Editing Spectral bat

{{Short description|Species of bat}}
{{About|the bat in the family [[Phyllostomidae]]|the false vampire bats in the old world|Megadermatidae}}
{{Good article}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = Spectral bat
| status = NT
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=Solari, S. |date=2018 |title=''Vampyrum spectrum'' |volume=2018 |page=e.T22843A22059426 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T22843A22059426.en |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
| image = Spectral bat photo.jpg
| genus = Vampyrum
| parent_authority = [[Constantine Samuel Rafinesque|Rafinesque]], 1815
| species = spectrum
| authority = ([[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]]<ref name="Linnaeus 1758">{{cite book|last=Linnæus|first=Carl|title=Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I|year=1758|publisher=Laurentius Salvius|location=Holmiæ|page=31|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/80764#page/41/mode/1up|edition=10th|access-date=21 November 2012|language=Latin|trans-title=By means of the three kingdoms of nature, the nature of the system, according to the classes, ordines, genera, species, with the characters, the differences, synonyms, places.}}</ref>)
| range_map = Vampyrum spectrum distribution (colored).png
| synonyms = {{collapsible list
| ''Vespertilio spectrum'' Linnaeus,&nbsp;1758
| ''Phyllostomus spectrum'' [[François Marie Daudin|Daudin]],&nbsp;1802
| ''Phyllostoma spectrum'' [[Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire|É Geoffroy]],&nbsp;1810
| ''Vampyrus spectrum'' [[Camillo Ranzani|Ranzani]],&nbsp;1820}}
}}

The '''spectral bat''' ('''''Vampyrum spectrum'''''), also called the '''great false vampire bat''', '''great spectral bat''', '''American false vampire bat''' or '''Linnaeus's false vampire bat''', is a large, carnivorous [[leaf-nosed bat]] found in Mexico, Central America, and South America. It is the only member of the genus '''''Vampyrum'''''; its closest living relative is the [[big-eared woolly bat]]. It is the largest bat species in the [[New World]], as well as the largest carnivorous bat: its wingspan is {{convert|0.7-1.0|m|ft|abbr=on}}. It has a robust skull and teeth, with which it delivers a powerful bite to kill its prey. Birds are frequent prey items, though it may also consume rodents, insects, and other bats.

Unlike the majority of bat species, it is [[monogamy in animals|monogamous]]. Colonies consist of an adult male and female and their offspring. The adult male will bring food back to the roost to provision the adult female and their offspring. Colonies generally roost in tree hollows, though individuals may roost in caves. Due to [[habitat destruction]] and its low population density, it is listed as a [[near-threatened species]] by the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN).

==Taxonomy and evolution==
The spectral bat was [[species description|described]] in 1758 by Swedish [[zoologist]] [[Carl Linnaeus]]. The [[holotype]] was collected in South America by [[Daniel Rolander]]. Linnaeus assigned it to the genus ''[[Vespertilio]]'', which he classified as a kind of primate.<ref name="Linnaeus 1758"/> Its [[specific epithet (zoology)|species name]] "''[[wiktionary:spectrum#Latin|spectrum]]''" is from [[Latin]] meaning "apparition" or "specter".

The genus ''Vampyrum'' was not described until 1815 by [[Constantine Samuel Rafinesque]].<ref name="Rafinesque 1815">{{cite book| last=Rafinesque| first=C.| year=1815| title=Analyse de la nature, ou tableau de l'univers et des corps organisés| volume=1815| publisher=Palerme :Aux dépens de l'auteur, 1815| url=https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/48310132| page=54|language=French|trans-title=Analysis of nature, or picture of the universe and organized bodies}}</ref> The genus and species names were not used in their current combination until biologist [[George Gilbert Goodwin]] did so in 1942.<ref name="Gardner 2008"/> "''Vampyrum''" is a [[Neo-Latin]] derivative of [[vampire]], thus named because it was once erroneously believed that the species was [[hematophagy|sanguivorous]] and consumed blood.<ref name="Husson 1978">{{cite book|last=Husson| first= A. M.| year=1978| title= The mammals of Suriname| volume=2| publisher= Brill Archive| isbn=978-9004058194| pages=107–108}}</ref>

