Editing Steller's eider

{{short description|Species of bird}}
{{speciesbox
| name = Steller's eider
| image = Steller's Eider (Polysticta stelleri) (13667966664).jpg
| image_caption = Male (drake)
| image2 = stellershen3.jpg
| image2_caption = Female (hen)
| status = VU
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref>{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International |date=2018 |title=''Polysticta stelleri'' |volume=2018 |page=e.T22680415A132527232 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T22680415A132527232.en |access-date=3 February 2022}}</ref>
| status2 = G3
| status2_system = TNC
| status2_ref = <ref>{{cite web | url=https://explorer.natureserve.org/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.105519/Polysticta_stelleri | title=NatureServe Explorer 2.0 }}</ref>
| genus = Polysticta
| parent_authority = [[Thomas Campbell Eyton|Eyton]], 1836
| species = stelleri
| authority = ([[Peter Simon Pallas|Pallas]], 1769)
| range_map = Polysticta stelleri map.svg

}}

'''Steller's eider''' ('''''Polysticta stelleri''''') is a migrating Arctic diving duck that breeds along the coastlines of eastern Russia and Alaska. It is the rarest, smallest, and fastest flying of the eider species.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Stellers Eider {{!}} Types of Ducks & Geese|url=https://www.ducks.org/hunting/waterfowl-id/stellers-eider|access-date=2021-11-12|website=www.ducks.org}}</ref>

Due to the extensive contraction of its breeding range, the Alaska-breeding population of Steller's eider was listed as vulnerable in 1997 by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature ([[International Union for Conservation of Nature|IUCN]]).<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service|date=September 2020|title=Steller's Eider Recovery Plan|url=https://www.adfg.alaska.gov/static/species/specialstatus/pdfs/stellerseider_2003_recovery.pdf|access-date=November 10, 2021|website=U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service}}</ref> The species is protected in Russia and the U.S. and is the subject of an ongoing recovery plan by the [[European Union]] and  [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service|U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service]].<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web|last=European Union for the Conservation of Nature|date=1997|title=European Species Action Plan for Steller's Eider (Polysticta stelleri)|url=https://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/conservation/wildbirds/action_plans/docs/polysticta_stelleri.pdf|access-date=November 10, 2021|website=European Union for the Conservation of Nature}}</ref>

== Taxonomy ==
Steller's eider was [[Species description|formally described]] and illustrated in 1769 by the German naturalist [[Peter Simon Pallas]] from a specimen collected on the [[Kamchatka Peninsula]] in Eastern Russia. He coined the [[binomial name]] ''Anas stelleri''; the specific epithet was chosen to honour the German naturalist and explorer [[Georg Wilhelm Steller]].<ref>{{ cite book | last=Pallas | first=Peter Simon | author-link=Peter Simon Pallas | year=1769 | title=Spicilegia zoologica : quibus novae imprimis et obscurae animalium species iconibus, descriptionibus atque commentariis illustrantur | volume=1 | language=Latin | location=Berolini | publisher=Prostant apud Gottl. August. Lange | at=fasc. 6 pp. 35-36; Plate 5 | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/27817879 }}</ref><ref>{{ cite book | editor1-last=Mayr | editor1-first=Ernst | editor1-link=Ernst Mayr | editor2-last=Cottrell | editor2-first=G. William | year=1979 | title=Check-List of Birds of the World | volume=1 | edition=2nd | publisher=Museum of Comparative Zoology | place=Cambridge, Massachusetts | page=490 | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/16109130 }}</ref> Steller's eider is now the only species placed in the genus ''Polysticta'' that was introduced in 1836 by the English naturalist [[Thomas Campbell Eyton|Thomas Eyton]]. The species is [[monotypic]]: no [[subspecies]] are recognised.<ref name=ioc>{{cite web| editor1-last=Gill | editor1-first=Frank | editor1-link=Frank Gill (ornithologist) | editor2-last=Donsker | editor2-first=David | editor3-last=Rasmussen | editor3-first=Pamela | editor3-link=Pamela Rasmussen | date=January 2023 | title=Screamers, ducks, geese & swans | work=IOC World Bird List Version 13.1 | url=https://www.worldbirdnames.org/bow/waterfowl/ | publisher=International Ornithologists' Union | access-date=13 April 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{ cite book | last=Eyton | first=Thomas Campbell | author-link=Thomas Campbell Eyton | date=1836 | title=A Catalogue of British Birds | location=London | publisher=Longman, Rees, Orne, Brown, Green and Longman | page=58 }}</ref> The genus name is from [[Ancient Greek]] ''polustiktos'' meaning "much spotted" (from ''polus'' "many" and ''stiktos'' "spotted").<ref>{{cite book | last=Jobling | first=James A. | year=2010| title= The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names | publisher=Christopher Helm | location=London | isbn= 978-1-4081-2501-4 | page=313 | url=https://archive.org/stream/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling#page/n313/mode/1up }}</ref>

