Editing Sugar glider

{{About|the animal|the indie pop band|the Sugargliders}}
{{Short description|Species of Australian marsupial}}
{{Pp-semi-indef|small=yes}}
{{Use Australian English|date=June 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = Sugar glider<ref name=MSW3>{{MSW3 Groves|pages=55}}</ref>
| image = Petaurus breviceps-Cayley.jpg
| image_caption = Illustration by [[Neville William Cayley|Neville Cayley]]
| fossil_range = 
| synonyms = ''P. (Belideus) breviceps'', &nbsp;<small>Waterhouse 1839</small><br/>
''P. kohlsi'', &nbsp;<small>Troughton 1945</small><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Troughton|first1=Ellis|title=Diagnoses of New rare mammals from the South-West Pacific|journal=Records of the Australian Museum|date=1945|volume=21|issue=6|pages=373–374|doi=10.3853/j.0067-1975.21.1945.551|doi-access=free}}</ref>
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn">{{cite iucn |author=Salas, L. |author2=Dickman, C. |author3=Helgen, K. |author4=Winter, J. |author5=Ellis, M. |author6=Denny, M. |author7=Woinarski, J. |author8=Lunney, D. |author9=Oakwood, M. |author10=Menkhorst, P. |author11=Strahan, R. |name-list-style=amp |year=2016 |title=''Petaurus breviceps'' |page=e.T16731A21959798 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-2.RLTS.T16731A21959798.en |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
| genus = Petaurus
| species = breviceps
| authority = [[George Robert Waterhouse|Waterhouse]], 1839<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Waterhouse|first1=G. R.|title=Observations on certain modifications observed in the dentition of the Flying Opossums (the genus ''Petaurus'' of authors)|journal=Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London|date=1838|volume=4|pages=149–153|doi=10.1111/j.1096-3642.1838.tb01419.x|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/30571210}}</ref>
| range_map = Petaurus breviceps distribution.png
| range_map_caption = Range map of the formerly recognized subspecies of sugar glider:{{refn|group=note|Range in red now thought to largely represent a separate species, [[Krefft's glider]] (''P. notatus''); if this is true, ''P. breviceps'' (''sensu stricto'') occupies only a small coastal region of this range, containing parts of southern Queensland and eastern New South Wales. Range in blue now thought to possibly represent multiple non-''P. breviceps'' species, including [[Krefft's glider]] (''P. notatus''), the [[mahogany glider]] (''P. gracilis''), and/or a species complex associated with ''P. gracilis''.<ref name="ASM-PetBreviceps"/><ref name="Cremona-2020"/>}}<br />
<div style="text-align: left">
{{legend2|#f00;<!--Red-->| ''P. b. breviceps'' (introduced in Tasmania)}}<br />
{{legend2|#00f;<!--Blue-->| ''P. b. longicaudatus''}}<br />
{{legend2|#060;<!--Dk Green-->| ''[[Savanna glider|P. b. ariel]]''}}{{refn|group=note|It has been recently suggested that ''P. b. ariel'' be treated as a separate species, the [[savanna glider]] (''P. ariel'')<ref name="Cremona-2020"/>}}<br />
{{legend2|#cc0;<!--Gold-->| ''P. b. flavidus''}}{{refn|group=note|''P. b. flavidus'' (Tate and Archbold, 1935) considered a [[Synonym (taxonomy)|synonym]] of ''P. b. papuanus'' (Thomas 1888)<!-- REFERENCE NEEDED -->}}<br />
{{legend2|#0c0;<!--Lt Green-->| ''P. b. tafa''}}{{refn|group=note|Tate & Archbold, 1935; subspecies ''P. b. tafa'' considered a [[Synonym (taxonomy)|synonym]] of species ''P. breviceps''<ref>[http://www.planet-mammiferes.org/drupal/en/node/39?indice=Petaurus+breviceps+tafa Subspecies Sheet | Mammals'Planet] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160818081308/http://www.planet-mammiferes.org/drupal/en/node/39?indice=Petaurus+breviceps+tafa |date=18 August 2016 }}. Planet-mammiferes.org. Retrieved 2014-04-19.</ref>}}<br />
{{legend2|#f0f;<!--Magenta-->| ''P. b. papuanus''}}<br />
{{legend2|#333;<!--Black-->| ''[[Biak glider|P. b. biacensis]]''}}{{refn|group=note|name=Biak|Subspecies (former) ''P. b. biacensis'' provisionally considered species: ''P. biacensis'' ([[Biak glider]]). "Helgen (2007) states that ''Petaurus biacensis'' is likely to be [[conspecific]] with ''P. breviceps''. ''P. biacensis'' appears to differ from the latter mainly by having a higher incidence of [[melanism]] (Helgen 2007). We provisionally retain ''P. biacensis'' as a separate species pending further taxonomic work, thus following what has become standard treatment (e.g., Flannery 1994, 1995; Groves 2005)."<ref name="iucn"/>}}
</div>
}}

The '''sugar glider'''  ('''''Petaurus breviceps''''') is a small, [[omnivorous]], [[arboreal]], and [[Nocturnality|nocturnal]] [[gliding possum]]. The common name refers to its predilection for sugary foods such as [[plant sap|sap]] and [[nectar]] and its ability to [[Gliding flight|glide]] through the air, much like a [[flying squirrel]].<ref name="dpiwtas">{{cite web|date=28 August 2012|title=DPIW - Sugar Glider|url=http://www.dpiw.tas.gov.au/inter.nsf/WebPages/BHAN-53J8XS?open|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120828032345/http://www.dpiw.tas.gov.au/inter.nsf/WebPages/BHAN-53J8XS?open|archive-date=28 August 2012}}</ref> They have very similar habits and appearance to the flying squirrel, despite not being closely related—an example of [[convergent evolution]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Analogy: Squirrels and Sugar Gliders|url=http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/analogy_02|work=Understanding Evolution|publisher=The University of California Museum of Paleontology|access-date=1 October 2012}}</ref> The [[Binomial nomenclature|scientific name]], ''Petaurus breviceps'', translates from [[Latin (language)|Latin]] as "short-headed rope-dancer", a reference to their [[Canopy (biology)|canopy]] [[acrobatics]].<ref name="Tasmania Online">{{cite web|title=Sugar Glider, ''Petaurus breviceps''|url=http://www.parks.tas.gov.au/index.aspx?base=4883|publisher=Parks & Wildlife Service, Tasmania Online|access-date=7 October 2012|archive-date=3 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160403061800/http://www.parks.tas.gov.au/index.aspx?base=4883|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The sugar glider is characterised by its pair of gliding membranes, known as [[patagia]], which extend from its forelegs to its hindlegs.<ref name=Endo(1998)>{{cite journal|last1=Endo|first1=H|last2=Yokokawa|first2=K|last3=Kurohmaru|first3=M|last4=Hiyashi|first4=Y|title=Functional anatomy of gliding membrane muscles in the sugar glider (''Petaurus breviceps'')|journal=Annals of Anatomy|date=1998|volume=180|issue=1|pages=93–96|doi=10.1016/S0940-9602(98)80149-0|pmid=9488912}}</ref>  [[Gliding flight|Gliding]] serves as an efficient means of reaching food and evading predators.<ref name="dpiwtas"/> The animal is covered in soft, pale grey to light brown fur which is [[countershaded]], being lighter in colour on its underside.
 