{{cladogram|align=left|style=width:315px;font-size:85%;line-height:85%|caption=Position of ''Vampyrum'' in Phyllostomidae based on molecular data.<ref name="Monteiro 2010">{{cite journal|doi=10.1111/j.1558-5646.2009.00857.x|pmid=19804403|title=Adaptive Radiations, Ecological Specialization, and the Evolutionary Integration of Complex Morphological Structures|journal=Evolution|volume=64|issue=3|pages=724–44|year=2010|last1=Monteiro|first1=Leandro R|last2=Nogueira|first2=Marcelo R|doi-access=free}}</ref> Tribe relationships based on Hoffmann et al. 2008.<ref name="Hoffmann 2008"/>
|cladogram={{clade
   |1={{clade
     |label1=Macrophyllini
     |1={{clade
       |1=''[[Trachops]]''
       |2=''[[Macrophyllum]]''}}
     |2={{clade
       |label1=Vampyrini
       |1={{clade
         |1=<big>'''''Vampyrum'''''</big>
         |2=''[[Chrotopterus]]'' }}
       |label2=Phyllostomini
       |2={{clade
         |1=''[[Lophostoma]]''
         |2={{clade
           |1=''[[Tonatia]]''
           |2={{clade
             |1=''[[Phylloderma]]''
             |2=''[[Phyllostomus]]''
             |3=''[[Mimon]]''

}} }} }} }} }} }} }} 
Based on [[mitochondrial DNA]] and the [[RAG2]] gene, the spectral bat is most closely related to the monotypic genus ''[[Chrotopterus]]'' (the big-eared woolly bat).<ref name="Monteiro 2010"/>

''Vampyrum'' and ''Chroptopterus'' diverged from other [[leaf-nosed bat]] species approximately 20.75 million years ago, with the two genera diverging from each other 14.35 million years ago.<ref name="Baker 2012">{{cite book| chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235355621|doi=10.1017/CBO9781139045599.012|chapter=Molecular time scale of diversification of feeding strategy and morphology in New World Leaf-Nosed Bats (Phyllostomidae): a phylogenetic perspective|title=Evolutionary History of Bats|pages=385|year=2012|last1=Baker|first1=Robert J|last2=Bininda-Emonds|first2=Olaf R. P|last3=Mantilla-Meluk|first3=Hugo|last4=Porter|first4=Calvin A|last5=Van Den Bussche|first5=Ronald A|isbn=9781139045599}}</ref> The spectral and big-eared woolly bats likely evolved from an [[insectivore|insectivorous]] ancestor.<ref name="Monteiro 2011">{{cite journal|doi=10.1186/1471-2148-11-137|pmid=21605452|pmc=3130678|title=Evolutionary patterns and processes in the radiation of phyllostomid bats|journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology|volume=11|pages=137|year=2011|last1=Monteiro|first1=Leandro R|last2=Nogueira|first2=Marcelo R |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The spectral bat is included within the subfamily [[Phyllostominae]], which includes species of diverse feeding strategies, including carnivory, insectivory and mixed insectivory/[[frugivore|frugivory]]. The spectral and big-eared woolly bats are the two extant members of the [[tribe (biology)|tribe]] Vampyrini. Vampyrini additionally includes the extinct genus ''[[Notonycteris]]''.<ref name="Hoffmann 2008">{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2008.08.002|pmid=18727956|title=Molecular dating of the diversification of Phyllostominae bats based on nuclear and mitochondrial DNA sequences|journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|volume=49|issue=2|pages=653–8|year=2008|last1=Hoffmann|first1=Federico G|last2=Hoofer|first2=Steven R|last3=Baker|first3=Robert J}}</ref> Based on dental characteristics, Czaplewski and Morgan additionally included the [[fringe-lipped bat]] (genus ''Trachops'') and sometimes the [[Lophostoma|round-eared bats]] (genus ''Lophostoma'') in Vampyrini.<ref name="Czaplewski 2012">{{cite book|doi=10.1017/CBO9781139045599.006|chapter=New basal noctilionoid bats (Mammalia: Chiroptera) from the Oligocene of subtropical North America|title=Evolutionary History of Bats|pages=162|year=2012|last1=Czaplewski|first1=Nicholas J|last2=Morgan|first2=Gary S|isbn=9781139045599}}</ref>