Despite its name, it is only distantly related to all other extant [[eider]] species, which are part of the ''Somateria'' genus.<ref>{{Cite web|title=ITIS - Report: Polysticta stelleri|url=https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=175153#null|access-date=2021-11-11|website=www.itis.gov}}</ref> Steller's eider was separated from other eider species into its own genus in 1945 due to behavioral and anatomical differences.<ref name=":13">{{Cite book|last=A.|first=Johnsgard, Paul|url=https://worldcat.org/oclc/729247849|title=The Taxonomy of the Anatidae—A Behavioural Analysis|date=1961-01-01|publisher=DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln|oclc=729247849}}</ref> Accordingly, Steller's eider may provide a taxonomic link between the eider species in the ''Somateria'' genus and the other sea ducks.<ref name=":13" /> It is most closely related to the [[Extinction|extinct]] [[Labrador duck]].<ref>{{Cite journal|author1=Janet C. Buckner |author2=Ryan Ellingson |author3=David A. Gold |author4=Terry L. Jones |author5=David K. Jacobs |year=2018 |title=Mitogenomics supports an unexpected taxonomic relationship for the extinct diving duck ''Chendytes lawi'' and definitively places the extinct Labrador Duck |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |volume= 122|pages= 102–109|doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2017.12.008 |pmid=29247849 |bibcode=2018MolPE.122..102B |url=https://digitalcommons.calpoly.edu/ssci_fac/99 }}</ref>

==Description==
[[File:Magnus von Wright - Steller's Eider, Male - A II 1022-23 - Finnish National Gallery.jpg|thumb|191x191px|Male Steller's eider in       breeding plumage]]
Steller’s eider is the smallest of four eider species, with both females and males weighing 800 grams on average (1.8 pounds).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fredrickson|first=Leigh H.|date=2001-01-01|editor-last=Poole|editor-first=Alan F.|editor2-last=Gill|editor2-first=Frank B.|title=Steller's Eider (Polysticta stelleri)|url=https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/historic/bna/steeid/2.0/introduction|journal=The Birds of North America Online|doi=10.2173/bna.571|url-access=subscription}}</ref> They have a compact body with a relatively large head, long tail, and a long, thick bill.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Steller's Eider Identification, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology|url=https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Stellers_Eider/id|access-date=2021-11-10|website=www.allaboutbirds.org|language=en}}</ref>  The males assume their breeding [[plumage]] from early winter to midsummer with a black cap, chin, throat, eye-ring, and rump, with a white head and shoulders, light-green patches behind the head and in front of the eye, cinnamon breast and shoulders marked with a prominent black spot.<ref name=":1" /> The wings appear to be striped white, with an iridescent bluish-purple background colour and white border.<ref name=":0" /> They have palmate feet (3 fully webbed toes) which are a dark bluish-gray, the same color as the legs.<ref name="The Birds of Canada">{{Cite journal|last1=Alcorn|first1=Gordon D.|last2=Godfrey|first2=W. Earl|date=September 1966|title=The Birds of Canada|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3533677|journal=The Murrelet|volume=47|issue=3|pages=77|doi=10.2307/3533677|jstor=3533677|issn=0027-3716|url-access=subscription}}</ref> In mid-summer to fall, males assume their non-breeding plumage which is primarily dark brown with a white-bordered bluish [[Speculum feathers|speculum]] (secondary feathers) on their wing.<ref name=":1" /> Females are a dark to cinnamon brown with a pale-white eye-ring, similar to the lighter brown juveniles.<ref name=":0" /> Females also have iridescent bluish-purple speculums with a white border running the entire length of the secondaries.

