Editing Sphagnum

{{Short description|Genus of mosses, peat moss}}
{{For|a genus of crustaceans|Sphaeromatidae}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}
{{Automatic_taxobox
| image = Sphagnum.flexuosum.jpg
| image_caption = ''Sphagnum flexuosum''
| taxon = Sphagnum
| authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = [[List of Sphagnum species|List of ''Sphagnum'' species]]
| synonyms = * ''Isocladus'' <small>Lindb.</small>
| synonyms_ref = <ref>[http://www.tropicos.org/Name/35000652 Tropicos, ''Isocladus'' Lindb.]</ref>
}}

'''''Sphagnum''''' is a [[genus]] of approximately 380 accepted [[species]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.schweizerbart.de/publications/detail/isbn/9783510480333/Bibliotheca_Botanica_Vol_162_Michaelis|title=Dierk Michaelis (2019): The ''Sphagnum'' Species of the World (''Sphagnum'' bible: keys for all peat moss species by continents, and ''Sphagnum'' species lists for 20 phytogeographic regions of the world) |date=21 November 2019 |publisher=Schweizerbart}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theplantlist.org/1.1/browse/B/Sphagnaceae/Sphagnum/ |title=''Sphagnum'' on theplantlist |publisher=Theplantlist.org |access-date=17 September 2016}}</ref> of [[moss]]es, commonly known as '''sphagnum moss''', also '''bog moss''' and '''quacker moss''' (although that term is also sometimes used for [[peat]]). Accumulations of ''Sphagnum'' can store water, since both living and dead plants can hold large quantities of water inside their cells; plants may hold 16 to 26 times as much water as their dry weight, depending on the species.<ref name="Bold">Bold, H. C. 1967. Morphology of Plants. second ed. Harper and Row, New York. p. 225–229.</ref> The empty cells help retain water in drier conditions.

As ''Sphagnum'' moss grows, it can slowly spread into drier conditions, forming larger [[mire]]s, both raised [[bog]]s and [[blanket bog]]s.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Gorham E. | year = 1957 | title = The development of peatlands | journal = Quarterly Review of Biology | volume = 32 | issue = 2 | pages = 145–66 | doi=10.1086/401755| s2cid = 129085635 }}</ref> Thus, ''Sphagnum'' can influence the composition of such habitats, with some describing ''Sphagnum'' as 'habitat manipulators' or 'autogenic ecosystem engineers'.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=van Breemen |first=Nico |date=1995 |title=How Sphagnum bogs down other plants |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-5347(95)90007-1 |journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=270–275 |doi=10.1016/0169-5347(95)90007-1 |pmid=21237035 |bibcode=1995TEcoE..10..270V |issn=0169-5347|url-access=subscription }}</ref> These [[peat]] accumulations then provide habitat for a wide array of peatland plants, including sedges and [[Calcifuge|ericaceous]] shrubs, as well as orchids and carnivorous plants.<ref name="oneill_khecheopalri">{{cite journal |last1=O'Neill |first1=Alexander |display-authors=etal |date=25 February 2020 |title= Establishing Ecological Baselines Around a Temperate Himalayan Peatland |journal= Wetlands Ecology & Management |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=375–388 | doi=10.1007/s11273-020-09710-7 |bibcode=2020WetEM..28..375O |s2cid=211081106 }}</ref><ref name="Keddy">Keddy, P. A. (2010). ''Wetland Ecology: Principles and Conservation'' (2nd edition). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. 397 pp.</ref>

''Sphagnum'' and the peat formed from it do not decay readily because of the [[natural phenol|phenolic compounds]] embedded in the moss's [[cell wall]]s. In addition, bogs, like all wetlands, develop anaerobic soil conditions, which produces slower [[Anaerobic digestion|anaerobic decay]] rather than aerobic microbial action. Peat moss can also acidify its surroundings by taking up [[cation]]s, such as [[calcium]] and [[magnesium]], and releasing [[hydrogen]] ions.

Under the right conditions, peat can accumulate to a depth of many meters. Different species of ''Sphagnum'' have different tolerance limits for flooding and pH, and any one peatland may have a number of different ''Sphagnum'' species.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Vitt D. H., Slack N. G. | year = 1984 | title = Niche diversification of ''Sphagnum'' relative to environmental factors in northern Minnesota peatlands | journal = Canadian Journal of Botany | volume = 62 | issue = 7 | pages = 1409–30 | doi=10.1139/b84-192| bibcode = 1984CaJB...62.1409V }}</ref><ref name="oneill_khecheopalri"/>

