Editing Stupa

{{short description|Domed structure containing Buddhist relics, used as a place of pilgrimage}}
{{other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2025}}
{{too many images|date=March 2025}}
{{multiple image
| perrow        = 2
| total_width   = 400
| caption_align = center
| align         = right
| direction     = horizontal
| header        = Stupa
| image1        = Stupa 1, Sanchi 02.jpg
| image2        = Samye32.JPG
| image3        = 2016 Rangun, Pagoda Szwedagon (023).jpg
| image4        = Ruwanwelisaya Stupa 18.JPG
| caption1      = [[Sanchi|The Great Stupa of Sanchi]], Madhya Pradesh, India
| caption2      = The White Stupa of [[Samye Monastery]], Lhoka, Tibet
| caption3      = [[Shwedagon Pagoda]], Yangon, Myanmar
| caption4      = [[Ruwanweliseya]], Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka
| footer        = Various architectural styles of stupa: Indian at [[Sanchi]], [[Tibetan architecture|Tibetan]] at Samye, [[Burmese architecture|Burmese]] at Yangon, and [[Stupas in Sri Lanka|Sri Lankan]] at Anuradhapura
}}
{{Infobox Buddhist term
| title    = Stupa
| en       = Stupa
| pi       = 𑀣𑀼𑀩𑁂 ("thube"), thūpa
| mr       = स्थूप
| sa       = स्तूप
| bn       = স্তূপ
| bn-Latn  = stup
| or       =  ସ୍ତୂପ
| or-Latn  = stupa
| my       = စေတီ
| my-Latn  = zèdì
| zh       = 窣堵坡
| zh-Latn  = sūdǔpō
| ja       = 卒塔婆
| ja-Latn  = sotoba
| km       = ចេតិយ, ស្តូប
| km-Latn  = chétĕy, stob
| ko       = 솔도파
| ko-Latn  = soldopha
| ml       = സ്തൂപം
| ml-Latn  = stupam
| mn       = суварга
| mn-Latn  = suvarga
| mnw      = စေတဳ
| mnw-Latn = ce.tɔe
| shn      = ၵွင်းမူး
| shn-Latn = kɔŋ˥.muː˥
| si       = දාගැබ්
| si-Latn  = dagab
| ta       = தாது கோபுரம்
| te       = స్తూపం
| th       = สถูป, เจดีย์
| th-Latn  = sa thup, chedi
| bo       = མཆོད་རྟེན་
| bo-Latn  = mchod rten (chorten)
| vi       = Phù đồ, bảo tháp
| Nepali   = स्तुपा
}}
{{Buddhism|collapsed=1}}

In [[Buddhism]], a '''stupa''' ({{langx|sa|स्तूप|lit=heap}}, {{IAST3|stūpa}}) is a domed hemispherical structure containing several types of sacred relics, including images, statues, metals, and ''[[śarīra]]''—the remains of [[Bhikkhu|Buddhist monks]] or [[Bhikkhuni|nuns]]. It is used as a place of pilgrimage and [[meditation]].<ref>[http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O1-chedi.html encyclopedia.com]. Credited to James Stevens Curl, ''A Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture'', 2000, originally published by Oxford University Press 2000.</ref>

[[Circumambulation|Walking around]] a stupa in a clockwise direction, known as ''[[pradakhshina]]'', has been an important ritual and devotional practice in Buddhism since the earliest times, and stupas always have a ''pradakhshina'' path around them. The original [[South Asia]]n form is a large solid dome above a [[tholobate]], or drum, with vertical sides, which usually sits on a square base. There is no access to the inside of the structure. In large stupas, there may be walkways for circumambulation on top of the base as well as on the ground below it. Large stupas have, or had, ''vedikā'' railings outside the path around the base, often highly decorated with sculpture, especially at the [[torana]] gateways, of which there are usually four.  At the top of the dome is a thin vertical element, with one or more horizontal discs spreading from it. These were [[Chatra (umbrella)|''chatra''s]], symbolic umbrellas, and have not survived, if not restored. The [[Sanchi|Great Stupa at Sanchi]] in Madhya Pradesh, is the most famous and best-preserved early stupa in India.

Apart from very large stupas, there are many smaller stupas in a range of sizes, which typically have much taller drums, relative to the height of the dome. Small votive stupas built by or paid for by pilgrims might be less than a metre high, and laid out in rows by the hundred, as at [[Ratnagiri, Odisha]], India.

The principal design of the stupa may have been influenced by the ''[[shikhara]]s'' seen on [[Hindu temple architecture|Hindu temples]]. As [[Silk Road transmission of Buddhism|Buddhism spread across Asia]] via the [[Silk Road]], stupas were stylistically altered into other cultural and structural forms used for the same purposes, like the [[pagoda]]s of [[East Asian Buddhism]] or the [[chorten]]s of [[Tibetan Buddhism]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Harle |first=James Coffin |title=The art and architecture of the Indian subcontinent |date=1994 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-06217-5 |edition=2nd |location=New Haven London |page=201}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Michell |first=George |title=The Penguin guide to the monument of India |date=1990 |publisher=Penguin book |isbn=978-0-14-008144-2 |location=London |pages=228–229}}</ref> In [[Southeast Asia]], various different elongated shapes of domes evolved, leading to high, thin [[spire]]s. A related architectural term is a ''[[chaitya]]'', which is a prayer hall or temple containing a stupa.