Along with its [[sister genus]] ''Chrotopterus'', the [[ghost bat]] from Australia, and a few others, the spectral bat is one of the few macropredatory bats, feeding on relatively large vertebrates (this group includes the various [[fishing bat]]s). A number of [[Morphology (biology)|morphological]] features [[Convergent evolution|arose independently]] in these species, which independently evolved from insectivorous ancestors.<ref name="GoBig">{{cite journal |last1=Santana |first1=Sharlene E. |last2=Cheung |first2=Elena |title=Go big or go fish: morphological specializations in carnivorous bats |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society - Biological Sciences |date=11 May 2016 |volume=283 |issue=1830 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2016.0615 |url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2016.0615 |pmid=27170718|issn=1471-2954|access-date=19 May 2025}}</ref><ref name="Nuwer 2016"/>

==Description==
{{multiple image
|align=right
| direction=vertical
| header=Comparison of spectral bat (top) and [[jackal]] skulls (not to scale)
| image1=Vampyrum spectrum skull.jpg
| image2=Canis mesomelas 02 MWNH 103d.JPG }}

The spectral bat is the largest bat species native to the [[New World]] and the largest carnivorous bat in the world.<ref name="Nuwer 2016">{{cite web| url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/worlds-carnivorous-bats-are-emerging-dark-180959042/| title=The World's Carnivorous Bats Are Emerging From the Dark| last=Nuwer| first=Rachel| author-link=Rachel Nuwer| date=10 May 2016| website=Smithsonian.com| publisher=Smithsonian Institution| access-date=17 July 2017}}</ref>
The wingspan typically ranges from {{convert|0.7-1.0|m|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Navarro 1982"/> Its forearm length is {{cvt|101-110|mm|in}}.<ref name="Gardner 2008">{{cite book| last=Gardner| first=A. L.| year=2008| publisher=University of Chicago Press| volume=1| title=Mammals of South America, Volume 1: Marsupials, Xenarthrans, Shrews, and Bats|pages=299–300| isbn=978-0226282428| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dbU3d7EUCm8C}}</ref>
Its body length is {{convert|135–147|mm|in|abbr=on}} and its mass is {{convert|134-189|g|oz|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Simmons 1998">{{cite journal| last1=Simmons| first1= N. B.| last2= Voss| first2= R. S.| year=1998| title= The mammals of Paracou, French Guiana, a Neotropical lowland rainforest fauna. Part 1, Bats| journal= Bulletin of the AMNH| issue=237| hdl= 2246/1634}}</ref><ref name="Silva 2011"/> Its wings, though large in an absolute sense, are short relative to its body size. The wings are wide, though, creating a large surface area. Its wingtips are rounded and almost squarish.<ref name="Marinello 2014"/> The thumbs are long, at {{cvt|21.4-22.2|mm|in}}.<ref name="Silva 2011">{{cite journal|last1=da Silva| first1= A. P.| last2= Rossi| first2= R. V.| year= 2011| title= New records of ''Vampyrum spectrum'' (Chiroptera, Phyllostomidae) for the Pantanal domain in Brazil, with notes on the species natural history, biometry, and lower incisors arrangement| journal= Chiroptera Neotropical| volume= 17| issue=1| pages= 836–841}}</ref>
Each of its thumbs has a large, recurved claw that is grooved, similar to those of [[felidae|cats]].<ref name="Navarro 1982"/> Its back fur is reddish-brown, long, and soft, while its belly fur is shorter and paler. The forearm is furred on the half closer to the body, but naked on the half closer to the wrist and fingers.<ref name="Navarro 1982"/>
 