The sugar glider, as strictly defined in a recent analysis, is only native to a small portion of southeastern [[Australia]], corresponding to southern [[Queensland]] and most of [[New South Wales]] east of the [[Great Dividing Range]]; the extended species group, including populations which may or may not belong to ''P. breviceps'', occupies a larger range covering much of coastal eastern and northern Australia, [[New Guinea]], and nearby islands.<ref name="ASM-PetBreviceps">{{cite mdd|title=''Petaurus breviceps'' Waterhouse, 1839|genus=Petaurus|species=breviceps|id=1000344}}</ref><ref name="Cremona-2020">{{cite journal|last1=Cremona|first1=Teigan|last2=Baker|first2=Andrew M|last3=Cooper|first3=Steven J B|last4=Montague-Drake|first4=Rebecca|last5=Stobo-Wilson|first5=Alyson M|last6=Carthew|first6=Susan M|date=2020-07-13|title=Integrative taxonomic investigation of ''Petaurus breviceps'' (Marsupialia: Petauridae) reveals three distinct species|journal=Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society|volume=191 |issue=2 |pages=503–527 |doi=10.1093/zoolinnean/zlaa060|issn=0024-4082|doi-access=free}}</ref> Members of ''Petaurus'' are popular [[exotic pet|exotic pets]]; these pet animals are also frequently referred to as "sugar gliders", but recent research indicates, at least for American pets, that they are not ''P. breviceps'' but a closely related species, ultimately originating from a single source near [[Sorong]] in [[West Papua (province)|West Papua]].<ref name="Campbell-2019" /> This would possibly make them members of the [[Krefft's glider]] (''P. notatus''), but the taxonomy of Papuan ''Petaurus'' populations is still poorly resolved.<ref name="ASM-PetNotatus">{{Cite mdd|title=''Petaurus notatus'' W. Peters, 1859|genus=Petaurus|species=notatus|id=1000347}}</ref>

==Taxonomy and evolution==
The genus ''[[Petaurus]]'' is believed to have originated in New Guinea during the mid [[Miocene]] epoch, approximately 18 to 24 million years ago. The modern Australian ''Petaurus'', along with New Guinean members of what were formerly considered ''P. breviceps'', diverged from their closest living New Guinean relatives ~9-12 mya. They probably dispersed from New Guinea to Australia between 4.8 and ~8.4 mya, with the oldest ''Petaurus'' fossils in Australia being dated to 4.46 million years.<ref name=Malekian(2010)>{{cite journal |last1=Malekian |first1=M |last2=Cooper |first2=S |last3=Norman |first3=J |last4=Christidis |first4=L |last5=Carthew |first5=S |title=Molecular systematics and evolutionary origins of the genus ''Petaurus'' (Marsupialia: Petauridae) in Australia and New Guinea |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |date=2010 |volume=54 |issue=1 |pages=122–135 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2009.07.026 |pmid=19647084}}</ref> This may have been possible due to sea level lowering from about 7 to 10 mya, resulting in land bridges between New Guinea and Australia.

The taxonomy of the species is complex, and is still not fully resolved. It was formerly understood to have a wide range across Australia and New Guinea, being the only [[Petaurus|glider]] to have this distribution, and to be divided into seven subspecies, with three occurring in Australia and four in New Guinea.<ref name="Malekian2">{{cite journal|last1=Malekian|first1=Mansoureh|last2=Cooper|first2=Steven J. B.|last3=Carthew|first3=Susan M.|date=2010|title=Phylogeography of the Australian sugar glider (''Petaurus breviceps''): evidence for a new divergent lineage in eastern Australia|journal=Australian Journal of Zoology|volume=58|issue=3|pages=165|doi=10.1071/ZO10016}}</ref> This traditional subspecific division was based on small [[Morphology (biology)|morphological]] differences, such as colour and body size.<ref name="Malekian(2010)" /> However, a 2010 genetic analysis using [[mitochondrial DNA]] indicates that these morphologically-defined subspecies may not represent genetically unique populations.<ref name="Malekian2" /> 

Further studies have found significant genetic variation within populations traditionally classified in ''P. breviceps'', sufficient to warrant splitting the species into multiple. The subspecies ''P. b. biacensis'', from [[Biak|Biak Island]] off of New Guinea, was reclassified as a separate species, the [[Biak glider]] (''Petaurus biacensis'').{{refn|group=note|name=Biak}} In 2020, a landmark study suggested that ''P. breviceps'' actually comprised three [[Species complex|cryptic species]]: the [[Krefft's glider]] (''Petaurus notatus''), found throughout most of eastern Australia and introduced to [[Tasmania]], the [[savanna glider]] (''Petaurus ariel''), native to northern Australia, and a more narrowly defined ''P. breviceps'', restricted to a small section of coastal forest in southern [[Queensland]] and most of [[New South Wales]]. In addition, other sugar glider populations throughout this range (such as those on [[New Guinea]] and the [[Cape York Peninsula]]) may represent undescribed species or be [[conspecific]] with previously described species. This indicates that contrary to previous findings of a large range (which in fact applied to ''P. notatus'' and, to a lesser extent, to ''P. ariel''), ''P. breviceps'' is a range-restricted species that is sensitive to ecological disasters, such as the [[2019–20 Australian bushfire season|2019-20 Australian bushfires]], which significantly affected large portions of its habitat.<ref name="ASM-PetBreviceps" /><ref name="Cremona-2020" /><ref>{{cite web|last1=Stobo-Wilson|first1=Alyson|last2=Baker|first2=Andrew|last3=Cooper|first3=Steve|last4=Carthew|first4=Sue|last5=Cremona|first5=Teigan|title=A rare discovery: we found the sugar glider is actually three species, but one is disappearing fast|url=http://theconversation.com/a-rare-discovery-we-found-the-sugar-glider-is-actually-three-species-but-one-is-disappearing-fast-142807|access-date=2020-07-17|website=The Conversation|date=16 July 2020 |language=en}}</ref>

''P. breviceps'' and ''P. notatus'' are estimated to have diverged ~1 million years ago, and may have [[Speciation|originated]] from long term geographic isolation. The early-mid [[Pleistocene]] saw an uplifting of the [[Great Dividing Range]], contributing to and coinciding with aridification of the interior of Australia, including on the western side of the range.<ref name=Malekian2 /> This, as well as other climactic and geographic factors, may have isolated the ancestors of ''P. breviceps'' to [[Refugium (population biology)|refugia]] on the eastern, coastal side of the Great Dividing Range.<ref name="ASM-PetBreviceps"/> This would be an example of [[allopatric speciation]].

