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{{Short description|Bone of the middle ear}} {{Italic title}} {{Infobox bone | Name = ''Stapes'' | Latin = ''stapes'' | Image = Stapes bone svg hariadhi.svg | Caption = Frontal view of ''stapes'' (A), and view from below (B). | Precursor = Second [[branchial arch]] | PartOf = [[Middle ear]] | Pronunciation = {{IPAc-en|'|s|t|ei|p|i:|z}} | System = [[Auditory system]] | Articulations = [[Incudostapedial joint]] }} {{Ear series|expanded=Middle}} The '''''stapes''''' or '''stirrup''' is a [[bone]] in the [[middle ear]] of humans and other tetrapods which is involved in the conduction of sound vibrations to the [[inner ear]]. This bone is connected to the [[oval window]] by its [[Annular ligament of stapes|annular ligament]], which allows the footplate (or base) to transmit sound energy through the [[oval window]] into the inner ear. The ''stapes'' is the smallest and lightest bone in the [[human body]], and is so-called because of its resemblance to a [[stirrup]] ({{langx|la|Stapes}}). ==Structure== {{See also|Ossicles}} [[File:Stapes human ear.jpg|thumb|The size of the ''stapes'', compared with a 10-cent [[euro]] coin.]] The ''stapes'' is the third bone of the three [[ossicles]] in the [[middle ear]] and the smallest in the human body. It measures roughly {{nowrap|2 to 3 mm}}, greater along the head-base span.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Àwengen |first1=D. F. |last2=Nishihara |first2=S. |last3=Kurokawa |first3=H. |last4=Goode |first4=R. L. |title=Measurements of the stapes superstructure |journal=The Annals of Otology, Rhinology, and Laryngology |date=April 1995 |volume=104 |issue=4 Pt 1 |pages=311–6 |pmid=7717624 |doi=10.1177/000348949510400411|s2cid=43418740 }}</ref> It rests on the [[oval window]], to which it is connected by an [[annular ligament of stapes|annular ligament]] and articulates with the ''[[incus]]'', or anvil through the [[incudostapedial joint]].<ref name=CHAPMAN2011/> They are connected by anterior and posterior limbs ({{langx|la|crura}}).<ref name=GRAYS2005>{{cite book |last=Drake |first=Richard L. |title=[[Gray's Anatomy for Students]] |year=2005 |publisher=Elsevier/Churchill Livingstone |location=Philadelphia |isbn=978-0-8089-2306-0 |author2=Vogl, Wayne |author3=Tibbitts, Adam W. M. Mitchell |others=Illustrations by Richard Tibbitts and Paul Richardson}}</ref>{{rp|862}} ===Development=== The ''stapes'' develops from the second [[pharyngeal arch]] during the sixth to eighth week of [[embryo|embryological life]]. The central cavity of the ''stapes'', the ''obturator foramen'', is due to the presence embryologically of the [[stapedial artery]], which usually regresses in humans during normal development.<ref name=CHAPMAN2011>{{cite journal |last=Chapman |first=S. C.|title=Can you hear me now? Understanding vertebrate middle ear development |journal=Frontiers in Bioscience |date=January 1, 2011 |volume=16 |issue=5 |pages=1675–92 |pmid=21196256 |doi=10.2741/3813 |pmc=3065862}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Rodriguez-Vazquez |first=J. F. |title=Development of the stapes and associated structures in human embryos |journal=Journal of Anatomy |date=August 2005 |volume=207 |issue=2 |pages=165–173 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7580.2005.00441.x |pmid=16050903 |pmc=1571512}}</ref> ===Animals=== {{See also|Evolution of mammalian auditory ossicles}} The ''stapes'' is one of three ossicles in mammals. In non-mammalian [[tetrapod|tetrapods]], the bone [[Homology (biology)|homologous]] to the ''stapes'' is usually called the [[columella (auditory system)|columella]]; however, in [[reptile]]s, either term may be used. In fish, the homologous bone is called the [[hyomandibula]]r, and is part of the [[gill arch]] supporting either the [[Spiracle (vertebrates)|spiracle]] or the jaw, depending on the species. The equivalent term in [[amphibian]]s is the ''{{lang|la|pars media plectra}}''.<ref name=CHAPMAN2011/><ref name=VB>{{cite book |last1= Romer |first1 =Alfred Sherwood |last2 = Parsons |first2 = Thomas S |publisher = Holt-Saunders International |year = 1977 |location = Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |title=The Vertebrate Body |isbn= 978-0-03-910284-5 }}</ref>{{rp|481–482}} ===Variation=== The ''stapes'' appears to be relatively constant in size in different ethnic groups.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Arensburg |first1=B. |last2=Harell |first2=M. |last3=Nathan |first3=H. |title=The human middle ear ossicles: Morphometry, and taxonomic implications |journal=Journal of Human Evolution |date=February 1981 |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=199–205 |doi=10.1016/S0047-2484(81)80018-8|bibcode=1981JHumE..10..199A }}</ref> In 0.01–0.02% of people, the stapedial artery does not regress, and persists in the central foramen.<ref name=MUTLU1998>{{cite journal |last1=Mutlu |first1=C. |last2=da Costa |first2=S. S. |author3=Paparella, MM |author4=Schachern, Pennsylvania |title=Clinical-histopathological correlations of pitfalls in middle ear surgery. |journal=European Archives of Oto-Rhino-Laryngology |year=1998 |volume=255 |issue=4 |pages=189–194 |pmid=9592676 |doi=10.1007/s004050050041|s2cid=25682582 }}</ref> In this case, a pulsatile sound may be heard in the affected ear, or there may be no symptoms at all.