==Description and history==
{{see also|Cetiya|Tumulus|Megalith}}

[[File:Megalithic burial mound, India.jpg|upright|thumb|[[Megalith]]ic burial mound ([[tumulus]]) with chamber, India]]
{{multiple image
| align    = right
| caption_align = center
| image1   = Gordion82.JPG
| width1   = 160
| caption1 = The "Tomb of [[Midas]]" in [[Gordion]], dated to c. 740 BCE
| image2   = Bin Tepe, funeral mound.jpg
| width2   = 160
| caption2 = Royal funeral tumulus of King [[Alyattes]], [[Lydia]], 6th c. BCE
| image3   = Amrit Sepolcro - GAR - 1-01.jpg
| width3   = 80
| caption3 = [[Amrit]], [[Phoenicia]], 5th c. BCE
}}

Stupas may have originated as pre-Buddhist [[tumulus|tumuli]] in which [[śramaṇa]]s were buried in a seated position,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.buddhanet.net/stupa.htm |access-date=7 January 2013|title=Buddhist Art and Architecture: Symbolism of the Stupa / Chorten|date=14 August 2006}}</ref> called [[chaitya|caitya]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.history.upenn.edu/coursepages/hist086/material/sanchi.htm|access-date=7 January 2013|title= The Buddhist stupa: origin and development|date=13 January 2005}}</ref>

In early Buddhist inscriptions in India, ''stupa'' and ''caitya'' appear to be almost interchangeable, though ''caitya'' has a broader meaning, and unlike ''stupa'' does not define an [[architectural form]]. In pre-Buddhist India, ''caitya'' was a term for a shrine, sanctuary, or holy place in the landscape, generally outdoors, inhabited by, or sacred to, a particular deity. In the ''[[Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra]]'', near the end of his life, the Buddha remarks to [[Ananda]] how beautiful are the various ''caitya'' around [[Vaishali (ancient city)|Vaishali]].{{sfnp|Skilling|2016|p=25}} In later times and in other countries, [[cetiya]]/caitya implies the presence of important relics. Both words have forms prefixed by ''maha'' for "great", "large", or "important", but scholars find the difference between a ''mahastupa'' and a ''stupa'', or ''mahacetiya'' and ''cetiya'', hard to pin down.{{sfnp|Skilling|2016|pp=23–24}}

Some authors have suggested that stupas were derived from a wider cultural tradition from the [[Mediterranean]] to the [[Ganges Valley]]<ref>"It is probably traceable to a common cultural inheritance, stretching from the Mediterranean to the Ganges valley, and manifested by the sepulchres, conical mounds of earth on a circular foundation, of about the eighth century B.C. found in [[Erythrae|Eritrea]] and [[Lydia]]." {{cite book |last1=Rao |first1=P. R. Ramachandra |title=Amaravati |date=2002 |publisher=Youth Advancement, Tourism & Cultural Department Government of Andhra Pradesh |page=33 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h-jVAAAAMAAJ }}</ref> and can be related to the conical mounds on circular bases from the 8th century BCE that are found in [[Phrygia]] (tomb of [[Midas]], 8th c. BCE), [[Lydia]] (tomb of [[Alyattes]], 6th c. BCE), or in [[Phoenicia]] (tombs of [[Amrit]], 5th c. BCE).<ref>On the hemispherical Phenician tombs of Amrit: {{cite book |last1=Coomaraswamy |first1=Ananda K. |title=History of Indian and Indonesian art |date=1972 |page=[https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.52349/page/n313 12] |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.52349}}</ref><ref>Commenting on [[Gisbert Combaz]]: "In his study L'évolution du stupa en Asie, he even observed that "long before India, the classical Orient was inspired by the shape of the tumulus for constructing its tombs: Phrygia, Lydia, Phenicia ." in {{cite book |last1=Bénisti |first1=Mireille |last2=K |first2=Thanikaimony |title=Stylistics of Buddhist art in India |date=2003 |publisher=Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts |isbn=9788173052415 |page=12 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hO9OAAAAYAAJ }}</ref> Some authors suggest stupas emerged from [[megalith]]ic mound burials with chambers, which likely represent proto-stupas.{{sfnp|Menon|2016}}{{sfnp|Schopen|2004|pp=361–374}}{{sfnp|Bisht|2014}}

Archaeologists in India have observed that a number of early Buddhist stupas or burials are found in the vicinity of much older, pre-historic burials, including megalithic burial sites.{{sfnp|Schopen|2004|pp=361–374}} This includes sites associated with the [[Indus Valley Civilization]], where broken Indus-era pottery was incorporated into later Buddhist burials.{{sfnp|Schopen|2004|pp=361–374}} Scholars have noted structural and functional features of the stupa (including its general mound shape and the practice of surrounding stupas with a stone, relic chamber, or wooden railing) with both pre-[[Maurya Empire|Mauryan-era]] cairn and pre-historic megalithic "round mound" burials with chambers found in India, which likely represent a "proto-stupa".{{sfnp|Menon|2016}}{{sfnp|Schopen|2004|pp=361–374}} In [[Dholavira]], an archeological site associated with the Indus Valley Civilization, there are several large and high "hemispherical monuments" of tumulus with brick-masonry found with burial chambers inside. Among them, Tumulus-1 and Tumulus-2 mounds were excavated. They consist of a deep and wide rock-cut chamber, surrounded on the ground by a massive circular mud-brick structure made in two tiers, and filled in and topped with earth to form a domical shape.{{sfnp|Bisht|2014}} There is also evidence of plastering on the exterior of Tumulus-1, bearing a 10-mm-thick [[plaster]] of pinkish-white clay over brick masonry.{{sfnp|Bisht|2014}} These forms of hemispherical monuments or tumulus of brick masonry with similar layouts may have been inspirations for later stupas.{{sfnp|Bisht|2014}} Some stupas not believed to have been looted have been found empty when excavated, as have some prehistoric cairn sites, and animal bones are suspected to have occasionally been deposited at both types of sites.{{sfnp|Schopen|2004|pp=361–374}}