==Distribution and habitat==
Sugar gliders are distributed in the coastal forests of southeastern [[Queensland]] and most of [[New South Wales]]. Their distribution extends to altitudes of 2000m in the eastern ranges. In parts of its range, it may overlap with [[Krefft's glider]] (''P. notatus'').<ref name="Cremona-2020" /><ref name="smith(73)">{{cite journal|last1=Smith|first1=Meredith J.|date=13 June 1973|title=Petaurus breviceps|journal=Mammalian Species|issue=30|pages=1–5|doi=10.2307/3503785|jstor=3503785|s2cid=254011903 }}</ref>

The sugar glider occurs in [[sympatry]] with the [[squirrel glider]] and [[yellow-bellied glider]]; and their coexistence is permitted through [[niche partitioning]] where each species has different patterns of resource use.<ref name=Jackson(2k)>{{cite journal|last1=Jackson|first1=Stephen M.|title=Habitat relationships of the mahogany glider, ''Petaurus gracilis'', and the sugar glider, ''Petaurus breviceps''|journal=Wildlife Research|date=2000|volume=27|issue=1|pages=39|doi=10.1071/WR98045}}</ref>

Like all arboreal, nocturnal marsupials, sugar gliders are active at night, and they shelter during the day in tree hollows lined with leafy twigs.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Wormington|first1=K|last2=Lamb|first2=D|last3=McCallum|first3=H|last4=Moolooney|first4=d|title=Habitat requirements for the conservation of arboreal marsupials in dry sclerophyll forests of southeast Queensland, Australia|journal=Forest Science|date=2002|volume=48|issue=2|pages=217–227|doi=10.1093/forestscience/48.2.217}}</ref>
 
The average [[home range]] of sugar gliders is {{convert|0.5|ha}}, and is largely related to the abundance of food sources;<ref name=suckling1>{{cite journal|last1=Suckling|first1=G.C|title=Population ecology of the sugar glider "Petaurus breviceps", in a system of fragmented habitats|journal=Australian Wildlife Research|date=1984|volume=11|pages=49–75|doi=10.1071/WR9840049}}</ref> [[Population density|density]] ranges from two to six individuals per hectare (0.8–2.4 per acre).

Native owls (''[[Ninox]]'' sp.)<ref name=smith(73) /> are their primary predators; others in their range include [[kookaburra]]s, [[goanna]]s, [[Snakes of Australia|snakes]], and [[quoll]]s.<ref name="Qld">{{cite web|title=Wildlife – Sugar Glider|url=http://www.wildlife.org.au/wildlife/speciesprofile/mammals/gliders/sugar_glider.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140223183947/http://www.wildlife.org.au/wildlife/speciesprofile/mammals/gliders/sugar_glider.html|archive-date=23 February 2014|access-date=16 February 2014|publisher=Wildlife Queensland}}</ref> [[Feral cat]]s (''[[Felis catus]]'') also represent a significant threat.<ref name=smith(73) /><ref name=Qld />

==Appearance and anatomy==
[[File:Petaurus breviceps 1.jpg|thumb|left|This male's forehead bald spot is a scent gland. The eyes are adapted for night vision and the ears swivel.]]
The sugar glider has a squirrel-like body with a long, partially (weakly)<ref name="Hilltop">{{cite web|last=Pye|first=Geoffrey W.|title=A guide to medicine and surgery in sugar gliders|url=http://www.hilltopanimalhospital.com/sugarglider.htm|publisher=Hilltop Animal Hospital|access-date=2 November 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150321103246/http://www.hilltopanimalhospital.com/sugarglider.htm|archive-date=21 March 2015}}</ref> [[prehensile tail]]. The length from the nose to the tip of the tail is about {{convert|24|-|30|cm|0|abbr=on}}, and males and females weigh {{convert|140|and|115|g|oz|0}} respectively.<ref>{{cite web|title=Wildlife Queensland – Sugar Glider|url=http://www.wildlife.org.au/wildlife/speciesprofile/mammals/gliders/sugar_glider.html|publisher=Wildlife Preservation Society of Queensland|access-date=24 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140223183947/http://www.wildlife.org.au/wildlife/speciesprofile/mammals/gliders/sugar_glider.html|archive-date=23 February 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Heart rate]] range is 200–300 beats per minute, and [[respiratory rate]] is 16–40 breaths per minute.<ref>{{cite web|title=Basic Health Care Information / General Wellness Exam|url=http://www.sugarglidervetinfo.com/Health-Care-and-Wellness-Exam.html|publisher=Sugar Glider Vet|access-date=27 October 2012}}</ref> The sugar glider is a [[Sexual dimorphism|sexually dimorphic]] species, with males typically larger than females. Sexual dimorphism has likely evolved due to increased mate competition arising through social group structure; and is more pronounced in regions of higher latitude, where mate competition is greater due to increased food availability.<ref name=Quin(1996)>{{cite journal|last1=Quin|first1=DG|last2=Smith|first2=AP|last3=Norton|first3=TW|title=Eco-graphic variation in size and sexual dimorphism in sugar gliders and squirrel gliders (Marsupialia: Petauridae)|journal=Australian Journal of Zoology|date=1996|volume=44|pages=19–45|doi=10.1071/ZO9960019}}</ref>

The fur coat on the sugar glider is thick, soft, and is usually blue-grey; although some have been known to be yellow, tan or (rarely) [[Albinism in biology|albino]].{{efn|Domestic [[in-breeding]] of [[recessive gene]]tic [[phenotype]] defects can produce other colour variations not found in nature, such as an all-white [[leucistic]] [[heterozygote]]}} A black stripe is seen from its nose to midway on its back. Its belly, throat, and chest are cream in colour. Males have four [[scent gland]]s, located on the forehead, chest, and two paracloacal (associated with, but not part of the [[cloaca]], which is the common opening for the intestinal, urinal and genital tracts) that are used for marking of group members and territory.<ref name=smith(73) /> Scent glands on the head and chest of males appear as bald spots. Females also have a paracloacal scent gland and a scent gland in the pouch, but do not have scent glands on the chest or forehead.<ref name=smith(73) />

