00291901|title=Age, experience, and enemy recognition by wild song sparrows|year=1984|last1=Smith|first1=James N. M.|last2=Arcese|first2=Peter|last3=McLean|first3=Ian G.|journal=Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology|volume=14|issue=2|pages=101|s2cid=22507458}}</ref>

<ref name="Smith2">{{cite journal|author1=Smith, James N. M. |author2=Arcese, Peter |name-list-style=amp |jstor=1369102|title=Brown-Headed Cowbirds and an Island Population of Song Sparrows: A 16-Year Study|journal=The Condor|volume= 96|issue= 4|year=1994|pages= 916–934|url=http://sora.unm.edu/node/104919|doi=10.2307/1369102|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite journal | last1 = Beecher | first1 = M.D. | last2 = Campbell | first2 = S.E. | last3 = Stoddard | first3 = P.K. | year = 1994 | title = Correlation of Song Learning and Territory Establishment Strategies in the Song Sparrow | url = http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/91/4/1450.pdf | journal = [[PNAS|Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA]] | volume = 91 | issue = 4| pages = 1450–1454 | doi=10.1073/pnas.91.4.1450| pmid = 11607460 | pmc = 43177 | bibcode = 1994PNAS...91.1450B | doi-access = free }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Stoddard | first1 = Beecher | last2 = Horning | first2 = C.L. | last3 = Campbell | first3 = S.E. | year = 1991 | title = Recognition of individual neighbors by song in the song sparrow, a species with song repertoires | journal = Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology | volume = 29 | issue = 3| pages = 211–215 | doi=10.1007/bf00166403| s2cid = 44213466 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = O'Loghlen | first1 = A.L. | last2 = Beecher | year = 1997 | title = Sexual preferences for mate song types in female song sparrows | url = http://faculty.washington.edu/beecher/O&B1-ab97.pdf | journal = Animal Behaviour | volume = 53 | issue = 4| pages = 835–841 | doi=10.1006/anbe.1996.0348| s2cid = 12750867 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Smith | first1 = J.N.M. | display-authors = etal  | year = 1997 | title = A metapopulation approach to the population biology of the Song Sparrow Melospiza melodia | doi = 10.1111/j.1474-919x.1996.tb04318.x | journal = Ibis | volume = 138 | issue = 4| pages = 120–128 }}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Melospiza melodia|the song sparrow}}
{{Wikispecies|Melospiza melodia}}
* [https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/song_sparrow/id Song sparrow ID, including sound and video], at Cornell Lab of Ornithology
* [http://www.birdhouses101.com/song-sparrow.asp Song sparrow facts at BirdHouses101.com]
* [https://www.xeno-canto.org/species/Melospiza-melodia Song sparrow] at Xeno-canto
* [https://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/id/framlst/i5810id.html Song sparrow - ''Melospiza melodia''] - USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter
* {{InternetBirdCollection|song-sparrow-melospiza-melodia|Song sparrow}}
* {{VIREO|song+sparrow|Song sparrow}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q842599}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Melospiza|song sparrow]]
[[Category:Birds of North America]]
[[Category:Native birds of Alaska]]
[[Category:Birds of the Aleutian Islands]]
[[Category:Birds of Canada]]
[[Category:Birds of Mexico]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1810|song sparrow]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Alexander Wilson (ornithologist)]]