==Description==
An individual ''Sphagnum'' plant consists of a main '''stem''', with tightly arranged clusters of branch [[Fascicle (botany)|fascicles]] usually consisting of two or three spreading branches and two to four hanging branches. The top of the plant ('''capitulum)''' has compact clusters of young branches that give the plant its characteristic tuft-like appearance. Along the stem are scattered leaves of various shapes, named stem leaves; the shape varies according to species.[[File:Sphagnum cells.jpg|thumb|''Sphagnum'' cells]]
''Sphagnum'' has a distinctive cellular structure. The stem portion consists of two important sections. The [[pith]] which is the site of food production and storage, and the '''cortical layer''' which serves to absorb water and protect the pith. Mosses have no [[Vascular tissue|vascular system]] to move water and nutrients around the plant. Thus tissues are thin and usually one cell thick to allow them to diffuse easily. ''Sphagnum'' mosses have two distinct cell types. There are small, green, living cells with [[chlorophyll]] ('''chlorophyllose''' cells) that produce food for the plant. Additionally, there are larger [[hyaline]] or retort cells that are barrel shaped and have a pore at one end to allow for water absorption and improved water-holding capacity. These unique cells help ''Sphagnum'' to retain water during prolonged UV exposure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Morphology of the Sphagnopsida |url=https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/plants/bryophyta/sphagnomm.html |access-date=2023-04-06 |website=ucmp.berkeley.edu}}</ref>

=== Lifecycle ===
''Sphagnum'', like all other land plants, has an [[alternation of generations]]; like other [[bryophytes]], the haploid gametophyte generation is dominant and persistent. Unlike other mosses, the long-lived gametophytes do not rely upon rhizoids to assist in water uptake.<ref name="Bold"/>

''Sphagnum'' species can be unisexual (male or female, dioecious) or bisexual (male and female gametes produced from the same plant; [[monoecious]]); In North America, 80% of ''Sphagnum'' species are unisexual.<ref name=Andrus-2007>Andrus, Richard. [http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=130947 ''Sphagnum''.] ''[[Flora of North America]].'' 2007</ref>

Gametophytes have substantial asexual reproduction by [[fragmentation (reproduction)|fragmentation]], producing much of the living material in sphagnum peatlands.<ref>Rydin, Hakan and Jeglum, John K. 2006. Biology of Peatlands. Oxford University Press, Oxford.</ref>

Swimming [[sperm]] fertilize eggs contained in [[archegonia]] that remain attached to the female [[gametophyte]]. The [[sporophyte]] is relatively short-lived, and consists almost entirely of a shiny green, spherical spore capsule that becomes black with spores. Sporophytes are raised on stalks to facilitate spore dispersal, but unlike other mosses, ''Sphagnum'' stalks are produced by the maternal gametophyte. Tetrahedral haploid spores are produced in the sporophyte by meiosis, which are then dispersed when the capsule explosively discharges its cap, called an [[Operculum (botany)|operculum]], and shoots the spores some distance. The spores germinate to produce minute [[protonema]]e, which start as filaments, can become thalloid, and can produce a few rhizoids. Soon afterwards, the protonema develops buds and these differentiate into its characteristic, erect, leafy, branched gametophyte with chlorophyllose cells and hyaline cells.<ref>Schofield, W. B. 1985. Introduction to Bryology. Macmillan Publ. Co., N.Y. & London</ref> 

Carpets of living ''Sphagnum'' may be attacked by various [[fungus|fungi]], and one fungus that is also a [[mushroom]], ''[[Sphagnurus paluster]]'', produces conspicuous dead patches. When this fungus and other [[agaric]]s attack the [[protonema]], ''Sphagnum'' is induced to produce nonphotosynthetic [[Gemma (botany)|gemmae]] that can survive the fungal attack and months later germinate to produce new protonema and leafy gametophytes.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Redhead, S.A.|year=1981| title=Parasitism of bryophytes by agarics| journal=Can. J. Bot.| volume=59 | issue=1| pages=63–67 | doi=10.1139/b81-011|bibcode=1981CaJB...59...63R }}</ref>