The sugar glider is nocturnal; its large eyes help it to [[Rod vision|see at night]] and its ears swivel to help locate prey in the dark. The eyes are set far apart, allowing more precise [[triangulation]] from launching to landing locations while gliding.<ref name=Jackson(1999)>{{cite journal|last1=Jackson|first1=S. M.|title=Glide angle in the genus "Petaurus" and a review of gliding in mammals|journal=Mammal Review|date=1999|volume=30|pages=9–30|doi=10.1046/j.1365-2907.2000.00056.x}}</ref> Sugar gliders have demonstrated trichromacy in behavioral testing with sensitivity in the ultraviolet/blue, green, and red ranges. Ultraviolet sensitivity is corroborated by genetic evidence. The physiological source of their middle wavelength sensitivity is not yet confirmed.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nielsen |first1=Leah |date=4 March 2025 |title=Trichromacy and ultraviolet vision in a nocturnal marsupial |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=15 |issue=7585 |page=7585 |doi=10.1038/s41598-025-92039-z|pmid=40038358 |pmc=11880520 }}</ref>

Each foot on the sugar glider has five digits, with an opposable toe on each hind foot. These opposable toes are clawless, and bend such that they can touch all the other digits, like a human [[thumb]], allowing it to firmly grasp branches. The second and third digits of the hind foot are partially [[Syndactyly|syndactylous]] (fused together), forming a grooming comb.<ref name="Hilltop"/> The fourth digit of the forefoot is sharp and elongated, aiding in extraction of insects under the bark of trees.<ref name=smith(73) />

The gliding membrane extends from the outside of the fifth digit of each forefoot to the first digit of each hind foot. When the legs are stretched out, this membrane allows the sugar glider to glide a considerable distance. The membrane is supported by well developed tibiocarpalis, humerodorsalis and tibioabdominalis muscles, and its movement is controlled by these supporting muscles in conjunction with trunk, limb and tail movement.<ref name=Endo(1998) />

Lifespan in the wild is up to 9 years; is typically up to 12 years in captivity,<ref name="Tasmania Online" /> and the maximum reported lifespan is 17.8 years.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = de Magalhaes | first1 = J. P. | last2 = Budovsky | first2 = A. | last3 = Lehmann | first3 = G. | last4 = Costa | first4 = J. | last5 = Li | first5 = Y. | last6 = Fraifeld | first6 = V. | last7 = Church | first7 = G. M. | year = 2009 | title = The Human Ageing Genomic Resources: online databases and tools for biogerontologists | journal = Aging Cell | volume = 8 | issue = 1| pages = 65–72 | pmid = 18986374 | doi=10.1111/j.1474-9726.2008.00442.x | pmc=2635494}} {{cite web|title=AnAge entry for ''Petaurus breviceps''|url=http://genomics.senescence.info/species/entry.php?species=Petaurus_breviceps}}</ref>

==Biology and behaviour==
[[File:Sugarglider hp.jpg|175px|thumb|right|Sugar gliders' hind feet are adapted to firmly grasp surfaces such as this rock wall]]

===Gliding===
The sugar glider is one of a number of [[Gliding possum|volplane (gliding) possums]] in Australia. It glides with the fore- and hind-limbs extended at right angles to the body, with feet flexed upwards.<ref name=Jackson(1999) /> The animal launches itself from a tree, spreading its limbs to expose the gliding membranes. This creates an [[aerofoil]] enabling it to glide {{convert|50|m|yd|abbr=off}} or more.<ref name="Strahan-1983">{{cite book|author=Strahan, the Australian Museum|editor=Ronald|title=Complete book of Australian mammals : the national photographic index of Australian wildlife|year=1983|publisher=Angus & Robertson|location=[Sidney]|isbn=0207144540|edition=1. publ.}}</ref> For every {{convert|1.82|m|abbr=on}} travelled horizontally when gliding, it falls {{convert|1|m|abbr=on}}.<ref name=Jackson(1999) /> Steering is controlled by moving limbs and adjusting the tension of the gliding membrane; for example, to turn left, the left forearm is lowered below the right.<ref name=Jackson(1999) />

This form of [[arboreal locomotion]] is typically used to travel from tree to tree; the species rarely descends to the ground. Gliding provides three dimensional avoidance of arboreal predators, and minimal contact with ground dwelling predators; as well as possible benefits in decreasing time and energy consumption<ref name=Nagy(1985)>{{cite journal|last1=Nagy|first1=K. A.|last2=Suckling|first2=G. C.|title=Field energetics and water balance of sugar gliders, "Petaurus breviceps" (Marsupialia: Petauridae) |journal=Australian Journal of Zoology |date=1985 |volume=33 |issue=5|pages=683–691 |doi=10.1071/ZO9850683}}</ref> spent foraging for nutrient poor foods that are irregularly distributed.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Byrnes |first1=G |last2=Spence |first2=A |title=Ecological and biomechanical insights into the evolution of gliding in mammals|journal=Integrative and Comparative Biology |date=2011 |volume=51 |issue=6 |pages=991–1001 |doi=10.1093/icb/icr069 |pmid=21719434|doi-access=free }}</ref> Young carried in the pouch of females are protected from landing forces by the [[septum]] that separates them within the pouch.<ref name=Jackson(1999) />