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 87%;"
|-
! colspan="2" | Standard Measurements<ref name="The Birds of Canada"/><ref>{{Cite book|last=Sibley|first=David|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/44090592|title=The Sibley guide to birds|date=2000|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|isbn=0-679-45122-6|edition=1st |location=New York|oclc=44090592}}</ref>
|-
| style="padding-right: 1em;padding-left:0.35em;" | [[Bird measurement#Total Body Length|length]] || style="padding-right: 0.5em;padding-left:0.5em;" | {{convert|17|-|18|in|mm|abbr=on|order=flip}}
|-
| style="padding-right: 1em;padding-left:0.35em;" | [[Bird measurement#Weight|weight]] || style="padding-right: 0.5em;padding-left:0.5em;" | {{convert|860|g|lb|abbr=on}}
|-
| style="padding-right: 1em;padding-left:0.35em;" | [[Bird measurement#Wingspan|wingspan]] || style="padding-right: 0.5em;padding-left:0.5em;" | {{convert|27|in|mm|abbr=on|order=flip}}
|-
| style="padding-right: 1em;padding-left:0.35em;" | [[Bird measurement#Wing|wing]] || style="padding-right: 0.5em;padding-left:0.5em;" | {{convert|210|-|225|mm|in|abbr=on}}
|-
| style="padding-right: 1em;padding-left:0.35em;" | [[Bird measurement#Culmen|culmen]] || style="padding-right: 0.5em;padding-left:0.5em;" | {{convert|37|-|42|mm|in|abbr=on}}
|-
| style="padding-right: 1em;padding-left:0.35em;" | [[Bird measurement#Tarsus|tarsus]] || style="padding-right: 0.5em;padding-left:0.5em;" | {{convert|36|-|40|mm|in|abbr=on}}
|}

== Habitat and distribution ==
[[File:Tundra looking south toward Brooks Range, Alaska.jpg|thumb|292x292px|Marshy tundra, Alaska, U.S.]]During the winter, Steller’s eiders occupy coastal bays and lagoons that offer suitable forage while occasionally feeding in deeper waters that remain adequately sheltered.<ref name=":1" /> They nest in marshy [[tundra]] along the coast, in areas dominated by [[Carex aquatilis|water sedge]] and [[Arctophila fulva|pendant grass]].<ref name=":0" /> Within the marshy tundra, they designate specific areas to build their nest, preferring elevated surfaces covered by shallow vegetation such as mosses and grasses.<ref name=":0" /> Their molting habitat consists of relatively shallow coastal lagoons that offer viable eelgrass and tidal flats for foraging and beaches and sandbars to rest while they remain flightless.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Flint|first1=Paul L.|last2=Petersen|first2=Margaret R.|last3=Dau|first3=Christian P.|last4=Hines|first4=James E.|last5=Nichols|first5=James D.|date=2000|title=Annual Survival and Site Fidelity of Steller's Eiders Molting along the Alaska Peninsula|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3802998|journal=The Journal of Wildlife Management|volume=64|issue=1|pages=261–268|doi=10.2307/3802998|jstor=3802998|bibcode=2000JWMan..64..261F |issn=0022-541X|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

=== Population distributions ===
There are three recognized breeding populations of Steller’s eiders, one in Alaska and two in Arctic Russia.