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Silbergleit |first1=R. |last2=Quint |first2=D. J. |last3=Mehta |first3=B. A. |last4=Patel |first4=S. C. |last5=Metes |first5=J. J. |last6=Noujaim |first6=S. E. |title=The persistent stapedial artery |journal=American Journal of Neuroradiology|date=Mar 2000 |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=572–577 |pmid=10730654|pmc=8174972 }}</ref> Rarely, the ''stapes'' may be completely absent.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Reiber |first1=M. |last2=Schwaber |first2=M. |title=Congenital absence of stapes and facial nerve dehiscence |journal=Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery |date=February 1997 |volume=116 |issue=2 |pages=278 |doi=10.1016/S0194-5998(97)70343-7 |pmid=9051082|s2cid=33351053 }}</ref><ref name=TMS2008 />{{rp|262}} ==Function== {{Main|Hearing}} Situated between the incus and the inner ear, the ''stapes'' transmits sound vibrations from the incus to the oval window, a membrane-covered opening to the inner ear. The ''stapes'' is also stabilized by the [[stapedius]] muscle, which is innervated by the [[facial nerve]].<ref name=GRAYS2005 />{{rp|861–863}} ==Clinical relevance== [[Otosclerosis]] is a congenital or spontaneous-onset disease characterized by abnormal [[bone remodeling]] in the inner ear. Often this causes the ''stapes'' to adhere to the oval window, which impedes its ability to conduct sound, and is a cause of [[conductive hearing loss]]. Clinical otosclerosis is found in about 1% of people, although it is more common in forms that do not cause noticeable hearing loss. Otosclerosis is more likely in young age groups, and females.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Menger|first1=D. J.|last2=Tange |first2=R. A. |title=The aetiology of otosclerosis: a review of the literature|journal=Clinical Otolaryngology and Allied Sciences|date=April 2003|volume=28|issue=2|pages=112–120|doi=10.1046/j.1365-2273.2003.00675.x|pmid=12680829|doi-access=free}}</ref> Two common treatments are [[stapedectomy]], the surgical removal of the ''stapes'' and replacement with an artificial prosthesis, and [[Stapedectomy#Stapedotomy|stapedotomy]], the creation of a small hole in the base of the ''stapes'' followed by the insertion of an artificial prosthesis into that hole.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hall|first1=John E. |first2=Arthur C. |last2=Guyton |title=Textbook of medical physiology|year=2005|publisher=W. B. Saunders|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-0-7216-0240-0|edition=11th}}</ref> {{rp|661}} Surgery may be complicated by a [[persistent stapedial artery]], [[fibrosis]]-related damage to the base of the bone, or obliterative otosclerosis, resulting in obliteration of the base.<ref name=MUTLU1998 /><ref name=TMS2008>{{cite book|title=Tympanoplasty, Mastoidectomy, and Stapes Surgery|year=2008|publisher=Georg Thieme Verlag|isbn=978-1-282-86537-2}}</ref> {{rp|254–262}} ==History== [[File:Ingrassia stapes noback.jpg|thumb|The ''stapes'', as first described by [[Giovanni Filippo Ingrassia]] ''(Labeled M, bottom right)''.]] The ''stapes'' is commonly described as having been discovered by the professor [[Giovanni Filippo Ingrassia]] in 1546 at the [[University of Naples]],<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Dispenza|first1=F.|last2=Cappello |first2=F. |last3=Kulamarva |first3=G. |last4=De Stefano |first4=A. |title=The discovery of stapes|journal=Acta Otorhinolaryngologica Italica |date=October 2013|volume=33|issue=5|pages=357–359|pmid=24227905 |pmc=3825043}}</ref> although this remains the nature of some controversy, as Ingrassia's description was published posthumously in his 1603 anatomical commentary ''{{lang|la|In Galeni librum de ossibus doctissima et expectatissima commentaria}}''. Spanish anatomist [[Pedro Jimeno]] is first to have been credited with a published description, in {{lang|la|Dialogus de re medica}} (1549).<ref>{{cite journal|last=Mudry|first=Albert|title=Disputes Surrounding the Discovery of the Stapes in the Mid 16th Century|journal=Otology & Neurotology|date=April 2013|volume=34|issue=3|pages=588–592|doi=10.1097/MAO.0b013e31827d8abc|pmid=23370557|s2cid=30466939 }}</ref> The bone is so-named because of its resemblance to a stirrup ({{langx|la|stapes}}), an example of a [[late Latin]] word, probably created in [[mediaeval]] times from "to stand" ({{langx|la|stapia}}), as stirrups did not exist in the early Latin-speaking world.<ref>{{cite web|last=Harper|first=Douglas|title=Stapes (n.)|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=stapes|work=Online Etymology Dictionary|access-date=27 December 2013}}</ref> ==References== {{Reflist}} ==External links== {{Commons}} * {{cite web | url = http://research.meei.harvard.edu/otopathology/3dmodels/ | title = 3-D Virtual Models of the Human Temporal Bone and Related Structures | publisher = Eaton Peabody Laboratory of Auditory Physiology | access-date = September 8, 2016 | archive-date = April 13, 2016 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160413034745/http://research.meei.harvard.edu/Otopathology/3dmodels/ | url-status = dead }} {{Anatomy-terms}} {{Auditory system}} {{HumanBones}} {{Authority control}} {{Good article}} [[Category:Auditory system]] [[Category:Skeletal system]] [[Category:Ossicles]] [[Category:Otorhinolaryngology]] [[Category:Otology]] [[Category:Human head and neck]]
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