Its [[molar (tooth)|molars]] are narrow with W-shaped crests. While six of its molars have [[Molar (tooth)#Tribosphenic|three cusps]], as in many mammal species, the last upper molars are reduced to two cusps; they are much smaller than the other molars.<ref name="Navarro 1982"/> The [[talonid]]s (crushing surfaces) of the molars are small relative to their [[trigonid]]s (shearing surfaces).<ref name="Freeman 1984">{{cite journal|doi=10.1111/j.1095-8312.1984.tb01601.x|title=Functional cranial analysis of large animalivorous bats (Microchiroptera)|journal=Biological Journal of the Linnean Society|volume=21|issue=4|pages=387–408|year=1984|last1=Freeman|first1=Patricia W|s2cid=37499533 |url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1006&context=museummammalogy|url-access=subscription}}</ref> The upper [[canine tooth|canine teeth]] are well-developed. Its [[dentition#Dental formula|dental formula]] is {{DentalFormula|upper=2.1.2.3|lower=2.1.3.3}} for a total of 34 teeth. Its skull is narrow and elongated with a pronounced [[sagittal crest]].<ref name="Navarro 1982">{{cite journal|doi=10.2307/3503798| url=http://www.bio-nica.info/Mammalia/Vampirum_spectrum.pdf| jstor=3503798| title=''Vampyrum spectrum''| journal=Mammalian Species| issue=184| pages=1–4| year=1982| last1=L.| first1=Daniel Navarro| last2=Wilson| first2=Don E}}</ref>  Overall, its skull resembles a miniature [[canidae|canid]] or [[ursidae|bear]] skull.<ref name="Sharlene 2016">{{cite journal|doi=10.1098/rspb.2016.0615|pmid=27170718|pmc=4874722|title=Go big or go fish: Morphological specializations in carnivorous bats|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|volume=283|issue=1830|pages=20160615|year=2016|last1=Santana|first1=Sharlene E|last2=Cheung|first2=Elena}}</ref> Its [[nose-leaf]] is large, at {{cvt|17|mm|in}} in length.<ref name="Navarro 1982"/> There is no discernible tail,<ref name="Brittanica">{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/animal/false-vampire-bat|author=((The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica))|title=False vampire bat|website=Encyclopaedia Britannica|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.|access-date=9 August 2018}}</ref> but the [[interfemoral membrane|uropatagium]] (tail membrane) is long and broad.<ref name="Ceballos 2014">{{cite book| editor-last=Ceballos| editor1-first= G.| last1=Medellín| first1=R.| year=2014| title=Mammals of Mexico| publisher= JHU Press| isbn=978-1421408439| pages=694–696}}</ref> Its legs are long, and the feet are composed of slender bones; each digit has a well-developed claw.  The ears are large and rounded, at {{cvt|39-42|mm|in}} long.<ref name="Navarro 1982"/>

The brain is large relative to the body; at 1:67, its [[brain-to-body mass ratio]] is higher than that of cats and dogs.<ref name="Bhatnagar 2016">{{cite journal|doi=10.1002/ar.23321|pmid=26800031|title=The Chiropteran Brain Database: Volumetric Survey of the Hypophysis in 165 Species|journal=The Anatomical Record|volume=299|issue=4|pages=492–510|year=2016|last1=Bhatnagar|first1=Kunwar P|last2=Smith|first2=Timothy D|last3=Rai|first3=Shesh N|last4=Frahm|first4=Heiko D|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="brain size">{{cite web| url=http://serendipstudio.org/exchange/brains/intelligence/size| title=Measuring Brain Size versus Body Size|website=Serendip Studio| publisher=Serendip| access-date=24 July 2018}}</ref> The [[cerebral hemisphere]]s of the brain are extensively convoluted.<ref name="McDaniel 1976"/> The brain has well-developed [[olfactory bulb]]s and its [[cerebellum]] is the most ornamented and complex of any member of its subfamily. McDaniel described its [[corpus callosum]] and [[white matter]] as "exceptionally thick".<ref name="McDaniel 1976">{{cite book|last1=McDaniel| first1= V. R.| year=1976| chapter= Brain anatomy| title= Biology of bats of the New World family Phyllostomatidae Part I| editor1-first= R. J.| editor1-last= Baker| editor2-first= JK| editor2-last= Jones Jr.| editor3-first= DC| editor3-last= Carter| publisher= Special Publications of the Museum, Texas Tech University| volume= 10| issue=1| pages= 147–200| chapter-url=https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/55008908}}</ref>