=== Spore dispersal ===
As with many other [[moss]]es, ''Sphagnum'' species disperse spores through the wind. The tops of spore capsules are only about 1&nbsp;cm ({{frac|1|2}}") above ground, and where wind is weak. As the spherical spore capsule dries, the [[operculum (botany)|operculum]] is forced off, followed by a cloud of spores. The exact mechanism has traditionally attributed to a "pop gun" method using air compressed in the capsule, reaching a maximum velocity of {{convert|3.6|m|ft|abbr=off|sp=us}} per second,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Sebastian Sundberg |year=2010 |title=Size matters for violent discharge height and settling speed of ''Sphagnum'' spores: important attributes for dispersal potential |journal=[[Annals of Botany]] |volume=105 |issue=2 |pages=291–300 |doi=10.1093/aob/mcp288 |pmc=2814761 |pmid=20123930}}</ref> but alternative mechanisms have been recently proposed.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Jeff Duckett |last2=Pressel |first2=Silvia |author-link2=Silvia Pressel |last3=P’ng |first3=Ken M. Y. |last4=Renzaglia |first4=Karen S. |year=2009 |title=Exploding a myth: the capsule dehiscence mechanism and the function of pseudostomata in ''Sphagnum'' |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Retrieve&list_uids=19552695&dopt=abstractplus |journal=[[New Phytologist]] |volume=183 |issue=4 |pages=1053–63 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-8137.2009.02905.x |pmid=19552695|bibcode=2009NewPh.183.1053D }}</ref> High-speed photography has shown [[vortex ring]]s are created during the discharge, which enable the spores to reach a height of {{convert|10|to|20|cm|abbr=on|frac=2}}, further than would be expected by ballistics alone. The acceleration of the spores is about 36,000[[Gravitational acceleration|g]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Johan L. van Leeuwen |date=23 July 2010 |title=Launched at 36,000''g'' |journal=Science |volume=329 |issue=5990 |pages=395–6 |doi=10.1126/science.1193047 |pmid=20651138 |s2cid=206527957}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Dwight L. Whitaker and Joan Edwards |date=23 July 2010 |title=''Sphagnum'' Moss Disperses Spores with Vortex Rings |journal=Science |volume=329 |issue=5990 |page=406 |bibcode=2010Sci...329..406W |doi=10.1126/science.1190179 |pmid=20651145 |s2cid=206526774}}</ref> Spores are extremely important in establishment of new populations in disturbed habitats and on islands.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Sundberg, S |year=2005 |title=Larger capsules enhance short-range spore dispersal in ''Sphagnum'', but what happens further away? |journal=[[Oikos (journal)|Oikos]] |volume=108 |issue=1 |pages=115–124 |bibcode=2005Oikos.108..115S |doi=10.1111/j.0030-1299.2005.12916.x}}</ref>

Human activities like [[slash-and-burn]] and cattle grazing are believed to promote the growth and expansion of Sphagnum moss. Oceanic islands such as the [[Faroe Islands]], the [[Galápagos]] or the [[Azores]] have recorded a significant increase in their Sphagnum populations after human settlement.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Connor |first1=Simon E. |last2=van Leeuwen |first2=Jacqueline F.N. |last3=Rittenour |first3=Tammy M. |last4=van der Knaap |first4=Willem O. |last5=Ammann |first5=Brigitta |last6=Björck |first6=Svante |date=June 2012 |title=The ecological impact of oceanic island colonization - a palaeoecological perspective from the Azores: Palaeoecology of human colonization of the Azores |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230538747 |journal=Journal of Biogeography |volume=39 |issue=6 |pages=1007–1023 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2699.2011.02671.x |s2cid=86191735 |access-date=13 January 2022 |hdl-access=free |hdl=11343/55221}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lawson |first1=Ian T. |last2=Church |first2=Mike J. |last3=Edwards |first3=Kevin J. |last4=Cook |first4=Gordon T. |last5=Dugmore |first5=Andrew J. |date=March 2007 |title=Peat initiation in the Faroe Islands: climate change, pedogenesis or human impact? |url=https://durham-repository.worktribe.com/file/1592891/1/Published%20Journal%20Article |journal=Earth and Environmental Science Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh |volume=98 |issue=1 |pages=15–28 |bibcode=2007EESTR..98...15L |doi=10.1017/S1755691007000035 |s2cid=51730103 |access-date=13 January 2022 |hdl-access=free |hdl=10023/5982}}</ref>

==Taxonomy==
{{Further|List of Sphagnum species{{!}}List of ''Sphagnum'' species}}
Peat moss can be distinguished from other moss species by its unique branch clusters. The plant and stem color, the shape of the branch and stem leaves, and the shape of the green cells are all characteristics used to identify peat moss to species. ''Sphagnum'' taxonomy has been very contentious since the early 1900s; most species require microscopic dissection to be identified. In the field, most ''Sphagnum'' species can be identified to one of four major sections of the genus—classification and descriptions follow Andrus 2007 (Flora North America):<ref name=Andrus-2007/>

[[File:Red Sphagnum Closeup.JPG|thumb|Red sphagnum closeup|right]]
*''Sphagnum'' sect. ''Acutifolia'' plants generally form hummocks above the water line, usually colored orange or red. Examples: ''[[Sphagnum fuscum]]'' and ''S.&nbsp;warnstorfii''.
*''Sphagnum'' sect. ''Cuspidata'' plants are usually found in hollows, lawns, or are aquatic, and are green. Examples: ''[[Sphagnum cuspidatum]]'' and ''S.&nbsp;flexuosum''.
*''Sphagnum'' sect. ''Sphagnum'' plants have the largest gametophytes among the sections, forming large hummocks, their leaves form cuculate (hood-shaped) apices, and are green, except for ''[[Sphagnum magellanicum|S. magellanicum]]'' Example: ''Sphagnum austinii''.
*''Sphagnum'' sect. ''Subsecunda'' plants vary in color from green to yellow and orange (but never red), and are found in hollows, lawns, or are aquatic. Species always with unisexual gametophytes. Examples: ''Sphagnum lescurii'' and ''Sphagnum pylaesii''.