===Mounds for the relics of the Buddha (5th century BCE)===
{{Further|Buddhist architecture}}
[[File:Stupas-Original-00020.jpg|thumb|The [[Piprahwa]] stupa is one of the earliest surviving stupas.]]
[[File:Buddha's ashes Stupa, Vaishali, Bihar.jpg|right|thumb|[[Relic Stupa of Vaishali]], built by the [[Licchavi (kingdom)|Licchavis]], and possibly the earliest archaeologically known stupa]]

Religious buildings in the form of the Buddhist stupa, a dome-shaped structure, started to be used in India as commemorative monuments associated with storing sacred relics of the Buddha.<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica (2008), ''Pagoda''.</ref> After his [[parinirvana]], Buddha's remains were cremated and the ashes divided and buried under eight mounds, with two further mounds encasing the urn and the embers.<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica"/>

According to some early Buddhist sources, the Buddha himself had suggested this treatment, and when asked what a stupa was, had demonstrated the basic design: he folded his robe on the ground, placed his begging bowl upside down on it, with his staff above that.<ref>{{cite book |last=Soekmono |first=R. |title=Chandi Borobudur: A Monument of Mankind |page=39 |year=1976 |place=Paris |publisher=Unesco Press |isbn=92-3-101292-4 |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000020097 |access-date=18 March 2025}}</ref>

The relics of the Buddha were spread between eight stupas, in [[Rajagriha]], [[Vaishali (ancient city)|Vaishali]], [[Kapilavastu (ancient city)|Kapilavastu]], [[Allakappa]], [[Ramagrama]], [[Pava]], [[Kushinagar]], and [[Vethapida]].{{sfnp|Le|2010|pp=140–174}} Lars Fogelin has stated that the [[Relic Stupa of Vaishali]]  is likely the earliest archaeologically known stupa.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fogelin |first1=Lars |title=An Archaeological History of Indian Buddhism |date=2015 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199948239 |page=85}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Lahiri |first1=Nayanjot |title=Ashoka in Ancient India |date=2015 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=9780674057777 |pages=246–247}}</ref>

[[Guard rail]]s—consisting of posts, crossbars, and a [[Coping (architecture)|coping]]—became a feature of safety surrounding a stupa.{{sfnp|Chandra|2008}} The Buddha had left instructions about how to pay homage to the stupas: "And whoever lays wreaths or puts sweet perfumes and colours there with a devout heart, will reap benefits for a long time".{{sfnp|Le|2010|p=143}} This practice would lead to the decoration of the stupas with stone sculptures of flower garlands in the Classical{{Clarify|date=February 2024|reason=it should be made clear what is meant by "Classical" in this context.}} period.{{sfnp|Le|2010|p=143}}

===Expansion under Ashoka (250 BCE)===
According to Buddhist tradition, Emperor [[Ashoka]] (rule: 273–232 BCE) recovered the relics of the Buddha from the earlier stupas (except from the [[Ramagrama stupa]]), and erected 84,000 stupas to distribute the relics across India. In effect, many stupas are thought to date originally from the time of Ashoka, such as [[Sanchi]] or [[Kesaria stupa|Kesariya]], where he also erected pillars with his inscriptions, and possibly [[Bharhut]], [[Amaravati Stupa|Amaravati]], or [[Dharmarajika Stupa|Dharmarajika]].{{sfnp|Le|2010|pp=140–174}} Ashoka also established the [[Pillars of Ashoka]] throughout his realm, generally next to Buddhist stupas.

The first known appearance of the word "stupa" is from [[:File:Nigali Sagar word Stupa.jpg|an inscribed dedication]] by Ashoka on the [[Nigali Sagar]] pillar (spelled in [[Pali]] in the [[Brahmi script]] as 𑀣𑀼𑀩𑁂 ''thube'' ).{{sfnp|Skilling|2016|p=23}}

===Decorated stupas (from 125 BCE)===
Stupas were soon to be richly decorated with sculptural reliefs, following the first attempts at [[Sanchi Stupa No.2]] (125 BCE). Full-fledged sculptural decorations and scenes of the life of the Buddha would soon follow at Bharhut (115 BCE), [[Bodh Gaya]] (60 BCE), [[Mathura]] (125–60 BCE), again at Sanchi for the elevation of the [[torana]]s (1st century BCE/CE), and then Amaravati (1st–2nd century CE).{{sfnp|Le|2010|pp=149–150}} The decorative embellishment of stupas also underwent considerable development in the northwest, in the area of [[Gandhara]], with instances such as the [[Butkara Stupa]] ("monumentalized" with [[Hellenistic]] decorative elements from the 2nd century BCE)<ref>"De l'Indus a l'Oxus : archaeologie de l'Asie Centrale", Pierfrancesco Callieri, p. 212: "The diffusion, from the second century BCE, of Hellenistic influences in the architecture of [[Swat District|Swat]] is also attested by the archaeological searches at the sanctuary of [[Butkara Stupa|Butkara I]], which saw its stupa "monumentalized" at that exact time by basal elements and decorative alcoves derived from [[Hellenistic art|Hellenistic architecture]]".</ref> or the [[Loriyan Tangai|Loriyan Tangai stupas]] (2nd century CE).