===Torpor===
Sugar gliders can tolerate ambient air temperatures of up to {{convert|40|°C|°F}} through behavioural strategies such as licking their coat and exposing the wet area, as well as drinking small quantities of water.<ref name=smith(73) />
In cold weather, sugar gliders will huddle together to avoid heat loss, and will enter [[torpor]] to conserve energy.<ref name=Kortner(2000) /> Huddling as an energy conserving mechanism is not as efficient as torpor.<ref name=Kortner(2000) /> Before entering torpor, a sugar glider will reduce activity and body temperature normally in order to lower energy expenditure and avoid torpor.<ref name="arjournals.annualreviews.org">{{cite journal |first=Fritz |last=Geiser |title=Metabolic Rate and Body Temperature Reduction During Hibernation and Daily Torpor |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=239–274 |year=2004|doi=10.1146/annurev.physiol.66.032102.115105 |journal=Annual Review of Physiology |pmid=14977403|s2cid=22397415 }}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal |first=Nereda |last=Christian |author2=Fritz Geiser  |title=To use or not to use torpor? Activity and body temperature as predictors |journal=Naturwissenschaften |volume=94 |issue=6 |pages=483–487 |year= 2007 |doi=10.1007/s00114-007-0215-5 |pmid=17252241|bibcode=2007NW.....94..483C |s2cid=24061894 }}</ref> With energetic constraints, the sugar glider will enter into daily torpor for 2–23 hours while in rest phase.<ref name=Kortner(2000) /> 
Torpor differs from [[hibernation]] in that torpor is usually a short-term daily cycle.  Entering torpor saves energy for the animal by allowing its body temperature to fall to a minimum of {{convert|10.4|°C|°F}}<ref name=Kortner(2000) /> to {{convert|19.6|°C|°F}}.<ref name="springerlink1">{{cite journal |first=Fritz |last=Geiser |author2=Joanne C. Holloway |author3=Gerhard Körtner |title=Thermal biology, torpor and behaviour in sugar gliders: a laboratory-field comparison |journal=Journal of Comparative Physiology B |volume=177 |issue=5 |pages=495–501 |year=2007 |doi=10.1007/s00360-007-0147-6 |pmid=17549496 |s2cid=24469410 }}</ref> When food is scarce, as in winter, heat production is lowered in order to reduce energy expenditure.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=11765973 | volume=171 | issue=8 | title=Seasonal changes in the thermoenergetics of the marsupial sugar glider, ''Petaurus breviceps'' |date=November 2001 | journal=J. Comp. Physiol. B | pages=643–50 | doi=10.1007/s003600100215 | last1 = Holloway | first1 = JC | last2 = Geiser | first2 = F| s2cid=1008750 }}</ref> With low energy and heat production, it is important for the sugar glider to peak its body mass by fat content in the autumn (May/June) in order to survive the following cold season. In the wild, sugar gliders enter into daily torpor more often than sugar gliders in captivity.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref name="springerlink1"/> The use of torpor is most frequent during winter, likely in response to low ambient temperature, rainfall, and seasonal fluctuation in food sources.<ref name=Kortner(2000)>{{cite journal|last1=Kortner|first1=G|last2=Geiser|first2=F|title=Torpor and activity patterns in free-ranging sugar gliders "Petaurus breviceps" (Marsupialia)|journal=Oecologia|date=2000|volume=123|issue=3|pages=350–357|doi=10.1007/s004420051021|pmid=28308589|bibcode=2000Oecol.123..350K|s2cid=10103980}}</ref>

===Diet and nutrition===
[[File:Petaurus breviceps Gould.jpg|thumb|1863 illustration by [[John Gould]]]]
Sugar gliders are seasonally adaptive omnivores with a wide variety of foods in their diet, and mainly forage in the lower layers of the forest canopy.<ref name="Jackson(2k)"/><ref name=smith87>{{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=AP |title=Diet and feeding strategies of the marsupial glider in temperate Australia |journal=Journal of Animal Ecology |date=1982 |volume=51 |issue=1 |pages=149–166 |doi=10.2307/4316|jstor=4316 }}</ref> Sugar gliders may obtain up to half their daily water intake through drinking rainwater, with the remainder obtained through water held in its food.<ref name=Nagy(1985) /> In summer they are primarily [[insectivorous]], and in the winter when insects (and other [[arthropod]]s) are scarce, they are mostly [[Exudate|exudativorous]] (feeding on [[acacia gum]], [[eucalyptus]] [[Plant sap|sap]], [[manna (disambiguation)|manna]],{{efn| When dried, an [[exudate]] (such as sap) becomes [[Crystallization|crystallized]] and is referred to as ''manna'',<ref>{{cite web|title=manna|url=http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?o2=&o0=1&o8=1&o1=1&o7=&o5=&o9=&o6=&o3=&o4=&s=manna&i=1&h=100#c|work=WordNet Search – 3.1|publisher=WordNet. Princeton University|access-date=19 December 2012|quote=(n) manna (hardened sugary exudation of various trees) : Synset (semantic) relations, ''direct hypernym'' (n) sap (a watery solution of sugars, salts, and minerals that circulates through the vascular system of a plant)}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Pickert|editor-first=Executive: Joseph P.|title=The American heritage dictionary of the English language.|year=1992|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|location=Boston|isbn=0395825172|edition=4th|page=[https://archive.org/details/americanheritage0000unse_a1o7/page/1065 1065]|quote=manna ''n''. 4. The dried exudate of certain plants|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/americanheritage0000unse_a1o7/page/1065}}</ref> which is consumed by sugar gliders.<ref>{{cite web|editor-last=Cianciolo|author=Janine M., DVM|title=Sugar Glider Nutrition|url=http://www.sugar-gliders.com/sugar-glider-diet.htm|work=Past Newsletters|publisher=SunCoast Sugar Gliders|quote=Sugar gliders eat manna in the wild. Manna is a crusty sugar left from where sap flowed from a wound in a tree trunk or branch.}}</ref>}} [[Honeydew (secretion)|honeydew]] or [[lerp (biology)|lerp]]).<ref>{{cite web|title=The Sugar Glider Diet|url=http://www.sugarglidercorner.com/category/sugar-glider-diet/|work=Sugar Glider Diet Archives|publisher=Sugar Glider Cage|access-date=6 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120824125424/http://www.sugarglidercorner.com/category/sugar-glider-diet/|archive-date=24 August 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> Sugar gliders have an enlarged [[caecum]] to assist in digestion of [[complex carbohydrates]] obtained from gum and sap.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dierenfeld |first1=Ellen |title=Feeding behavior and nutrition of the Sugar Glider (''Petaurus breviceps'')|journal=Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotic Animal Practice |date=2009 |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=209–215 |doi=10.1016/j.cvex.2009.01.014|pmid=19341949 }}</ref>
 
To obtain sap or gum from plants, sugar gliders will strip the bark off trees or open bore holes with their teeth to access stored liquid.<ref name="smith87"/> Little time is spent [[foraging]] for insects, as it is an energetically expensive process, and sugar gliders will wait until insects fly into their habitat, or stop to feed on flowers.<ref name="smith87"/>
Gliders consume approximately 11 g of dry food matter per day.<ref name=Nagy(1985) /> This equates to roughly 8% and 9.5% of body weight for males and females, respectively.