The reciprocal [[monophyly]] of these sections and two other minor ones (''Rigida'' and ''Squarrosa'') has been clarified using molecular [[phylogenetics]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Shaw | first1 = A.J. | last2 = Cox | first2 = C. | last3 = Boles | first3 = S.B. | year = 2003 | title = Polarity of peatmoss (''Sphagnum'') evolution: who says bryophytes have no roots? |doi=10.3732/ajb.90.12.1777 | journal = [[American Journal of Botany]] | volume = 90 | issue = 12| pages = 1777–1787 | pmid=21653354| doi-access = free | bibcode = 2003AmJB...90.1777S }}</ref> All but two species normally identified as ''Sphagnum'' reside in one clade; two other species have recently been separated into new families within the [[Sphagnales]] reflecting an ancestral relationship with the [[Tasmania]]n endemic ''[[Ambuchanania]]'' and long phylogenetic distance to the rest of ''Sphagnum''.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Shaw A.J. |display-authors=etal | year = 2010 | title = Newly resolved relationships in an early land plant lineage: Bryophyta class Sphagnopsida (peat mosses) | journal = American Journal of Botany | volume = 97 |issue=9 | pages = 1511–1531 | doi=10.3732/ajb.1000055 | pmid=21616905|hdl=10161/4194 |url=https://phaidra.univie.ac.at/o:245334 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> Within main clade of ''Sphagnum'', phylogenetic distance is relatively short, and molecular dating methods suggest nearly all current ''Sphagnum'' species are descended from a radiation that occurred just 14 million years ago.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Shaw A.J. |display-authors=etal | year = 2010 | title = Peatmoss (''Sphagnum'') diversification associated with Miocene Northern Hemisphere climatic cooling? | journal = [[Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution]] | volume = 55 | issue = 3| pages = 1139–1145 | doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2010.01.020|pmid=20102745 |bibcode=2010MolPE..55.1139S }}</ref>

==Distribution==
[[File:Sphagnum Brown's Lake Bog.jpg|thumb|''Sphagnum'' with northern pitcher plants (''[[Sarracenia purpurea]]'') at [[Brown's Lake Bog]], [[Ohio]]]]

''Sphagnum'' mosses occur mainly in the [[Northern Hemisphere]] in peat bogs, conifer forests, and moist [[tundra]] areas. Their northernmost populations lie in the archipelago of [[Svalbard]], Arctic [[Norway]], at 81° N.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nakatsubo |first1=Takayuki |last2=Uchida |first2=Masaki |last3=Sasaki |first3=Akiko |last4=Kondo |first4=Miyuki |last5=Yoshitake |first5=Shinpei |last6=Kanda |first6=Hiroshi |date=2015-06-01 |title=Carbon accumulation rate of peatland in the High Arctic, Svalbard: Implications for carbon sequestration |journal=Polar Science |language=en |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=267–275 |doi=10.1016/j.polar.2014.12.002 |bibcode=2015PolSc...9..267N |issn=1873-9652|doi-access=free }}</ref>

In the [[Southern Hemisphere]], the largest peat areas are in southern [[Chile]] and [[Argentina]], part of the vast [[Magellanic moorland]] (''circa'' 44,000 square km; 17,000 sq. mi).<ref>Arroyo, M.T.K., P. Mihoc, P. Pliscoff and M. Arroyo-Kalin. (2005). The Magellanic moorland. P. 424–445 in L.H. Fraser and P.A. Keddy (eds.). The World's Largest Wetlands: Ecology and Conservation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.</ref> Peat areas are also found in [[New Zealand]] and [[Tasmania]]. In the Southern Hemisphere, however, peat landscapes may contain many moss species other than ''Sphagnum''. ''Sphagnum'' species are also reported from "dripping rocks" in mountainous, subtropical [[Brazil]].<ref>{{cite journal | author = Crum H | year = 1991 | title = Two new species of ''Sphagnum'' from Brazil | journal = The Bryologist | volume = 94 | issue = 3 | pages = 301–303 | doi=10.2307/3243970| jstor = 3243970 }}</ref>

== Conservation ==
[[File:MerBleueBog.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Mer Bleue Conservation Area]], a large, protected ''Sphagnum'' bog near Ottawa, Ontario, Canada]]