* The '''Russian-Atlantic population''' makes its breeding ground west of the Khatanga River in western Siberia and winters in the Barents and Baltic seas.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|last=Bureau of Ocean Energy Management|date=September 2006|title=Biological Evaluation of Spectacled Eider (''Somateria fischeri''), Steller's Eider (''Polysticta stelleri''), and Kittlitz's Murrelet (''Brachyramphus brevirostris'') |url=https://www.boem.gov/sites/default/files/uploadedFiles/BOEM/About_BOEM/BOEM_Regions/Alaska_Region/Environment/Environmental_Analysis/Biological%20Evaluation%20for%20LS193%20Sept%2017%202007%20-%20stand%20alone.pdf|access-date=November 10, 2021 |website=Bureau of Ocean Energy Management}}</ref>
* The '''Russian-Pacific population''' nests on the east side of the Khatanga River and spends its winters in the southern Bering Sea and northern Pacific Ocean.<ref name=":8" />
* The '''Alaska-breeding population''' nests on the Arctic Coastal Plain and in exceptionally small numbers in the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, and winters in the southern Bering Sea and northern Pacific ocean.<ref name=":1" /> Less than 1% of the world’s Steller’s eiders nest in Alaska.<ref name=":1" />
Some non-breeding populations will also spend their summers in northern Norway, on the east coast of Russia and adjacent waters, and south-west Alaska.<ref name=":8" />

== Behaviour and ecology ==
=== Diet ===
[[File:Steller's Eider (Polysticta stelleri) (13667593713).jpg|thumb|A mixed flock of Steller's eiders and [[Long-tailed duck|Long-tailed ducks]]|290x290px]]
Steller's eiders forage primarily near the shore by employing various techniques such as briefly diving and swimming underwater (to a maximum depth of 9m), wading and dabbling.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|date=2014-11-13|title=Steller's Eider|url=https://www.audubon.org/field-guide/bird/stellers-eider|access-date=2021-11-10|website=Audubon|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Chukchi Sea Lease Sale|date=2006|title=Biological Evaluation of Spectacled Eider (Somateria fischeri), Steller's Eider (Polysticta stelleri), and Kittlitz's Murrelet (Brachyramphus brevirostris)|url=https://www.boem.gov/sites/default/files/uploadedFiles/BOEM/About_BOEM/BOEM_Regions/Alaska_Region/Environment/Environmental_Analysis/Biological%20Evaluation%20for%20LS193%20Sept%2017%202007%20-%20stand%20alone.pdf|access-date=November 10, 2021|website=Bureau of Ocean and Energy Management}}</ref> They feed by surface techniques more than other sea ducks and prefer relatively small prey.<ref name=":7"/> Studies have shown that Steller's eiders are specialists in catching highly mobile prey but may limit their diet to [[crustacean]]s even when higher energy sources, such as [[capelin]], become available.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last1=Bustnes|first1=Jan Ove|last2=Systad|first2=Geir Helge|date=December 2001|title=Comparative Feeding Ecology of Steller's Eider and Long-Tailed Ducks in Winter|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1522072|journal=Waterbirds: The International Journal of Waterbird Biology|volume=24|issue=3|pages=407|doi=10.2307/1522072|jstor=1522072|issn=1524-4695|url-access=subscription}}</ref> This discrepancy in food preferences may be due to their inability to exploit deeper habitats.<ref name=":4" /> Steller's eiders also feed on [[Mollusca|mollusks]], [[echinoderm]]s, [[Polychaete|polychaete worms]], and [[mussel]]s during the winter.<ref name=":5" /> While in the tundra during the summer months, they feed on aquatic insects and plant material such as crowberries and pondweeds.<ref name=":2" />