They are [[opportunistic feeder]]s and can be [[Carnivore|carnivorous]], preying mostly on lizards and small birds.  They eat many other foods when available, such as nectar, acacia seeds, bird eggs, pollen, fungi and native fruits.<ref>{{cite web |last=McLeod, DVM |first=Lianne |title=Feeding Sugar Gliders / Nutritional Needs and Sample Diets |url=http://exoticpets.about.com/cs/sugargliders/a/sgfeeding.htm |publisher=About.com |access-date=3 October 2012 |archive-date=25 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120825030756/http://exoticpets.about.com/cs/sugargliders/a/sgfeeding.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Natural Diet |url=http://www.sugarglider.com/gliderpedia/index.asp?NaturalDiet |work=Gliderpedia |publisher=SugarGlider.com |access-date=2012-11-02}}</ref> Pollen can make up a large portion of their diet, therefore sugar gliders are likely to be important [[pollinator]]s of ''[[Banksia]]'' species.<ref name=vanTets>{{cite journal |last1=van Tets |first1=Ian G. |last2=Whelan |first2=Robert J. |title=Banksia pollen in the diet of Australian mammals |journal=Ecography |date=1997 |volume=20 |issue=5 |pages=499–505 |doi=10.1111/j.1600-0587.1997.tb00418.x|doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Reproduction===

Like most [[marsupial]]s, female sugar gliders have two [[Ovary|ovaries]] and two [[Uterus|uteri]]; they are [[polyestrous]], meaning they can go into [[Estrus|heat]] several times a year.<ref name=suckling1 /> The female has a [[Pouch (marsupial)|marsupium]] (pouch) in the middle of her abdomen to carry offspring.<ref name="Hilltop"/> The pouch opens anteriorly, and two lateral pockets extend posteriorly when young are present. Four nipples are usually present in the pouch, although reports of individuals with two nipples have been recorded.<ref name=smith(73) /> Male sugar gliders have two pairs of [[Bulbourethral gland|bulbourethral glands]]<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Quesenberry |first1=Katherine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t-_eDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA387 |title=Ferrets, Rabbits and Rodents - E-Book: Ferrets, Rabbits and Rodents - E-Book |last2=Mans |first2=Christoph |last3=Orcutt |first3=Connie |date=2020-04-24 |publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences |isbn=978-0-323-48434-3 |language=en}}</ref> and a [[marsupial penis|bifurcated penis]] to correspond with the two uteri of females.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Morges |first1=Michelle A. |last2=Grant |first2=Krystan R. |last3=MacPhail |first3=Catriona M. |last4=Johnston |first4=Matthew S. |title=A Novel Technique for Orchiectomy and Scrotal Ablation in the Sugar Glider (''Petaurus breviceps'') |journal=Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine |date=March 2009 |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=204–206 |doi=10.1638/2007-0169.1|pmid=19368264 |s2cid=24253225 }}</ref>

The age of sexual maturity in sugar gliders varies slightly between the males and females. Males reach maturity at 4 to 12 months of age, while females require from 8 to 12 months. In the wild, sugar gliders breed once or twice a year depending on the climate and habitat conditions, while they can breed multiple times a year in captivity as a result of consistent living conditions and proper diet.<ref name="Hilltop"/>

A sugar glider female gives birth to one (19%) or two (81%) babies (joeys) per litter.<ref name=suckling1 /> The gestation period is 15 to 17 days, after which the tiny joey {{convert|0.2|g|oz|abbr=on}} will crawl into a mother's pouch for further development. They are born largely undeveloped and furless, with only the [[olfaction|sense of smell]] being developed.  The mother has a scent gland in the external marsupium to attract the sightless joeys from the uterus.<ref name = "Tynes(2010)">{{cite book|editor1-last=Tynes|editor1-first=Valarie V.|title=Behavior of exotic pets|date=2010|publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell|Blackwell Pub.]]|location=Chichester, West Sussex|isbn=9780813800783|edition=1st|chapter=Sugar gliders}}</ref> Joeys have a continuous arch of cartilage in their [[shoulder girdle]] which disappears soon after birth; this supports the forelimbs, assisting the climb into the pouch.<ref>{{cite web|last=Antinoff |first=Natalie |title=Practical anatomy and physical examination: Ferrets, rabbits, rodents, and other selected species (Proceedings) |url=http://veterinarycalendar.dvm360.com/avhc/article/articleDetail.jsp?id=638213&sk=&date=&%0A%09%09%09&pageID=5 |date=August 2009 |publisher=CVC in Kansas City Proceedings |access-date=11 November 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130724140555/http://veterinarycalendar.dvm360.com/avhc/article/articleDetail.jsp?id=638213&sk=&date=&%0A%09%09%09&pageID=5 |archive-date=24 July 2013 }}</ref> Young are completely contained in the pouch for 60 days after birth, wherein [[mammae]] provide nourishment during the remainder of development.<ref name="Tynes(2010)"/> Eyes first open around 80 days after birth, and young will leave the nest around 110 days after birth.<ref name=smith(73) /> By the time young are [[Weaning|weaned]], the [[Endotherm|thermoregulatory system]] is developed, and in conjunction with a large body size and thicker fur, they are able to regulate their own body temperature.<ref name=holloway(2000)>{{cite journal|last1=Holloway|first1=Joanne C.|last2=Geiser|first2=Fritz|title=Development of thermoregulation in the sugar glider Petaurus breviceps (Marsupialia: Petauridae)|journal=Journal of Zoology|date=November 2000|volume=252|issue=3|pages=389–397|doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.2000.tb00634.x|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Breeding is seasonal in southeast Australia, with young only born in winter and spring (June to November).<ref name=suckling1 /> Unlike animals that move along the ground, the sugar glider and other gliding species produce fewer, but heavier, offspring per litter.  This allows female sugar gliders to retain the ability to glide when pregnant.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Fokidis|first1=H|last2=Risch|first2=T|date=2008|title=The burden of motherhood: gliding locomotion in mammals influences maternal reproductive investment|journal=Journal of Mammalogy|volume=89|issue=3|pages=617–625|doi=10.1644/07-MAMM-A-116R1.1|doi-access=free}}</ref>

===Socialisation===
Sugar gliders are highly social animals. They live in family groups or [[Colony (biology)|colonies]] consisting of up to seven adults, plus the current season's young. Up to four age classes may exist within each group, although some sugar gliders are solitary, not belonging to a group.<ref name=suckling1 /> They engage in [[social grooming]], which in addition to improving hygiene and health, helps bond the colony and establish group identity.

Within social communities, there are two codominant males who suppress subordinate males, but show no aggression towards each other. These co-dominant pairs are more related to each other than to subordinates within the group; and share food, nests, mates, and responsibility for scent marking of community members and territories.<ref name=Klettenheimer1>{{cite journal|last1=Klettenheimer|first1=B|last2=Temple-Smith|first2=P|last3=Sofrondis|first3=G|title=Father and son sugar gliders: more than a genetic coalition?|journal=Journal of Zoology|date=1997|volume=242|issue=4|pages=741–750|doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1997.tb05823.x}}</ref>

Territory and members of the group are marked with saliva and a scent produced by separate glands on the forehead and chest of male gliders. Intruders who lack the appropriate scent marking are expelled violently.<ref name="dpiwtas"/> Rank is established through scent marking; and fighting does not occur within groups, but does occur when communities come into contact with each other.<ref name=smith(73) /> Within the colony, no fighting typically takes place beyond threatening behaviour.<ref>Pasatta, J. (1999). [http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Petaurus_breviceps/ "Petaurus breviceps" (On-line)], Animal Diversity Web. Accessed 10 November 2012</ref> Each colony defends a territory of about {{convert|1|hectare|acre}} where eucalyptus trees provide a [[staple food]] source.{{citation needed|date=January 2020}}