Several of the world's largest wetlands are sphagnum-dominated [[bogs]], including the West Siberian Lowland, the Hudson Bay Lowland and the Mackenzie River Valley. These areas provide habitat for common and rare species. They also store large amounts of carbon, which helps reduce global warming.<ref>Fraser, L. H. and P. A. Keddy (eds.). 2005. ''The World's Largest Wetlands: Ecology and Conservation''. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. p. 488</ref>

According to an article written in 2013, the U.S. got up to 80% of sphagnum peat moss it uses from Canada. At that time, in Canada, the peat bog mass harvested each year was roughly 1/60th of the peat mass that annually accumulated. About 0.02% of the {{convert|1.1|e6km2|sqmi|abbr=unit}} of Canadian peat bog are used for peat moss mining.<ref>Trail, Jesse Vernon. [http://www.theecologist.org/blogs_and_comments/commentators/other_comments/1780209/the_truth_about_peat_moss.html The truth about peat moss.] ''The Ecologist''. 25 January 2013.</ref> Some efforts are being made to restore peat bogs after peat mining, and some debate exists as to whether the peat bogs can be restored to their premining condition and how long the process takes. "The North American Wetlands Conservation Council estimates that harvested peatlands can be restored to 'ecologically balanced systems' within five to 20 years after peat harvesting." Some wetlands scientists assert that "a managed bog bears little resemblance to a natural one. Like tree farms, these peatlands tend toward monoculture, lacking the biodiversity of an unharvested bog."<ref>Priesnitz, Wendy. [http://www.naturallifemagazine.com/0712/asknlpeat.html "Ask Natural Life: Does Peat Moss Have a Place In the Ecological Garden"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140705213029/http://www.naturallifemagazine.com/0712/asknlpeat.html|date=5 July 2014}}. ''Natural Life Magazine''. 1 July 2012.</ref>

PittMoss, a peat moss alternative made from recycled newspaper, has emerged as a sustainable substitute in growing media.<ref>[https://app.box.com/shared/lsx0s8flsk Cellulose Based Soil Medium as a Peat Moss Substitute] ''EPA/SBIR Sponsored (Contract No. 68D60035)(C) 1997 Wabash Vallet Products, Inc. Crown Point, Indiana.''</ref> [[Coir]] has also been touted as a sustainable alternative to peat moss in growing media.<ref>Richards, Davi. [http://extension.oregonstate.edu/news/story.php?S_No=904&storyType=garde Coir is sustainable alternative to peat moss in the garden.] ''Oregon State University Extension Service.''</ref> Another peat moss alternative is manufactured in California from sustainably harvested [[Sequoia sempervirens|redwood]] fiber. Semi-open cell polyurethane materials available in flaked and sheet stock are also finding application as sphagnum replacements with typical usage in green wall and roof garden substrates.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Raviv |first=Michael |title=Soilless Culture: Theory and Practice: Theory and Practice |publisher=Elsevier}}</ref>

===Chile===
{{see also|Magellanic moorland|Urban Wetlands Law}}

In the 2010s, ''Sphagnum'' peat in [[Chile]] bagan to be harvested at a large scale for export to countries like Japan, South Korea, Taiwan and the United States. ''Sphagnum''’s ability to absorb excess water and release it during dry months means that [[overexploitation]] may threaten the water supply in the [[fjords and channels of Chile]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Molinet |first1=Carlos |last2=Solari |first2=María Eugenia |last3=Díaz |first3=Manuel |last4=Marticorena |first4=Francisca |last5=Díaz |first5=Patricio A. |last6=Navarro |first6=Magdalena |last7=Niklitschek |first7=Edwin |year=2018 |title=Fragmentos de la historia ambiental del sistema de fiordos y canales nor-patagónicos, Sur de Chile: Dos siglos de explotación |journal=[[Magallania]] |language=es |volume=46 |issue=2 |pages=107–128 |doi=10.4067/S0718-22442018000200107 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Extraction of ''Sphagnum'' in Chile has been regulated by law since 2 August 2018.<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 February 2018 |title=Ministerio de Agricultura dicta decreto que regula extracción de musgo de turberas |url=http://www.chilesustentable.net/ministerio-de-agricultura-dicta-decreto-que-regula-extraccion-de-musgo-de-turberas/ |access-date=14 July 2019 |website=Chile Sustentable |language=es}}</ref> Between 2018 and 2024, Chilean law allowed for the manual extraction of ''Sphagnum'' using only pitchforks or similar tools as an aid.<ref name="leychile">{{Cite web |date=2 August 2017 |title=Dispone Medidas Para La Protección Del Musgo ''Sphagnum magellanicum'' |url=https://www.leychile.cl/Navegar?idNorma=1114649 |access-date=17 July 2019 |website=leychile.cl |publisher=Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional |language=es}}</ref> In a given designated harvesting area (polygon) at least 30% of ''Sphagnum'' coverage had to be left unharvested.<ref name="leychile" /> Harvested ''Sphagnum'' fibers we not allowed to exceed {{convert|15|cm|in|abbr=on}} in length and the remaining ''Sphagnum'' after harvest was not to be left with a length of less than {{convert|5|cm|in|abbr=on}} over the water table.<ref name="leychile" /> In the regions of [[Los Ríos Region|Los Ríos]] (40°S) and [[Los Lagos Region|Los Lagos]] (41–43°S) the same plots could be harvested after 12 years, while further south in [[Aysén Region|Aysén]] (44–48°S) and [[Magallanes Region|Magallanes]] (49–56°S) 85 years had to pass before the same area can be harvested again.<ref name="leychile" /> 