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
Sanchi Stupa number 2 KSP 3660.jpg|[[Sanchi Stupa No.2]], the earliest known stupa with important displays of decorative reliefs, c. 125 BCE<ref>Didactic Narration: Jataka Iconography in Dunhuang with a Catalogue of Jataka Representations in China, Alexander Peter Bell, LIT Verlag Münster, 2000 [https://books.google.com/books?id=77hHrXX4COgC&pg=PA15 pp. 15ff]</ref>
East Gateway and Railings Bharhut Stupa.jpg|East Gateway and Railings of [[Bharhut]] Stupa. Sculptured railings: 115 BCE, toranas: 75 BCE.{{sfnp|Le|2010|pp=149–150}}
Sanchi1 N-MP-220.jpg|The Great Stupa at Sanchi<ref>World Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in India, Volume 1 p. 50 by Alī Jāvīd, Tabassum Javeed, Algora Publishing, New York [https://books.google.com/books?id=fg-lGID3WpQC&pg=PA50]</ref> Decorated toranas built from the 1st c. BCE to the 1st c. CE.{{sfnp|Le|2010|pp=149–150}}
</gallery>

===Development in Gandhara (3rd century BCE–5th century CE)===
[[File:ButkaraStupa.jpg|thumb|Butkara Stupa in Gandhara]]

The stupa underwent major evolutions in the area of Gandhara. Since Buddhism spread to [[Central Asia]], China, and ultimately Korea and Japan through Gandhara, the stylistic evolution of the Gandharan stupa was very influential in the later development of the stupa (and related artistic or [[architectural form]]s) in these areas.{{sfnp|Le|2010|p=181}} The Gandhara stupa followed several steps, generally moving towards more and more elevation and addition of decorative elements, leading eventually to the development of the [[pagoda]] tower.{{sfnp|Le|2010|pp=182–183}} The main stupa types are, in chronological order:

# The [[Dharmarajika Stupa]], with a near-Indian design of a semi-hemispheric stupa almost directly on the ground surface, probably dated to the 3rd century BCE. Similar stupas are the [[Butkara Stupa]], the [[Manikyala]] stupa, or the Chakpat stupa.{{sfnp|Le|2010|p=173}}
# The [[Saidu Sharif Stupa]], pillared and [[quincunxial]], with a flight of stairs to a dome elevated on a square platform. Many Gandhara miniatures represent this type (1st century CE).{{sfnp|Le|2010|pp=174–176}}
# The [[Loriyan Tangai]] stupa, with an elongated shape and many narrative reliefs, in many ways the classic Gandharan stupa (2nd century CE).{{sfnp|Le|2010|pp=176–177}}
# The near-pyramidal [[Jaulian]] stupa (2nd century CE).{{sfnp|Le|2010|p=179}}
# The [[cruciform]] type, as in the [[Bhamala Stupa]], with flights of stairs in the four cardinal directions (4th century CE).{{sfnp|Le|2010|p=178}}
# The towering design of the second [[Kanishka Stupa]] (4th–5th century CE).{{sfnp|Le|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9jb364g4BvoC&pg=PA179 179–180]}}

<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Restored_view_of_the_Manikyala_Stupa.jpg|[[Manikyala Stupa]], from the period of [[Kaniska I]]
StupaWithPillarsGandhara2ndCentury.jpg|A model resembling the [[Saidu Sharif Stupa]], with square base and four columns (1st century CE).{{sfnp|Le|2010|pp=174–176}}
Loriyan Tangai complete Stupa.jpg|[[Loriyan Tangai]] decorated stupa, in the [[Greco-Buddhist art]] of Gandhara (2nd century CE).
Jaulian Stupa A11 reliquary.jpg|A tower-shaped stupa, thought to be the design of the second (rebuilt) [[Kanishka Stupa]], [[Jaulian]] monastery{{sfnp|Le|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9jb364g4BvoC&pg=PA179 179–180]}}
Stupa Reliquary Kushan period, about 2nd century CE.jpg|Stupa-shaped reliquary, [[Kushan Empire|Kushan]] period, about 2nd century CE
</gallery>

====Origin of the pyramidal temple====
{{multiple image|total_width=400
| header=Pyramidal temples
| align    = right
| caption_align = center
| image1   = Kumrahar Mahabodhi plaque.jpg
| caption1 = The Mahabodhi Temple in 150–200 CE
| image2   = Top of Temple.jpg
| caption2 = The [[Mahabodhi Temple]]: a stepped pyramid with round stupa on top{{sfnp|Le|2010|pp=238–248}}
| image3   = India, Bihar, 10th century - Model of the Sikhara of a Buddhist Temple - 1971.167 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif
| caption3 = Model of the [[sikhara]] of a Buddhist temple; 900s
}}

It is thought that the temple in the shape of a truncated pyramid may have derived from the design of the stepped stupas that developed in Gandhara. The [[Mahabodhi Temple]] in Bodh Gaya is one such example, formed of a succession of steps with niches containing Buddha images, alternating with Greco-Roman pillars.{{sfnp|Le|2010|pp=238–248}} The structure is crowned by the shape of a hemispherical stupa topped by [[finial]]s, forming a logical elongation of the stepped Gandharan stupas such as those seen in [[Jaulian]].{{sfnp|Le|2010|pp=238–248}}

Although the current structure of the Mahabdhodi Temple dates to the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] period (5th century CE), the "Plaque of Mahabhodi Temple", discovered in [[Kumrahar]] and dated to 150–200 CE, based on its dated [[Kharoshthi]] inscriptions and combined finds of [[Huvishka]] coins, suggests that the pyramidal structure already existed in the 2nd century CE.{{sfnp|Le|2010|pp=238–248}} This is confirmed by archaeological excavations in Bodh Gaya.{{sfnp|Le|2010|pp=238–248}}

This truncated pyramid design also marked the evolution from the [[aniconic]] stupa dedicated to the cult of relics, to the [[Cultural icon|iconic]] temple with multiple images of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas.{{sfnp|Le|2010|pp=238–248}} This design was influential in the development of later [[Hindu temple]]s.{{sfnp|Le|2010|p=234}}

===Expansion in Asia===
====Asian stupas====
[[File:Pagoda of Songyue Temple, 2015-09-25 20.jpg|thumb|upright|The Chinese [[Songyue Pagoda]] (523 CE) is thought to derive from the Gandharan tower-stupa model.{{sfnp|Le|2010|p=180}}]]
[[File:Row of stupas on roadside east of Leh, Ladakh.jpg|thumb|Row of [[chorten]] stupas on roadside east of Leh, Ladakh]]