=== Reproduction ===
According to [[Bird ringing|banding studies]], Steller's eiders can live up to 21 years and four months and reach sexual maturity at two years.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Flint|first1=Paul L.|last2=Petersen|first2=Margaret R.|last3=Dau|first3=Christian P.|last4=Hines|first4=James E.|last5=Nichols|first5=James D.|date=January 2000|title=Annual Survival and Site Fidelity of Steller's Eiders Molting along the Alaska Peninsula|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3802998|journal=The Journal of Wildlife Management|volume=64|issue=1|pages=261|doi=10.2307/3802998|jstor=3802998|bibcode=2000JWMan..64..261F |issn=0022-541X|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Males engage in [[Lek mating|leks]] on the wintering and breeding grounds, where groups of males attempt to win over an individual female with elaborate displays.<ref name=":0" /> Males court females in silence by displaying a consistent sequence of side-to-side head-shaking while swimming towards and away from their potential female partner.<ref name=":0" /> Steller's eiders tend to form breeding pairs during late-winter to early-spring instead of the fall like most waterfowl.<ref name=":3" /> Breeding pairs arrive at their nesting sites as early as the beginning of June.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=March 1955|title=Bent, Arthur Cleveland. Life Histories of North American Fowl: Ducks, Geese, and Swans. Volumes I and II. New York (1780 Broadway); Dover Publications, 312 P. and 392 P. $8.00 for both volumes|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/sce.3730390278|journal=Science Education|volume=39|issue=2|pages=184|doi=10.1002/sce.3730390278|bibcode=1955SciEd..39R.184.|issn=0036-8326|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

Females establish their nests in marshy tundra close to permanent open water that has additional access to small ponds.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|last=Sea Duck Joint Venture|date=July 2016|title=Species Status Summary and Information Needs Steller's Eider (Polysticta stelleri)|url=https://seaduckjv.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/STEI-status-summary-July-2016-FINAL.pdf|access-date=November 10, 2021}}</ref> They specifically select mounds or ridges dominated by mosses, lichens, and grasses.<ref name=":1" /> Their nest is shallow, lined with grasses, moss, lichens, and [[Down feather|down]] feathers plucked from the female's breast, who builds the nest without help from the male.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":0" />

Females usually lay 1–8 olive to brownish-orange eggs per breeding cycle.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /> She then incubates the eggs alone for about 25 days.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last1=Quakenbush|first1=Lori|last2=Suydam|first2=Robert|last3=Obritschkewitsch|first3=Tim|last4=Deering|first4=Michele|date=2004-01-01|title=Breeding Biology of Steller's Eiders (''Polysticta stelleri'') near Barrow, Alaska, 1991–99|journal=Arctic|volume=57|issue=2|doi=10.14430/arctic493|issn=1923-1245|doi-access=free}}</ref> The young are [[Precociality|precocial]] and hatch between late June and late July with their eyes open and sporting downy feathers.<ref name=":0" /> However, predators consume the majority of eggs before they are hatched.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":6" /> The young go to the water shortly after hatching and immediately feed themselves, without relying on their mother for food.<ref name=":1" /> Regardless of their feeding independence, females will stay within 700m of their nest for up to 35 days post-hatch, while the young begin flying approximately 40 days after hatching.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":6"/> It is not uncommon for one female to assume care of two or more sets of young from a different mother.<ref name=":2" />
{| class="wikitable"
|+
! colspan="2" |<small>Average Nest Dimensions<ref name=":0" /></small>
|-
|Diameter
|14.6 inches
|-
|Height
|7.7 inches
|-
|Cup Diameter
|5.7 inches
|-
|Cup Height
|3.7 inches
|}

=== Vocalization ===
Males make a low jumbled growling sound, while females make a discrete qua-haaa sound of a similar tone.<ref name=":0" /> Males have also been reported to produce a repetitive crackling sound when females go underwater.<ref>{{Citation|title=XC203462 Steller's Eider (Polysticta stelleri)|url=https://www.xeno-canto.org/203462|access-date=2021-11-10}}</ref> Notably, the males [[Courtship display|court]] the females in silence.<ref name=":0" /> During flight, their feathers produce a mechanical whistling sound.<ref name=":0" />

=== Molt ===
After breeding, Steller's eiders gather in high-density flocks to synchronously molt (replace all their feather at the same time) in Arctic lagoons in northwest Asia and along the Alaska peninsula.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Petersen|first=Margaret R.|date=August 1981|title=Populations, Feeding Ecology and Molt of Steller's Eiders|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1367319|journal=The Condor|volume=83|issue=3|pages=256–262|doi=10.2307/1367319|jstor=1367319|bibcode=1981Condo..83..256P |issn=0010-5422|url-access=subscription}}</ref> They remain flightless for about three weeks, but the entire flight-feather molt lasts from July to October.<ref name=":7" />  Juveniles molt first, followed by adult males and adult females.<ref name=":7" />