Sugar gliders are one of the few species of [[mammal]]s that exhibit [[Paternal care|male parental care]].<ref name=Goldingay(2010)>{{cite journal|last1=Goldingay|first1=R. L.|title=Direct male parental care observed in wild sugar gliders|journal=Australian Mammalogy|date=2010|volume=32|issue=2|pages=177–178|doi=10.1071/AM10009}}</ref> The oldest codominant male in a social community shows a high level of parental care, as he is the probable father of any offspring due to his social status.
This paternal care evolved in sugar gliders as young are more likely to survive when [[parental investment]] is provided by both parents.<ref name=Goldingay(2010) /> In the sugar glider, biparental care allows one adult to huddle with the young and prevent [[hypothermia]] while the other parent is out foraging, as young sugar gliders aren't able to [[Thermoregulation|thermoregulate]] until they are 100 days old (3.5 months).<ref name=Goldingay(2010) />

Communication in sugar gliders is achieved through vocalisations, visual signals and complex chemical odours.<ref name=smith(73) /> Chemical odours account for a large part of communication in sugar gliders, similar to many other nocturnal animals. Odours may be used to mark territory, convey health status of an individual, and mark rank of community members. Gliders produce a number of vocalisations including barking and hissing.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Dan H. |date=20 May 2011 |title=Hedgehogs and Sugar Gliders: Respiratory Anatomy, Physiology, and Disease |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvex.2011.03.006 |journal=Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotic Animal Practice |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=267-85, vi|doi=10.1016/j.cvex.2011.03.006 |pmid=21601815 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

== Human relations ==
{{clear|left}}
=== Conservation ===
Under the prior taxonomy, the sugar glider was not considered [[endangered species|endangered]], and its conservation rank was "Least Concern (LC)" on the [[IUCN Red List]].<ref name="iucn"/> However, with newer taxonomic studies indicating that it has a small and restricted range, it is now thought to be far more sensitive to potential threats. For example, the species' native range was hit hard by the [[2019–20 Australian bushfire season|2019-20 Australian bushfires]], which occurred just a few months prior to the publishing of the study indicating the true extent of its range. Sugar gliders use tree hollows, making them especially sensitive to intense fires.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Stobo-Wilson|first1=Alyson|last2=Baker|first2=Andrew|last3=Cooper|first3=Steve|last4=Carthew|first4=Sue|last5=Cremona|first5=Teigan|title=A rare discovery: we found the sugar glider is actually three species, but one is disappearing fast|url=http://theconversation.com/a-rare-discovery-we-found-the-sugar-glider-is-actually-three-species-but-one-is-disappearing-fast-142807|access-date=2021-06-20|website=The Conversation|date=16 July 2020 |language=en}}</ref> However, despite the loss of natural habitat in Australia over the last 200 years, it is adaptable and capable of living in small patches of remnant bush, particularly if it does not have to cross large expanses of cleared land to reach them. Sugar gliders may persist in areas that have undergone mild-moderate selective logging, as long as three to five hollow bearing trees are retained per [[hectare]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wormington |first1=K. |last2=Lamb |first2=D. |last3=McCallum |first3=H. |last4=Moolooney |first4=d. |title=Habitat requirements for the conservation of arboreal marsupials in dry sclerophyll forests of southeast Queensland, Australia |journal=Forest Science |date=2002 |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=217–227 |doi=10.1093/forestscience/48.2.217 }}</ref> Although not currently threatened by habitat loss, the ability of sugar gliders to forage and avoid predators successfully may be decreased in areas of high [[light pollution]].<ref name=barber-m>{{cite journal|last1=Barber-Myer|first1=SM|title=Photopollution impacts on the nocturnal behaviour of the Sugar Glider (''Petaurus breviceps'')|journal=Pacific Conservation Biology|date=2007|volume=13|issue=3|pages=171–176|doi=10.1071/PC070171}}</ref>

[[Conservation in Australia]] is enacted at the federal, state and local levels, where sugar gliders are protected as a native species. The central conservation law in Australia is the [[Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act]] 1999 (EPBC Act).<ref>[http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/conservation/index.html#framework Biodiversity Conservation]. Environment.gov.au. Retrieved 2014-04-19.</ref> The [[National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974]] is an example of conservation law in the state of [[South Australia]], where it is legal to keep (only) one sugar glider without a permit, provided it was acquired legally from a source with a permit. A permit is required to obtain or possess more than one glider, or if one wants to sell or give away any glider in their possession. It is illegal to capture or sell wild sugar gliders without a permit.<ref>[http://www.legislation.sa.gov.au/LZ/C/A/NATIONAL%20PARKS%20AND%20WILDLIFE%20ACT%201972.aspx South Australian Legislation]. Legislation.sa.gov.au. Retrieved 2014-04-19.</ref>

===In captivity===

In captivity, the sugar glider can suffer from [[calcium]] deficiencies if not fed an adequate diet. A lack of calcium in the diet causes the body to leach calcium from the bones, with the hind legs first to show noticeable dysfunction.<ref>{{cite web|title=Hind Leg Paralysis|url=http://www.sugarglider.com/gliderpedia/index.asp?HindLegParalysis|publisher=SugarGlider.com|access-date=1 November 2012}}</ref> Calcium to [[phosphorus]] ratios should be 2:1 to prevent [[hypocalcemia]], sometimes known as hind leg paralysis (HLP).<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.cvex.2007.01.001 |title=Emergency and Critical Care Procedures in Sugar Gliders (''Petaurus breviceps''), African Hedgehogs (''Atelerix albiventris''), and Prairie Dogs (''Cynomys'' spp.) |journal=Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotic Animal Practice |volume=10 |pmid=17577562 |issue=2 |pages=533–55 |year=2007 |last1=Lennox |first1=A. M.}}</ref> Their diet should be 50% insects ([[Gut loading|gut-loaded]]) or other sources of protein, 25% fruit and 25% vegetables.<ref>Conservation and natural resources, 1995 Mammals of Victoria, ed. by Menkhorst. P., Oxford University Press, South Melbourne {{ISBN|0-19-553733-5}}</ref> Some of the more recognised diets are Bourbon's Modified Leadbeaters (BML),<ref>{{cite web|title=Original BML Diet – Bourbon's Modified Leadbeater's Recipe for Sugar Gliders|url=http://www.sweet-sugar-gliders.com/original-bml-diet-bourbons-modified-leadbeaters-recipe.html|publisher=Sweet-Sugar-Gliders.com|access-date=1 October 2012}}</ref> High Protein Wombaroo (HPW)<ref>{{cite web|title=Sugar Glider HPW Diet – High Protein Wombaroo Recipe|url=http://www.sweet-sugar-gliders.com/sugar-glider-hpw-diet-high-protein-wombaroo-recipe.html|publisher=Sweet-Sugar-Gliders.com|access-date=1 October 2012}}</ref> and various calcium rich diets with Leadbeaters Mixture (LBM).<ref>{{cite web|title=Original Leadbeaters Diet Recipe – Taronga Zoo Diet for Sugar Gliders|url=http://www.sweet-sugar-gliders.com/original-leadbeaters-diet-recipe.html#leadbeaters-feeding-instructions|publisher=Sweet-Sugar-Gliders.com|access-date=2012-11-02}}</ref> Iron storage disease ([[Iron overload|hemochromatosis]]) is another dietary problem that has been reported in captive gliders and can lead to fatal complications if not diagnosed and treated early.<ref name="Merck">{{cite web|last1=Hess|first1=Laurie|title=Overview of Sugar Gliders - Exotic and Laboratory Animals|url=https://www.merckvetmanual.com/exotic-and-laboratory-animals/sugar-gliders/overview-of-sugar-gliders|website=Merck Veterinary Manual|publisher=Merck Sharp & Dohme|access-date=9 May 2018}}</ref>