Stupa architecture was adopted in [[Southeast Asia|Southeast]] and [[East Asia]], where it became prominent as a Buddhist monument used for enshrining sacred relics.<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica"/> The Indian gateway arches, ''torana'', reached East Asia with the spread of Buddhism.<ref>Encyclopædia Britannica (2008), ''torii''</ref> Some scholars hold that ''[[torii]]'' derives from the torana gates at the Buddhist historic site of Sanchi (3rd century BCE–11th century CE).<ref>[http://www.aisf.or.jp/~jaanus/ Japanese Architecture and Art Net Users System (2001), ''torii''.]</ref> In [[Tibet]], the stupa became the chorten,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bhutanmajestictravel.com/buddhism/stupa|access-date=17 January 2013|title=Stupa – Bhutanese, Nepalese, Tibetan Style Chortens or Stupa is the symbol of enlightened mind|publisher=Bhutan Majestic Travel|date=17 January 2013|url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121231185528/http://www.bhutanmajestictravel.com/buddhism/stupa|archive-date=31 December 2012}}</ref> and the pagoda in East Asia.<ref>''The Columbia Encyclopedia'', 6th ed., Columbia University Press{{page?|date=July 2024}}</ref> The pagoda has varied forms that also include bell-shaped and pyramidal styles. In the Western context, there is no clear distinction between a stupa and a pagoda. In general, however, "stupa" is the term used for a Buddhist structure in India or Southeast Asia, while "pagoda" refers to a building in East Asia that can be entered and that may be used for secular purposes. However, use of the term varies by region. For example, stupas in Burma tend to be referred to as "pagodas".{{citation needed|date=February 2024}}

Stupas were built in [[Sri Lanka]] soon after [[Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura]] converted to Buddhism. The first was the [[Thuparamaya]]. Later, many more were built over the years, including the [[Jetavanaramaya]] in Anuradhapura.

====Development of the pagoda====
The Asian words for pagoda (''tā'' in Chinese, ''t'ap'' in Korean, ''tháp'' in Vietnamese, ''tō'' in Japanese) are all thought to derive from the [[Pali]] word for stupa, ''thupa'', with the [[Sanskrit]] pronunciation being ''stupa''.{{sfnp|Le|2010|p=183}} In particular the type of the tower-like stupa, the last stage of Gandharan stupa development, visible in the second [[Kanishka Stupa]] (4th century), is thought to be the precursor of the tower stupas in [[Turkestan]] and the Chinese pagodas such as [[Songyue Pagoda]] (523 CE).{{sfnp|Le|2010|p=180}}

==Notable stupas==
[[File:Borobudur temple panorama.jpg|thumb|[[Borobudur]] bell-shaped stupas]]

The earliest archaeological evidence for the presence of Buddhist stupas dates to the late 4th century BCE. Some of the oldest known examples of stupas are found in Vaishali, Kushinagar, Piprahwa, Ramgram, Sanchi, [[Sarnath]], Amaravati, and Bharhut.

With the top of its spire reaching {{convert|120.45|m|ft|abbr=on}} in height, [[Phra Pathommachedi]] in Nakhon Pathom, Thailand is the second tallest extant stupa in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jedeethai.com/เจดีย์พระธาตุภาคกลาง/พระปฐมเจดีย์.html|title=พระปฐมเจดีย์|website= jedeethai.com}}</ref> The [[Swat River|Swat Valley]] hosts a well-preserved stupa at Shingardar near [[Ghalegay]]; another stupa is located near [[Barikot]] and Dharmarajika-Taxila in Pakistan. In Sri Lanka, the ancient city of [[Anuradhapura]] includes some of the tallest, most ancient, and best-preserved stupas in the world, such as [[Ruwanwelisaya]].

The most elaborate stupa is the 8th-century [[Borobudur]] monument in Java, Indonesia. The upper rounded terrace, with rows of bell-shaped stupas, contain Buddha images symbolizing [[Dhyana in Buddhism|Arūpajhāna]], the sphere of formlessness. The main stupa itself is empty, symbolizing complete perfection of enlightenment. The main stupa is the crown part of the monument, while the base is a pyramidal structure elaborated with galleries adorned with [[bas-relief]] scenes derived from Buddhist texts and depicting the life of [[The Buddha|Gautama Buddha]]. Borobudur's unique and significant architecture has been acknowledged by [[UNESCO]] as the largest Buddhist monument in the world. It is also the world's largest Buddhist temple<ref>
{{cite web| url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/records-3000/largest-buddhist-temple/| title=Largest Buddhist temple| publisher=Guinness World Records| work=[[Guinness World Records]]| access-date=27 January 2014}}</ref><ref>
{{cite web|url = http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2012/07/04/guinness-names-borobudur-world-s-largest-buddha-temple.html|title = Guinness names Borobudur world's largest Buddha temple|author = Purnomo Siswoprasetjo|date = 4 July 2012 |publisher = The Jakarta Post|access-date = 27 January 2014|url-status = dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141105191424/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2012/07/04/guinness-names-borobudur-world-s-largest-buddha-temple.html|archive-date = 5 November 2014}}</ref> as well as one of the greatest Buddhist monuments in the world.<ref>{{cite web| url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/592| title=Borobudur Temple Compounds| publisher=[[UNESCO]]| work=[[UNESCO World Heritage Centre]]| access-date=28 December 2008}}</ref>

[[File:Holi_relief,_Mathura,_c1st_century_CE.jpg|thumb|A [[Jain stupa]], [[Mathura]], 1st century CE]]

A [[Jain stupa]] was excavated at [[Mathura]] in the 19th century.{{sfnp|Smith|1901}}

The [[Shwedagon Pagoda]] in Yangon, Myanmar, is one of the largest stupas in the world.