==Biology and ecology==
===Diet===
[[File:Crotophaga sulcirostris.jpg|thumb|upright|A [[groove-billed ani]], one of the spectral bat's primary food sources]]
The spectral bat is exclusively [[carnivore|carnivorous]],<ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.3161/1733-5329(2005)7[131:TGSOAL]2.0.CO;2| volume = 7| issue = 1| page=136| last1 = Giannini| first1 = Norberto P.| last2 = Kalko| first2 = Elisabeth K. V.| title = The guild structure of animalivorous leaf-nosed bats of Barro Colorado Island, Panama, revisited| journal = Acta Chiropterologica| date = 2005| s2cid = 85309649}}</ref> consuming [[bird]]s, [[rodent]]s, and other species of [[bat]]. Additionally, it consumes some [[insect]]s such as [[Coleoptera|beetles]].<ref name="Bonato 2004"/> It preys on other bats opportunistically, and it is known to eat bats out of researchers' [[mist net]]s. Prey species include the [[highland yellow-shouldered bat]], [[Geoffroy's tailless bat]], [[Pallas's long-tongued bat]], [[Carollia|short-tailed fruit bats]], the [[common vampire bat]], and [[Artibeus|fruit-eating bats]].<ref  name="Peterson 1969">{{cite journal|doi=10.1139/z69-025|title=Notes on Vampyrum spectrum, the false vampire bat, in Panama|journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology|volume=47|pages=140–142|year=1969|last1=Peterson|first1=R. L|last2=Kirmse|first2=Peter}}</ref> It was once thought to supplement its diet with fruit, but a captive pair refused to eat any fruit over a 5-year period.<ref name="Greenhall 1968"/>  Its diet can be studied passively because it carries prey items back to its roost to consume, discarding unwanted parts such as bird feathers, bat wings, and rodent tails. Over the course of a year, 18 bird species were identified from feathers left under a roost in Costa Rica: based on the assemblage, it prefers non-[[passerine|perching]] bird species that weigh {{cvt|20-150|g|oz}}.<ref name="Vehrencamp 1977"/> However, a later study in Brazil determined that perching bird species were a majority of prey items.<ref name="Bonato 2004">{{cite journal|doi=10.1644/BWG-121|title=Food Habits of Bats of Subfamily Vampyrinae in Brazil|journal=Journal of Mammalogy|volume=85|issue=4|pages=708|year=2004|last1=Bonato|first1=Vinícius|last2=Gomes Facure|first2=Kátia|last3=Uieda|first3=Wilson|doi-access=free}}</ref>

[[Columbidae|Doves]] and [[cuckoo]]s are frequently consumed&mdash;they represented over half the prey items documented in the Costa Rican study. Some prey species such as cuckoos, [[trogon]]s, and [[motmot]]s are known to have a strong odor, leading Vehrencamp et al. to hypothesize that spectral bats may rely on scent to locate prey. It also prefers prey that roost in groups, which may aid in detection. The [[groove-billed ani]], which both has a strong smell and roosts in groups, is a particularly common prey item, representing approximately 24-26 of the 86 prey items identified in the study. Other species identified included the [[Eupsittula canicularis|orange-fronted parakeet]], [[orange-chinned parakeet]], [[rufous-naped wren]], [[streak-backed oriole]], and [[scissor-tailed flycatcher]]. The largest prey species identified was the [[white-tipped dove]], which at {{cvt|150|g|oz}}, weighs almost as much as spectral bats. Because its prey items can be so large, it may only need to consume one bird every two or three nights to meet its caloric requirements. <ref name="Vehrencamp 1977">{{cite journal|doi=10.2307/1379995|jstor=1379995|title=Observations on the Foraging Behavior and Avian Prey of the Neotropical Carnivorous Bat, ''Vampyrum spectrum''|journal=Journal of Mammalogy|volume=58|issue=4|pages=469|year=1977|last1=Vehrencamp|first1=S. L|last2=Stiles|first2=F. G|last3=Bradbury|first3=J. W|url=https://zenodo.org/record/8205064}}</ref>