According to a 2024 law harvesting of ''Sphagnum'' can only be done with land-management plans approved by [[Servicio Agrícola y Ganadero]].<ref name=ley21660>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bcn.cl/leychile/navegar?idNorma=1202472|title=Ley 21660 Sobre protección ambiental de las turberas|date=2024-04-10|access-date=2024-09-11|website=bcn.cl|publisher=[[Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional]]|language=Spanish}}</ref><ref name=circular>{{Cite news |title=Congreso despachó proyecto de protección de turberas que prohíbe extracción de la turba y permite la explotación del pompón |url=https://www.paiscircular.cl/agua/congreso-despacho-proyecto-de-proteccion-de-turberas-que-prohibe-extraccion-de-la-turba-y-permite-la-explotacion-del-pompon/ |last=Maldonado Caballero |first=Claudia |date=2024-03-06 |language=Spanish}}</ref> Some environmental organisations expressed regret as the original law project presented in 2018 sought the extablish a definitive ban on the harvest.<ref name=circular/> Along [[Rubens River]] in [[Magallanes Region]] there are some historically important harvesting fields of peat in ''Sphagnum'' peatlands.<ref name=anales>{{Cite journal |title=Efectos de la extracción de turba sobre la composición y estructura de una turbera de Sphagnum explotada y abandonada hace 20 años, Chile |journal=[[Anales del Instituto de la Patagonia]] |last1=Domínguez |first1=Erwin |issue=2 |volume=40 |pages=37–45 |last2=Bahamonde |first2=Nelson |language=Spanish |trans-title=Effects of peat extraction on the structure and composition of Sphagnum peatland exploited and abandones for 20 years, Chile |last3=Muñoz-Escobar |first3=Christian|date=2012 |doi=10.4067/S0718-686X2012000200003 |doi-access=free }}</ref> ''Sphagnum'' peatlands in Chile disturbed by peat extraction have been found to host various [[invasive species|invasive]] plant species including ''[[Rumex acetosella]]'', ''[[Carex canescens]]'', ''[[Holcus lanatus]]'' and ''[[Hieracium pilosella]]''.<ref name=anales/> Harvesting of peat in ''Sphagnum'' mosses or any where else is forbidden in Chile since April 2024.<ref name=ley21660/>

Harvesting aside, bogs where ''Sphagnum'' grows have also come under threat by the development of [[wind farm]]s in cool humid areas such as the [[Cordillera del Piuchén]] where the [[San Pedro Wind Farm]] was constructed in the 2010s.<ref name="Vanetal18">{{Cite book |last1=Durán |first1=Vanessa |title=Archipiélago de Chiloé: nuevas lecturas de un territorio en movimiento |last2=Moncada |first2=Eduardo |last3=Natho |first3=Federico |publisher=CESCH |year=2018 |isbn=978-956-09219-0-1 |pages=7–17 |language=es |chapter=Megaparques eólicos, destrucción de turberas y conflictividad sociopolítica}}</ref> The construction of each [[wind turbine]] usually implies the removal of vegetation and the alteration of the soil, changing the local [[hydrology]].<ref name="Vanetal18" />

===Europe===
Europe has a long history of the exploitation of peatlands. The [[Netherlands]], for example, once had large areas of peatland, both fen and bog. Between 100 AD and the present, they were drained and converted to agricultural land.<ref name="Keddy" />{{rp|Fig. 14.2}} The English broadlands have small lakes that originated as peat mines.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Moss B |year=1984 |title=Medieval man-made lakes: progeny and casualties of English social history, patients of twentieth century ecology |journal=Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=115–28 |bibcode=1984TRSSA..45..115M |doi=10.1080/00359198409519477}}</ref>
More than 90% of the bogs in England have been damaged or destroyed.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/cumbria/3942167.stm Insight into threatened peat bogs.] ''BBC News.''</ref><ref>[http://www.rspb.org.uk/ourwork/policy/water/water/peat_bogs/index.asp The RSPB: Policy]</ref> A handful of bogs has been preserved through government buyouts of peat-mining interests.<ref>Jeffery, Simon. [https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2002/feb/27/simonjeffery Bogs to be preserved for peat's sake]. ''The Guardian''. 27 February 2002.</ref> Over longer time scales, however, some parts of England, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales have seen expansion of bogs, particularly blanket bogs, in response to deforestation and abandonment of agricultural land.<ref name="Keddy" />{{rp|Fig. 11.8}}