== Threats ==
The decline of Alaska-breeding Steller’s eider population is predominantly unclear. It has been attributed to changes to the Arctic climate, increased predation rates, hunting and consumption of lead shot, and disease.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|last=Matz|first=Angela|date=February 1, 2008|title=Steller's Eider Reintroduction|url=https://training.fws.gov/courses/ALC/ALC3159/reports/final-reports/2008FR/stellers_eider_reintroduction.pdf|access-date=November 10, 2021|website=National Conservation Training Center}}</ref> Since their listing, additional threats such as exposure to oil and other contaminants have been identified.<ref name=":9" />

=== Climate change ===
Climate change may pose the greatest threat to Steller’s eiders. Primarily, climate change has caused Arctic tundra ponds to disappear, limiting the extent of suitable habitat for the species.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Andresen|first1=Christian G.|last2=Lougheed|first2=Vanessa L.|date=March 2015|title=Disappearing Arctic tundra ponds: Fine-scale analysis of surface hydrology in drained thaw lake basins over a 65 year period (1948-2013)|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/2014jg002778|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences|volume=120|issue=3|pages=466–479|doi=10.1002/2014jg002778|bibcode=2015JGRG..120..466A|s2cid=135283843|issn=2169-8953|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Climate change has also been implicated in the collapse of rodent populations, forcing predators to exploit alternative prey such as the eggs and young of Steller's eider.<ref name=":6"/>

=== Lead poisoning ===
High levels of lead have been reported in Steller’s eiders that nest on the Alaska Arctic Coastal plain and in Spectacled Eiders that occupy the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, where Steller’s Eiders continue to nest in highly reduced densities.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Flint|first1=Paul L.|last2=Grand|first2=James B.|last3=Petersen|first3=Margaret R.|last4=Rockwell|first4=Robert F.|date=2016-06-01|title=Effects of Lead Exposure, Environmental Conditions, and Metapopulation Processes on Population Dynamics of Spectacled Eiders|journal=North American Fauna|volume=81|issue=1|pages=1–41|doi=10.3996/nafa.81.0001|issn=1944-4575|doi-access=free|bibcode=2016NAFA...81....1F }}</ref> Further studies have also shown that lead concentration was higher in individuals located close to industrialized regions than non-industrialized regions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Miles|first1=A. Keith|last2=Flint|first2=Paul L.|last3=Trust|first3=Kimberley A.|last4=Ricca|first4=Mark A.|last5=Spring|first5=Sarah E.|last6=Arrieta|first6=Daniel E.|last7=Hollmen|first7=Tuula|last8=Wilson|first8=Barry W.|date=2007|title=Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Exposure in Steller's Eiders (''Polysticta stelleri'') and Harlequin Ducks (''Histronicus histronicus'') in the Eastern Aleutian Islands, Alaska, USA|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1897/07-259.1|journal=Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry|volume=26|issue=12|pages=2694–3303|doi=10.1897/07-259.1|pmid=18020694|bibcode=2007EnvTC..26.2694M |s2cid=28782733|issn=0730-7268|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

=== Nest predation ===
Nest predation by the [[Arctic fox]], [[pomarine jaeger]], [[snowy owl]], and [[common raven]] pose the greatest threat to Steller’s eider's nesting success rate.<ref name=":1" /> Studies have shown that Steller’s eider reproduce most successfully when lemmings are abundant, most likely resulting from predators transitioning between prey during years of lemming decline.<ref name=":10" />

=== Natural resource exploitation ===
The exploitation of natural resources such as oil and gas contributes to Steller’s eider habitat loss.<ref name=":10">{{Cite book|author=Safine, David Elliot|url=https://worldcat.org/oclc/946527072|title=Breeding ecology of Steller's and spectacled eiders nesting near Barrow, Alaska, 2012|date=2013|publisher=Endangered Species Branch, Fairbanks Fish and Wildlife Field Office, Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Department of the Interior|oclc=946527072}}</ref> Regional exploitation projects have increased the risk of [[Oil spill|spill contamination]]. At the same time, an increase in human presence and infrastructure have contributed to the demise of suitable habitats.<ref name=":10" />