===Foraging===
[[File:Spectral bat.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Taxidermied]] spectral bat "consuming" a mouse]]
The spectral bat uses [[animal echolocation#Bats|echolocation]] to navigate, creating short pulses of [[ultrasound]] at relatively low frequencies; its echolocation characteristics are suited for maneuvering around obstacles while flying low to the ground.<ref name="Navarro 1982"/> Its foraging style has been compared to [[owl]]s; it likely uses its agile and maneuverable wings to hover as it plucks prey items off the ground or tree branches.<ref name="Peterson 1969"/> It stalks the prey and then lands on it from above, securing the prey by hooking it with its sharp thumb claws.<ref name="Morell 2018">{{cite web|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2018/07/ancient-temple-reveals-secrets-of-mexicos-meat-eating-bats/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180703153229/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2018/07/ancient-temple-reveals-secrets-of-mexicos-meat-eating-bats/|url-status=dead|archive-date=July 3, 2018|title=Ancient Temple Reveals Secrets of Mexico's Meat-Eating Bats|last=Morell| first=Virginia|date=July 2018|website=National Geographic|publisher=National Geographic Society|access-date=17 August 2018}}</ref> It kills its prey by delivering a forceful bite to the skull.<ref name="Greenhall 1968">{{cite journal|doi=10.2307/1378008|jstor=1378008|title=Notes on the Behavior of the False Vampire Bat|journal=Journal of Mammalogy|volume=49|issue=2|pages=337–340|year=1968|last1=Greenhall|first1=Arthur M}}</ref> Relative to its size, its [[Bite force quotient|bite force]] is stronger than any [[Carnivora]]n.<ref name="Sharlene 2016"/> Its bite force is predicted to measure 80&ndash;100 [[Newton (unit)|Newtons]] based on its body size and canine teeth characteristics.<ref name="Freeman 2009">{{cite journal|last1=Freeman| first1= P. W.| last2= Lemen| first2= C. A.| year=2009| title= Puncture-Resistance of Gloves for Handling Bats| journal= The Journal of Wildlife Management| volume= 73| issue=7| pages= 1251–1254|url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1117&context=museummammalogy| doi= 10.2193/2008-295| s2cid= 15877222| url-access= subscription}}</ref> It has been recorded as being attracted to the distress calls of smaller bats while hunting.<ref name="Reid 2009">{{cite book| last=Reid| first= F.| year=2009| title= A field guide to the mammals of Central America and Southeast Mexico| publisher= Oxford University Press| isbn=978-0195343229| pages=104–105}}</ref>

In a study of the wing [[morphology (biology)|morphology]] of 51 [[Neotropical realm|Neotropical]] bat species, the spectral bat had the lowest [[wing loading]] (body mass to wing area ratio) at 20.05.<ref name="Marinello 2014">{{cite journal|doi=10.1139/cjz-2013-0127|title=Wing morphology of Neotropical bats: A quantitative and qualitative analysis with implications for habitat use|journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology|volume=92|issue=2|pages=141|year=2014|last1=Marinello|first1=M.M|last2=Bernard|first2=E|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263540593}}</ref> Low wing loading is [[Bat flight#Carnivory|advantageous for carnivorous bats]] because it allows them to pick up prey items from the ground and fly with them.<ref name="Norberg 1987">{{cite journal|doi=10.1098/rstb.1987.0030 |title=Ecological Morphology and Flight in Bats (Mammalia; Chiroptera): Wing Adaptations, Flight Performance, Foraging Strategy and Echolocation |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=316 |issue=1179 |pages=335 |year=1987 |last1=Norberg |first1=U. M |last2=Rayner |first2=J. M. V |bibcode=1987RSPTB.316..335N |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/252581662|doi-access= }}</ref> Its wing structure allows it to take flight in confined spaces and to carry heavy prey items, despite the bat's size. Males will carry prey back to their roosts to provision females and their pup.<ref name="Vehrencamp 1977"/>