===New Zealand===
[[New Zealand]] has, like other parts of the world, lost large areas of [[mire|peatland]]. The latest estimates for wetland loss in New Zealand are 90% over 150 years.<ref>Peters, M. and Clarkson, B. 2010. Wetland Restoration: A Handbook for New Zealand Freshwater Systems. Manaaki Whenua Press, Lincoln, N.Z. {{ISBN|978-0-478-34707-4}} (online)</ref> In some cases, better care is taken during the harvesting of ''Sphagnum'' to ensure enough moss is remaining to allow regrowth. An 8-year cycle is suggested, but some sites require a longer cycle of 11 to 32 years for full recovery of biomass, depending on factors including whether reseeding is done, the light intensity, and the water table.<ref>Sphagnum research programme: the ecological effects of commercial harvesting Department of Conservation R. P. Buxton, P. N. Johnson and P. R. Espie. Wellington, N.Z. Department of Conservation, 1996 {{ISBN|0478017871}} http://www.doc.govt.nz/documents/science-and-technical/sfc025.pdf (Retrieved 10 January 2013)</ref> This "farming" is based on a sustainable management program approved by New Zealand's [[Department of Conservation (New Zealand)|Department of Conservation]]; it ensures the regeneration of the moss, while protecting the wildlife and the environment. Most harvesting in New Zealand swamps is done only using pitchforks without the use of heavy machinery. During transportation, helicopters are commonly employed to transfer the newly harvested moss from the swamp to the nearest road.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}

==Uses==
[[File:Vanda falcata asahiden.jpg|thumb|right|Long strand Sphagnum moss used in mounting a Vanda Falcata orchid]]
Decayed, dried sphagnum moss has the name of peat or peat moss. This is used as a [[soil conditioner]] which increases the soil's capacity to hold water and nutrients by increasing [[Capillary action|capillary forces]] and [[cation exchange capacity]] – uses that are particularly useful in gardening. This is often desired when dealing with very [[sand]]y soil, or plants that need increased or steady moisture content to flourish. A distinction is sometimes made between sphagnum moss, the live moss growing on top of a peat bog, and 'sphagnum peat moss' (North American usage) or 'sphagnum peat' (British usage), the latter being the slowly decaying matter underneath.<ref>Hood, Gerry (January 1995). "Don't Confuse Sphagnum Moss with Peat Moss". ''African Violet Magazine'', p. 34</ref>

Dried sphagnum moss is used in northern [[Arctic]] regions as an [[Building insulation|insulating]] material.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}

Anaerobic acidic sphagnum bogs have low rates of decay, and hence preserve plant fragments and pollen to allow reconstruction of past environments.<ref name="Keddy" /> They even preserve human bodies for millennia; examples of these preserved specimens are [[Tollund Man]], [[Haraldskær Woman]], [[Clonycavan Man]] and [[Lindow Man]]. Such bogs can also preserve human hair and clothing, one of the most noteworthy examples being [[Egtved Girl]], [[Denmark]]. Because of the acidity of peat, however, bones are dissolved rather than preserved. These bogs have also been used to preserve food.<ref>Madrigal, Alexis. [https://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2009/08/bogosphere/ Bogosphere: The Strangest Things Pulled Out of Peat Bogs.] ''[[Wired Magazine]].'' 21 August 2009</ref> Up to 2000-year-old containers of [[butter]] or [[lard]] have been found.<ref>[https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg18124392.400-bog-butter-test.html Bog Butter Test.] ''New Scientist''. 20 March 2004.</ref>