=== Disease ===
Steller’s eiders transport the [[Avian influenza|Avian Influenza]] virus between Eurasia and North America during their migrations.<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last1=Ip|first1=Hon S|last2=Flint|first2=Paul L|last3=Franson|first3=J Christian|last4=Dusek|first4=Robert J|last5=Derksen|first5=Dirk V|last6=Gill|first6=Robert E|last7=Ely|first7=Craig R|last8=Pearce|first8=John M|last9=Lanctot|first9=Richard B|last10=Matsuoka|first10=Steven M|last11=Irons|first11=David B|date=2008-06-04|title=Prevalence of Influenza A viruses in wild migratory birds in Alaska: Patterns of variation in detection at a crossroads of intercontinental flyways|journal=Virology Journal|volume=5|issue=1|page=71|doi=10.1186/1743-422x-5-71|pmid=18533040|pmc=2435106|issn=1743-422X |doi-access=free }}</ref> Many recent studies have reported prominent infection rates amongst Steller’s eiders in Alaska, ranging from 0.2% to 5%.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last1=Wilson|first1=Heather M.|last2=Hall|first2=Jeffery S.|last3=Flint|first3=Paul L.|last4=Franson|first4=J. Christian|last5=Ely|first5=Craig R.|last6=Schmutz|first6=Joel A.|last7=Samuel|first7=Michael D.|date=2013-03-05|editor-last=Schnell|editor-first=Matthias Johannes|title=High Seroprevalence of Antibodies to Avian Influenza Viruses among Wild Waterfowl in Alaska: Implications for Surveillance|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=8|issue=3|pages=e58308|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0058308|issn=1932-6203|pmc=3589273|pmid=23472177|bibcode=2013PLoSO...858308W|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ramey|first1=Andrew M.|last2=Pearce|first2=John M.|last3=Reeves|first3=Andrew B.|last4=Franson|first4=J. Christian|last5=Petersen|first5=Margaret R.|last6=Ip|first6=Hon S.|date=2011-07-16|title=Evidence for limited exchange of avian influenza viruses between seaducks and dabbling ducks at Alaska Peninsula coastal lagoons|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00705-011-1059-z|journal=Archives of Virology|volume=156|issue=10|pages=1813–1821|doi=10.1007/s00705-011-1059-z|pmid=21766196|bibcode=2011ArcV..156.1813R |s2cid=19486083|issn=0304-8608|url-access=subscription}}</ref> It has been suggested that 80% of Steller’s eiders in Alaska are carriers of avian influenza [[Antibody|antibodies]].<ref name=":12" />

[[Escherichia coli|''E. coli'']] has also been reported in Alaska-breeding Steller’s eiders and is thought to be linked to wastewater from local human communities and industrialization.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hollmén|first1=Tuula E.|last2=DebRoy|first2=Chitrita|last3=Flint|first3=Paul L.|last4=Safine|first4=David E.|last5=Schamber|first5=Jason L.|last6=Riddle|first6=Ann E.|last7=Trust|first7=Kimberly A.|date=2011|title=Molecular typing of Escherichia coli strains associated with threatened sea ducks and near-shore marine habitats of south-west Alaska|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1758-2229.2010.00220.x|journal=Environmental Microbiology Reports|language=en|volume=3|issue=2|pages=262–269|doi=10.1111/j.1758-2229.2010.00220.x|pmid=23761259|bibcode=2011EnvMR...3..262H |issn=1758-2229|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

== Recovery plan ==
Two-recovery plans have been implemented to restore healthy populations of Steller’s eiders.&nbsp; [https://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/conservation/wildbirds/action_plans/docs/polysticta_stelleri.pdf The European Union action plan], published in 2000 and The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service action plan, originally published in 2002.