===Reproduction and life cycle===
The spectral bat is one of an estimated 18 species of bat which are [[Monogamy in animals|monogamous]]. Additionally, it is one of two known species of bat where the males provide [[parental care]], the other being the [[yellow-winged bat]].<ref name="Crichton">{{cite book| last1=Crichton| first1= E. G.| last2=Krutzsch| first2= P. H.|year=2000| title= Reproductive biology of bats| url=https://archive.org/details/reproductivebiol00cric_666| url-access=limited| publisher= Academic Press|isbn=978-0080540535| pages=[https://archive.org/details/reproductivebiol00cric_666/page/n367 355]–356}}</ref> Males have relatively small [[testicle|testes]]&mdash;as a monogamous species, there is not generally [[sperm competition]], so males can save energy by producing less sperm.<ref name="Adams">{{cite book|last1=Adams| first1=Danielle M.| last2=Nicolay| first2=Christopher| last3=Wilkinson| first3=Gerald S. |editor1-last=Fleming|editor1-first=T. H.| editor2-last=Davalos| editor2-first=L.|editor3-last=Mello| editor3-first=M.|title=Phyllostomid bats, a unique mammalian radiation| chapter=Patterns of sexual dimorphism and mating systems| publisher=Chicago University Press| chapter-url=http://www.life.umd.edu/faculty/wilkinson/Adamsetal2017.pdf}}</ref>

It is a [[seasonal breeder]], with females giving birth at the end of the dry season or the beginning of the rainy season.<ref name="Navarro 1982"/> The litter size is one individual, with offspring called "pups."<ref name="Hayssen 1993">{{cite book |author=Hayssen, Virginia |author2=Ari van Tienhoven |author3=Ans van Tienhoven |name-list-style=amp |year=1993 |title=Asdell's Patterns of Mammalian Reproduction: a Compendium of Species-specific Data |location=Ithaca, NY |publisher=[[Cornell University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8014-1753-5 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/asdellspatternso00hays }}</ref> The mother is reportedly very attentive and gentle with her offspring. The male is often in attendance as well and will frequently sleep with both the female and their young completely wrapped up in his wings.<ref name="Greenhall 1968"/>
The extent of natural depredation upon spectral bats is unknown, but spectral bat remains were once documented in a [[western barn owl]] [[Pellet (ornithology)|pellet]] in [[Oaxaca]], Mexico.<ref name="Santos 2009">{{cite journal|last1=Santos-Moreno| first1= A.| last2= Alfaro Espinosa| first2= A. M.| year=2009| title= Mammalian prey of barn owl (Tyto alba) in southeastern Oaxaca, México| journal= Acta Zoológica Mexicana| volume=25| issue=1|url=http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0065-17372009000100012}}</ref>

Spectral bats roost independently or in small colonies of up to five individuals in hollow trees.<ref name="Navarro 1982"/> An examination of one colony of five individuals consisted of an adult male and female, a nursing pup, and a juvenile male and female. The juvenile male was estimated to be six months old; he was presumed to be the older offspring of the adults, while the female was also possibly their offspring.<ref name="Vehrencamp 1977"/> Though it was initially believed to only roost in trees, it was first documented using a cave as a roost in 2008. Its average lifespan is unknown; however, it is believed that the same individual roosted in a cave from 2008 until at least 2016 based on a unique ear pigmentation, making lifespans of at least 8 years possible. In captivity, one adult individual of uncertain initial age was maintained for 5.5 years.<ref name="Dinets 2017">{{cite journal|doi=10.1515/mammalia-2016-0038|title=Long-term cave roosting in the spectral bat (''Vampyrum spectrum'')|journal=Mammalia|volume=81|issue=5|year=2017|last1=Dinets
|first1=Vladimir|s2cid=89446862|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/311862704}}</ref>