===European stupas===
{{See also|Buddhism in Europe}}

The [[Benalmádena Stupa]] is the tallest stupa in Europe. It is {{convert|33|m|ft|abbr=on}} high and was inaugurated on 5 October 2003, the final project of Buddhist master [[Lopon Tsechu Rinpoche]]. Lopon Tsechu built his first stupa at [[Kalachakra stupa#Stupa in Karma Guen, Spain, 1994|Karma Guen]] near Málaga, in 1994,<ref>[http://www.karmaguen.org/ Karma Guen]</ref> a symbol of peace and prosperity for Spain.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.andalucia.com/benalmadena/benalmadena-pueblo/buddhist-temple|title=Buddhist Stupa|date=27 February 2013}}</ref> He went on to build 16 more stupas in Europe before his death in 2003.

A stupa was built on the ground of the Kalachakra Kalapa Centre in southwest [[Styria]], Austria, between 2000 and 2002.

A stupa based on the bell-shaped stupas at Borobudur is located at [[Amaravati Buddhist Monastery]], near [[Hemel Hempstead]], in the UK.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.buddhamind.info/leftside/arty/progress/stupas.htm|title=Stupa construction at Amaravati Buddhist Monastery|last=friends|first=Venerable Kusalo Bhikkhu – with help from his teachers and|website=www.buddhamind.info|access-date=25 November 2018}}</ref>

===Types of stupas===
[[File:Boudha Stupa 2018 04.jpg|thumb|[[Boudhanath Stupa]], Kathmandu, Nepal]]

Built for a variety of reasons, Buddhist stupas are classified, based on form and function, into five types:{{sfnp|Le|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9jb364g4BvoC&pg=PA140 140]}}
* '''Relic stupa''', in which the relics or remains of the Buddha, his disciples, and lay saints are interred
* '''Object stupa''', in which the items interred are objects that belonged to the Buddha or his disciples, such as a begging bowls or robes, or important Buddhist scriptures.
* '''Commemorative stupa''', built to commemorate events in the lives of Buddha or his disciples
* '''Symbolic stupa''', to symbolise aspects of Buddhist theology. For example, Borobudur is considered to be the symbol of "the Three Worlds (''dhatu'') and the spiritual stages (''bhumi'') in a Mahayana ''bodhisattva's'' character".
* '''Votive stupa''', constructed to commemorate visits or to gain spiritual benefits, usually at the site of prominent stupas that are regularly visited.

==Symbolism==
[[File:Grand Palace Bangkok.jpg|thumb|View of the [[Wat Phra Kaew]] complex from the northeast]]

"The shape of the stupa represents the Buddha, crowned and sitting in meditation posture on a lion throne. His crown is the top of the spire; his head is the square at the spire's base; his body is the vase shape; his legs are the four steps of the lower terrace; and the base is his throne."<ref>{{cite web | title=Introduction to stupas | url=http://www.stupa.org.nz/stupa/intro.htm | publisher=stupa.org | access-date=18 April 2009}}</ref>

===Five purified elements===
Although not described in any Tibetan text on stupa symbolism,{{dubious|date=March 2025}} the stupa may represent the five purified elements, according to Buddhism:{{sfnp|Beer|2004}}
* The square base represents Earth.
* The hemispherical dome/vase represents water.
* The conical spire represents fire.
* The upper lotus parasol and the crescent moon represent air.
* The sun and the dissolving point represent wisdom.

==Construction==
To build a stupa, [[Dharma transmission]] and ceremonies known to a [[Lama|Buddhist teacher]] are necessary.<ref name="stupa.pl"/> The type of stupa to be constructed in a certain area is decided together with the teacher assisting in the construction. Sometimes the type chosen is directly connected with events that have taken place in the area.<ref name="stupa.pl">{{cite web | title=Miracle Stupa  | url=http://www.stupa.pl/en_stupa.html | publisher=stupa.pl | access-date=18 April 2009}}</ref>

[[Image:EndAscetism.JPG|thumb|The sharing of the relics of the Buddha. [[Greco-Buddhist art]] of [[Gandhara]], 2nd–3rd century CE. [[ZenYouMitsu Temple]] Museum, Tokyo.]]
[[Image:Buddha relics.JPG|thumb|Buddha relics from the [[Kanishka stupa]] in Peshawar, Pakistan. These surviving relics are now housed in [[Mandalay]], Myanmar.]]

===Treasury===
All stupas contain a treasury filled with various objects. Small clay votive offerings called ''tsatsa''s in Tibetan fill most of the treasury. The creation of the ''tsatsa''s is itself a ceremony. Mantras written on paper are made into thin rolls and put into small clay stupas.<ref name="stupa.pl"/> One layer of ''tsatsa''s is placed in the treasury, and the empty space between them is filled with dry sand. On the thus-created new surface, another layer of ''tsatsa''s is made, and so on, until the entire space of the treasury is full.<ref name="stupa.pl"/>

The number of ''tsatsa''s required to completely fill the treasury depends on its size and the size of the ''tsats''a. For example, the [[Kalachakra stupa]] in southern Spain contains approximately 14,000 ''tsatsa''s.<ref name="stupa.pl"/>

Jewellery and other "precious" objects are also placed in the treasury. It is not necessary that they be expensive, since it is the symbolic value that is important, not the market price.<ref name="stupa.pl"/> It is believed that the more objects are placed in the stupa, the stronger its energy.<ref name="stupa.pl"/>

===Tree of Life===
An important element in every stupa is the "[[Tree of Life]]". This is a wooden pole covered with gems and thousands of mantras; it is placed in the central channel of the stupa.<ref name="stupa.pl"/> It is positioned during a ceremony or initiation, where the participants hold colorful ribbons connected to the Tree of Life. Together, the participants make their most positive and powerful wishes, which are stored in the Tree of Life. In this way, the stupa is charged and starts to function.<ref name="stupa.pl"/>