=== U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Action Plan ===
The  [https://www.fws.gov/alaska/sites/default/files/2021-06/DRAFT%20Steller_s%20Rec%20Plan_14Nov2020%20clean.pdf Recovery Plan for the Alaska-breeding population of Steller’s eider (Polysticta stelleri)] was last revised by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in September 2020. The primary focus of this plan is to ensure a viable breeding population of Steller’s eider in northern Alaska, rather than aiming for two subpopulations in northern and western Alaska. The plan aims to:

* Increase the abundance of Steller’s eiders
* Ensure adequate population distribution throughout the Utqiaġvik Triangle and Arctic Coastal Plain survey areas
* Increase the number of Alaska-breeding Steller’s eiders

The recovery plan is primarily limited by uncertainty about the Alaska-breeding Steller’s eider’s ecology and population dynamics. Thus, the action plan coincides with an effort to conduct research and enhance knowledge of the species.

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service predicts that if the plan is adequately funded and properly implemented, the recovery criteria could be met by 2050. The total cost is estimated at $15,675,000.

==== Critical habitat designation ====
In 2001 the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service designated five critical breeding habitats on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta and four marine water units along the coast of southwest Alaska that are critical for molting, feeding, and wintering.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web|title=Steller's Eider (Polysticta stelleri) {{!}} Alaska Region|url=https://www.fws.gov/alaska/pages/endangered-species/stellers-eider|access-date=2021-11-11|website=www.fws.gov}}</ref> The entire designation includes approximately 2,800 square miles and 850 miles of coastline.<ref name=":14" />

== Conservation status ==
[[File:Steller's Eider Global population estimates.png|thumb|320x320px|Global population estimates of Steller's eider<ref name=":5" />]]
In 2016, the global population of Steller’s eider was estimated at 110,000-125,000 individuals and classified as vulnerable by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature ([[International Union for Conservation of Nature|IUCN]]).<ref name=":5" />

In 1992, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service reviewed the status of Steller’s eider and concluded that listing the species as endangered was warranted, but precluded by higher species listing priorities.<ref name=":1" /> One year later, in 1993, they reconsidered Steller’s eider’s status and supported the listing of the Alaska-breeding population, but did not include the Russian-breeding populations.<ref name=":1" /> Finally, the Alaska-breeding population was listed as threatened in 1997.<ref name=":1" /> The primary reason for listing was the near disappearance of the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta population, contracting the Alaskan nesting sites to the Arctic Coastal Plain and increasing the population’s risk of extirpation.<ref name=":1" />`

== Cultural significance ==
Steller’s eiders were once legally harvested by waterfowl hunters in the U.S., but all legal hunting ended in 1991.<ref name=":15" /> Egging and subsistence hunting still occurs in Alaska, but is  uncommon. The degree of subsistence hunting in Russia and its effect on the population is poorly documented. &nbsp;<ref name=":15">{{Cite web|last=Alaska Department of Fish and Game|title=Steller's Eider Uses, Alaska Department of Fish and Game|url=https://www.adfg.alaska.gov/index.cfm?adfg=stellerseider.uses|access-date=2021-11-11|website=www.adfg.alaska.gov|language=en}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Polysticta stelleri}}
{{Wikispecies|Polysticta stelleri}}
* {{ARKive}}
* {{BirdLife|22680415|Polysticta stelleri}}
* {{Avibase|name=Polysticta stelleri}}
* {{InternetBirdCollection|stellers-eider-polysticta-stelleri}}
* {{VIREO|Steller's+Eider}}
* {{IUCN_Map|22680415/223059785|Polysticta stelleri}}
* {{Xeno-canto species|Polysticta|stelleri|Steller's eider}}

{{Odontoanserae|B.|state=collapsed}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q210954}}

[[Category:Merginae|Steller's eider]]
[[Category:Birds of the Arctic]]
[[Category:Birds of North Asia]]
[[Category:Native birds of Alaska]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1769|Steller's eider]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Peter Simon Pallas|Steller's eider]]
[[Category:Holarctic birds]]