==Range and habitat==
The spectral bat is found in [[Belize]], [[Bolivia]], [[Brazil]], [[Colombia]], [[Costa Rica]], [[Ecuador]], [[French Guiana]], [[Guatemala]], [[Guyana]], [[Honduras]], [[Mexico]], [[Nicaragua]], [[Peru]], [[Suriname]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]],<ref>{{cite web|website=The Online Guide to the Animals of Trinidad and Tobago |title=''Vampyrum spectrum'' (Spectral Bat)|publisher=[[University of the West Indies|UWI]] |url=https://sta.uwi.edu/fst/lifesciences/sites/default/files/lifesciences/documents/ogatt/Vampyrum_spectrum%20-%20Spectral%20Bat.pdf}}</ref> and [[Venezuela]].<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" /> It has been documented at elevations from {{cvt|0-1650|m|ft}} above sea level, though in Mexico it is only found in [[Upland and lowland|lowland]] areas of below {{cvt|150|m|ft}}. It is associated with [[tropical rainforest]]s.<ref name="Ceballos 2014"/> In 2010, the species was documented for the first time in the [[Cerrado]] of Brazil.<ref name="Sousa 2011">{{cite journal|doi=10.15560/7.4.468|title=Mammalia, Chiroptera, Phyllostomidae, ''Vampyrum spectrum'' (Linnaeus, 1758): First record for the Cerrado biome in the state of Mato Grosso, west central Brazil|journal=Check List|volume=7|issue=4|pages=468|year=2011|last1=Sousa|first1=Ricardo Firmino de|last2=Kreutz|first2=Carlos|last3=Oliveira|first3=Sérgio Lopes de|last4=Faria|first4=Karina De Cassia|doi-access=free}}</ref> It is occasionally encountered in [[pasture]]s and [[orchard]]s.<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" />

==Conservation==
As of 2018, the spectral bat is classified as [[near threatened]] by the [[IUCN]]. Its population size is difficult to assess, as it is rarely encountered. However, its population trend is assessed as decreasing.<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" /> It may be intentionally persecuted by humans. In [[Trinidad]], the bats are sometimes thought to be [[ghost]]s, and locals will seek out and destroy their roosts.<ref name="French 1997">{{cite web| url=http://www.batcon.org/resources/media-education/bats-magazine/bat_article/796| title=False Vampires and Other Carnivores| last=French| first=Barbara| year=1997|website=batcon.org| publisher=Bat Conservation International| access-date=17 July 2018 }}</ref>

As of 1999, the spectral bat is listed as endangered in [[Bolivia]].<ref name="Vargas 2004">{{cite journal|last1=Vargas Espinoza| first1= A.| last2= Aguirre| first2= L. F.| last3= Swarner| first3= M.| last4= Emmons| first4= L.| last5= Teran| first5= M.| year=2004| title= Distribución de ''Vampyrum spectrum'' en Bolivia y comentarios sobre su estado de conservación| journal= Ecología en Bolivia| volume= 39| issue=2| pages= 46–51|language=Spanish|trans-title=Distribution of ''Vampyrum spectrum'' in Bolivia and comments on its state of conservation|url=http://www.scielo.org.bo/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1605-25282004001000006}}</ref> It has been listed as an endangered species in [[Mexico]] since 2001.<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" />

{{clear}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Vampyrum spectrum}}

* {{YouTube|xV0CAwLwK2s}}: Biologist [[Rodrigo Medellín]] displaying a live spectral bat and describing it (in Spanish with English subtitles)

{{Phyllostomidae|P.}}
{{Taxonbar|from1=Q1142526|from2=Q10832379}}

[[Category:Phyllostomidae]]
[[Category:Bats of Central America]]
[[Category:Bats of South America]]
[[Category:Bats of Brazil]]
[[Category:Bats of Mexico]]
[[Category:Mammals of Colombia]]
[[Category:Mammals of Ecuador]]
[[Category:Mammals of Guyana]]
[[Category:Mammals of Trinidad and Tobago]]
[[Category:Mammals described in 1758]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]
[[Category:Fauna of Los Tuxtlas]]