===Benefits===
Building a stupa is considered extremely beneficial, leaving very positive [[Karma in Buddhism|karmic]] imprints in the mind. Future benefits from this action are said to result in fortunate rebirths. Fortunate worldly benefits also result, such as being born into a rich family, having a beautiful body, a nice voice, bringing joy to others, and having a long and happy life in which one's wishes are quickly fulfilled.<ref name="stupa.org">{{cite web | title=Benefits Resulting from the Building of Stupas | url=http://www.stupa.org.nz/stupa/benefit.htm | publisher=stupa.org | access-date=18 April 2009}}</ref> On the absolute level, one will also be able to quickly reach [[Enlightenment in Buddhism|enlightenment]], the goal of Buddhism.<ref name="stupa.org"/>

Destroying a stupa, on the other hand, is considered an extremely negative deed, similar to murder.<ref name="Lopon Tsechu Rinpoche-1998">{{cite magazine |author=Lopon Tsechu Rinpoche |title=The Four Thoughts which Turn the Mind from Samsara |magazine=Buddhism Today |volume=5 |date=1998 |url=http://www.diamondway-teachings.org/export/en/content/advanced/tsechu_4thougths.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090303093029/http://www.diamondway-teachings.org/export/en/content/advanced/tsechu_4thougths.html |archive-date=3 March 2009 }}</ref> Such an action is said to create massive negative karmic imprints, leading to serious future problems. It is said this action leaves the mind in a state of paranoia after death has occurred, leading to unfortunate rebirths.<ref name="Lopon Tsechu Rinpoche-1998"/>

==Tibetan stupas==
[[File:Eight great stupas.svg|thumb|The Eight Great Stupas]]
[[File:Row of chortens at roadside near Kaza, Lahul & Spiti.jpg|thumb|Row of chortens at roadside near [[Leh]], Ladakh]]

Stupas in [[Tibet]] and Tibetan-influenced regions of the [[Himalayas]], such as [[Bhutan]], are usually called "chorten" in English, reflecting the term in the [[Tibetic languages|Tibetan language]]. There are eight different shapes of chortens in [[Tibetan Buddhism]], each referring to a major event in the Buddha's life.{{sfnp|Beer|2004}} Chortens are often made as a set, placed in a row. The Tibetan set differs slightly (by two events) from the Indian [[The Eight Great Events in the Life of Buddha|set of Eight Great Events in the Life of Buddha]].

===Lotus Blossom Stupa===
Also known as "Stupa of Heaped Lotuses", or "Birth of the Sugata Stupa", this stupa refers to the birth of Gautama Buddha. "At birth Buddha took seven steps in each of the four directions"{{sfnp|Beer|2004}} (east, south, west, and north). In each direction, lotuses sprang up, symbolizing the [[brahmavihara]]s: love, compassion, joy, and equanimity. The base of this stupa is circular and has four steps, and it is decorated with lotus-petal designs. Occasionally, seven heaped lotus steps are constructed. These refer to the seven first steps of the Buddha.{{sfnp|Beer|2004}}

===Enlightenment Stupa===
[[File:Ogoy Stupa 1 1600x1200.JPG|thumb|Enlightenment Stupa at [[Ogoy Island]], Russia]]

Also known as the "Stupa of the Conquest of [[Mara (demon)|Mara]]", this stupa symbolizes the 35-year-old Buddha's attainment of enlightenment under the bodhi tree in [[Bodh Gaya]], where he conquered worldly temptations and attacks, manifesting in the form of Mara.{{sfnp|Beer|2004}}

===Stupa of Many Doors===
This stupa is also known as the "Stupa of Many Gates". After reaching enlightenment, the Buddha taught his first students in a deer park near [[Sarnath]]. The series of doors on each side of the steps represents the first teachings: the [[Four Noble Truths]], the Six [[Pāramitā]]s, the [[Noble Eightfold Path]], and the [[Twelve Nidānas]].{{sfnp|Beer|2004}}

===Stupa of Descent from the God Realm===
At 42 years of age, Buddha spent a summer retreat in the [[Tushita|Tuṣita Heaven]], where his mother had taken rebirth. In order to repay her kindness, he taught the dharma to her rebirth. Local inhabitants built a stupa in [[Sankassa]] in order to commemorate this event. This type of stupa is characterized by having a central projection at each side, containing a triple ladder, or steps.{{sfnp|Beer|2004}}

===Stupa of Great Miracles===
Also known as the "Stupa of Conquest of the [[Tirthika]]s", this stupa refers to various miracles performed by the Buddha when he was 50 years old. Legend claims that he overpowered ''maras'' and heretics by engaging them in intellectual arguments and also by performing miracles. This stupa was raised by the [[Licchavi (kingdom)|Lichavi]] kingdom to commemorate the event.{{sfnp|Beer|2004}}

===Stupa of Reconciliation===
This stupa commemorates the Buddha's resolution of a dispute among the ''[[Sangha (Buddhism)|sangha]]''. A stupa in this design was built in the kingdom of [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]], where the reconciliation occurred. It has four octagonal steps with equal sides.{{sfnp|Beer|2004}}

===Stupa of Complete Victory===
This stupa commemorates Buddha's successful prolonging of his life by three months. It has only three steps, which are circular and unadorned.{{sfnp|Beer|2004}}

===Stupa of Nirvana===
This stupa refers to the ''[[parinirvana]]'', or death of the Buddha, when he was 80 years old. It symbolizes his complete absorption into the highest state of mind. It is bell-shaped and usually unornamented.{{sfnp|Beer|2004}}