[[File:Making sphagnum moss dressings, University of Toronto.jpg|thumb|Sphagnum moss wound dressings being made at the [[University of Toronto]] c. 1914]]
''Sphagnum'' moss has been used for centuries as a dressing for wounds, including through [[World War I]].<ref name="Bold" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://eol.org/pages/47595/details |title=Facts about Peat Moss (''Sphagnum'') – Encyclopedia of Life |publisher=Eol.org |access-date=11 September 2013}}</ref> Botanist [[John William Hotson]]'s paper, "Sphagnum as a surgical dressing", published in ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'' in 1918, was instrumental in the acceptance of ''Sphagnum'' moss use as a medical dressing in place of cotton.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hotson |first=J. W. |date=1918-08-30 |title=Sphagnum as a Surgical Dressing |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.48.1235.203 |journal=Science |volume=48 |issue=1235 |pages=203–208 |doi=10.1126/science.48.1235.203 |pmid=17779474 |bibcode=1918Sci....48..203H |issn=0036-8075|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Thieret |first=John W. |date=January 1956 |title=Bryophytes as economic plants |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/BF02985319 |journal=Economic Botany |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=75–91 |doi=10.1007/BF02985319 |bibcode=1956EcBot..10...75T |issn=0013-0001|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Preparations using ''Sphagnum'' such as Sphagnol soap have been used for various skin conditions including [[acne]], [[Dermatophytosis|ringworm]], and [[Dermatitis|eczema]]. The soap was used by the [[British Red Cross]] during both World Wars to treat facial wounds and trench sores.<ref>{{Cite web|title='Sphagnol soap' cake, London, England, 1945-1960|url=https://wellcomecollection.org/works/xrjdf2d7|access-date=2021-09-13|website=Wellcome Collection|language=en|archive-date=13 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913074043/https://wellcomecollection.org/works/xrjdf2d7|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Since it is absorptive and extremely acidic, it inhibits growth of bacteria and fungi, so it is used for shipping seeds and live plants.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}

Sphagnum moss is used as a substrate in reptile terrariums because it supports humidity and provides a soft base for burrowing or nesting.<ref>[https://thegeckopia.com/blogs/news/sphagnum-moss-beginners-guide?srsltid=AfmBOopPXoG5scyfTL8cVWr4xpZzRjiGs4HKb1UjLxVTtrtmBiva-8Jx]</ref>

Peat moss is used to dispose of the clarified liquid output (effluent) from [[septic tank]]s in areas that lack the proper conditions for ordinary disposal means. It is also used as an environmentally friendly alternative to [[chlorine]] in [[swimming pool sanitation]].<ref>[http://wcco.com/consumer/moss.chlorine.pools.2.796768.html Moss Proving An Alternative To Chlorine In Pools.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080821044541/http://wcco.com/consumer/moss.chlorine.pools.2.796768.html |date=21 August 2008 }} WCCO. 15 August 2008.</ref> The moss inhibits the growth of [[microorganism|microbes]] and reduces the need for chlorine in swimming pools.<ref>Hill, Catey. [http://www.nydailynews.com/money/2009/10/29/2009-10-29_george_clooney_buys_estate_next_to_brad_pitt_angelina_jolie_in_france.html Time to fire the pool boy? Moss helps pools stay clean.] ''[[Daily News (New York)|Daily News]]''. 29 October 2009.</ref>

In [[Finland]], peat mosses have been used to make bread during [[famines]].<ref>Engman, Max; D. G. Kirby (1989). ''Finland: people, nation, state''. C. Hurst & Co. p. 45. {{ISBN|0-253-32067-4}}.</ref>

In [[China]], [[Japan]] and [[Korea]], long strand dried sphagnum moss is traditionally used as a potting medium for cultivating [[Vanda falcata]] orchids.<ref>''Art of tradition and evolution: Fukiran, 2014''. {{ISBN|978-4886163103}}.</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.schweizerbart.de/publications/detail/isbn/9783510480333/Bibliotheca_Botanica_Vol_162_Michaelis Michaelis, Dierk (2019): The ''Sphagnum'' Species of the World. 435 p. Schweizerbart] Describes anatomy and morphology of ''Sphagnum'', explains reproductive biology, research history and phylogenesis of peat mosses. The systematic part: Description and identification of the sections, keys for all peat moss species by continent, and ''Sphagnum'' species lists for 20 phytogeographic regions of the world. Keys for Africa, Europe and North America are based on existing data and were revised and supplemented.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20131019023919/http://sphagnumfarming.uni-greifswald.de/en/ Website about sphagnum farming in Germany, in English and German]
* [https://sites.google.com/site/guidetosphagnum/ On-line guide to ''Sphagnum''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201012085617/https://sites.google.com/site/guidetosphagnum/ |date=12 October 2020 }}
* [http://www.landcareresearch.co.nz/services/biocons/wetlands Guide to wetland restoration in New Zealand] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120608115812/http://landcareresearch.co.nz/services/biocons/wetlands/ |date=8 June 2012 }}
* [https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=sites&srcid=ZGVmYXVsdGRvbWFpbnxndWlkZXRvc3BoYWdudW18Z3g6NGY3YzI3OTgzOGM2OTEzNg/ Poster guide to ''Sphagnum'']

{{Taxonbar|from=Q30019}}
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[[Category:Sphagnum| ]]
[[Category:Bogs]]
[[Category:Moss genera]]
[[Category:Bryophyta of Australasia]]
[[Category:Bryophyta of North America]]
[[Category:Pakihi]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]