==Kalachakra stupa==
{{Main|Kalachakra stupa}}

A ninth kind of stupa exists, the [[Kalachakra stupa]]. Its symbolism is not connected to events in the Buddha's life but instead to the symbolism of the [[Kalachakra Tantra]], created to protect against negative energies.<ref>{{cite web|title=Kalachakra Stupa |url=http://www.karmaguen.org/stupa_kalachakra_en.html |publisher=karmaguen.org |access-date=18 April 2009 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205055317/http://www.karmaguen.org/stupa_kalachakra_en.html |archive-date=5 December 2008 }}</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery>
Stone built Stupa 2.JPG|An early stupa at [[Guntupalli Group of Buddhist Monuments|Guntupalle]], probably [[Maurya Empire]], third century BCE
Sarnath Buddha statue inside a votive stupa.jpg|Buddha statue inside a votive stupa, [[Sarnath]]
SL Anuradhapura asv2020-01 img31 Abhayagiriya Stupa.jpg|Abayagiri Dageba, Sri Lanka
Potala Palace, former residence of Dalai Lama, 2006.jpg|Chorten near [[Potala Palace]], Lhasa, Tibet
Miaoyingsi baita.jpg|The white stupa in [[Miaoying Temple]], China
Kalachakra_Stupa_in_Karma_Guen,_Spain.jpg|The [[Kalachakra stupa]] in Karma Guen, Spain
</gallery>

===Cambodia===
<gallery>
2016 Phnom Penh, Pałac Królewski, Stupa Kanthy Bophy i Phnom Mondop (02).jpg|Stupa of Kantha Bopha
2016 Phnom Penh, Pałac Królewski, Stupa Króla Suramarith i Królowej Kossomak (01).jpg|Stupa of King [[Norodom Suramarit]]
Pagoda_of_Wat_Phnom.jpg|Main stupa at [[Wat Phnom]]
2016 Phnom Penh, Wat Botum (18).jpg|Stupa at [[Wat Botum]]
Udong 0013.jpg|Stupa at [[Oudong]]
Golden Stupa.jpg|Golden stupa at [[Wat Ounalom]]
</gallery>

===Kathmandu, Nepal===
<gallery>
Swayambhunath 2018.jpg|[[Swayambhunath]]
Boudhanath Stupa 2, Kathmandu, Nepal.jpg|[[Boudhanath]] Stupa
Kathmandu, Nepal, Kaathe Swayambhu Stupa.jpg|[[Kaathe Swyambhu]]
Mahabaudha112.jpg|[[Mahabouddha Temple|Mahabaudha]]
Tahiti stupa (XV century) on Tahiti Tole square (17823682692).jpg|Tahiti stupa
Yetkha Stupa.jpg|Yetkha Stupa
</gallery>

==See also==
{{Div col}}
* {{anli|Candi of Indonesia|Candi}}
* {{anli|Gorintō}}
* {{anli|Hōkyōintō}}
* {{anli|Ice stupa}}
* {{anli|Kyaung}}
* {{anli|Peace Pagoda}}
* {{anli|Reliquary}}
* {{anli|Wat}}
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Works cited===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Beer |first=Robert |title=The Encyclopedia of Tibetan Symbols and Motifs |year=2004 |publisher=Serindia Publications |isbn=1-932476-10-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Bisht |first=Ravindra Singh |chapter=How the Harappans Honoured Death at Dholavira |editor-last=Rao |editor-first=N. |title=Sindhu-Sarasvatī Civilization: New Perspectives |year=2014 |place=New Delhi |publisher=Nalanda International |isbn=978-81-246-0743-5 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/10187944 |access-date=18 March 2025 |via=Academia.edu}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Chandra |first=Pramod |year=2008 |title=South Asian arts |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}
* {{cite book |last=Le |first=Huu Phuoc |year=2010 |title=Buddhist Architecture |publisher=Grafikol |isbn=978-0-9844043-0-8}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Menon |first1=Srikumar M. |title=The 'Round Mound' and its Structural Requirements: A Possible Scenario for the Evolution of the Form of the Stupa |journal=National Institute of Advanced Studies |date=16 September 2016 |url=http://eprints.nias.res.in/1225/1/2016-SrikumarMenon-JMSA.pdf |access-date=16 September 2016}}
* {{cite book |last=Schopen |first=Gregory |year=2004 |title=Buddhist Monks and Business Matters: Still More Papers on Monastic Buddhism in India |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-2774-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Skilling |first=Peter |chapter=Chapter 2 |title=Amaravati: The Art of an Early Buddhist Monument in Context |editor1-first=Akira |editor1-last=Shimada |editor2-first=Michael |editor2-last=Willis |publisher=British Museum |year=2016 |url=http://www.britishmuseum.org/pdf/207_Amaravati.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180715152047/http://www.britishmuseum.org/pdf/207_Amaravati.pdf |archive-date=15 July 2018}}
* {{cite book|last1=Smith|first1=Vincent Arthur|title=The Jain stûpa and other antiquities of Mathurâ|year=1901|publisher=KFrank Luker, Superintendent, Government Press, North-Western Provinces and Oudh|url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924012251140|location=[[Allahabad]]}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite journal |last= Das Gupta|first= P. C.|date= October 1977|title= Stupa in Mexican Art|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=yb0nAQAAIAAJ|journal= Jain Journal|volume= 12|issue= 2|pages= 51–60 |ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |last=Harvey |first=Peter |year=1984 |url=http://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/jiabs/article/viewFile/8633/2540 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141210164545/http://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/jiabs/article/viewFile/8633/2540 |archive-date=10 December 2014 |title=The Symbolism of the Early Stūpa |journal=Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies |volume=7 |number=2 |pages=67–94 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Mitra |first=D. |year=1971 |title=Buddhist Monuments |publisher=Sahitya Samsad |place=Calcutta |isbn=0-89684-490-0 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |author-link=Adrian Snodgrass |last=Snodgrass |first=Adrian |year=1992 |title=The Symbolism of the Stupa |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |place=Delhi |isbn=978-81-208-0781-5 |ref=none}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category inline|Stupas}}
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