A large amount of attention and [[Behavioral enrichment|environmental enrichment]] may be required for the highly social species, especially for those kept as individuals. Inadequate social interaction can lead to depression and [[List of abnormal behaviours in animals|behavioural disorders]] such as loss of appetite, irritability and self-mutilation.<ref name="Jepson(p234)">{{cite book|last1=Jepson|first1=Lance|title=Exotic Animal Medicine: A Quick Reference Guide|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=9780323394307|page=234|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fm3dCgAAQBAJ&q=tibiocarpalis&pg=PA234|language=en|chapter=7: Sugar gliders|date=2015-11-02}}</ref>
{{clear|left}}

=== As a pet ===
In several countries, the sugar glider (or what was formerly considered to be the sugar glider) is popular as an [[exotic pet]], and is sometimes referred to as a [[pocket pet]]. In Australia, there is opposition to keeping native animals as pets from Australia's largest [[wildlife rehabilitation]] organisation ([[NSW Wildlife Information Rescue and Education Service|WIRES]]),<ref>{{cite web|date=25 January 2019|title=Native Animals are not pets|url=https://www.wires.org.au/blog/native-animals-are-not-pets|access-date=10 March 2019|website=NSW Wildlife Information Rescue and Education Service Blog January 2019}}</ref> and concerns from [[Conservation in Australia#Conservation organisations|Australian wildlife conservation organisations]] regarding animal welfare risks including neglect, cruelty and abandonment.<ref name="Wild42">{{cite web|title=Sugar Gliders|url=https://www.wild4life.org.au/sugar-gliders.html|access-date=10 March 2019|website=Wild4Life}}</ref>

In Australia, sugar gliders can be kept in Victoria, South Australia, and the Northern Territory. However, they are not allowed to be kept as pets in [[Western Australia]], [[New South Wales]], [[the Australian Capital Territory]], [[Queensland]] or [[Tasmania]].<ref>{{cite web|title=DixiGliders|url=http://www.dixiglen.com.au/sugargliders.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110120141148/http://www.dixiglen.com.au/sugargliders.html|archive-date=20 January 2011|access-date=31 December 2010}}</ref><ref>[http://www.wildlife.org.au/projects/gliders/image/qgn12.pdf Wildlife – Queensland Gliders] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130420214506/http://wildlife.org.au/projects/gliders/image/qgn12.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://wildlife.org.au/projects/gliders/image/qgn12.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|date=20 April 2013}}. (PDF) . Retrieved 2014-04-19.</ref>

DNA analysis indicates that "the USA (sugar) glider population originates from [[West Papua (province)|West Papua, Indonesia]] with no illegal harvesting from other native areas such as Papua New Guinea or Australia".<ref name="Campbell-2019">{{cite journal|last1=Campbell|first1=Catriona D.|last2=Pecon-Slattery|first2=Jill|last3=Pollak|first3=Rebecca|last4=Joseph|first4=Leo |last5=Holleley|first5=Clare E.|date=2019-01-08|title=The origin of exotic pet sugar gliders (''Petaurus breviceps'') kept in the United States of America|journal=PeerJ|language=en |volume=7|pages=e6180|doi=10.7717/peerj.6180|issn=2167-8359|pmc=6329365|pmid=30643698 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Given that the West Papuan gliders have been tentatively classified as [[Krefft's glider]]s (albeit to be changed in the future),<ref name="ASM-PetNotatus"/> this indicates that at least the captive gliders kept in the United States are Krefft's gliders, not sugar gliders.

== Notes==
=== Species notes ===
{{Reflist|group=note|1}}

=== Explanatory footnotes ===
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== General bibliography ==
<!-- Sort by last name -->
* {{cite book |last=Morcombe |first=Michael |title=Mammals of Australia |year=1974 |publisher=Australian Universities Press |location=Sydney |isbn=0-7249-0017-9 |author2=Morcombe, Irene}} 
* {{cite book |last=Ride |first=W. D. L. |others=Ella Fry (drawings) |title=A guide to the native mammals of Australia |year=1970 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Melbourne |isbn=0195502523 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/guidetonativemam0000ride}}
* {{cite book |last=Russel |first=Rupert |others=Kay Russel (illustrations) |title=Spotlight on possums |year=1980 |publisher=University of Queensland Press |location=Queensland, St. Lucia |isbn=0-7022-1478-7}} 
* {{cite book |last=Serventy |first=Vincent |title=Wildlife of Australia |year=1977 |publisher=Thomas Nelson (Australia) |location=West Melbourne, Vic. |isbn=0-17-005168-4 |edition=Rev.}} 
* {{cite book |last=Troughton |first=Ellis |others=Neville W. Cayley (colour plates) |title=Furred animals of Australia |year=1973 |publisher=Angus & Robertson |location=Sydney |isbn=0-207-12256-3 |edition=Rev. and abridged |title-link=Furred animals of Australia}}
* {{cite book |last=Van den Beld |first=John |title= of Australia: a portrait of the island continent |year=1992 |publisher=Collins Australia |location=Sydney |isbn=0-7333-0241-6 |edition=Revised}}
* {{cite book |last=Westmacott |first=Leonard Cronin |others=Illustrated by Marion |title=Key guide to Australian mammals |year=1991 |publisher=Reed Books |location=Balgowlah, NSW |isbn=0-7301-0355-2}}

== External links ==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20141217164835/http://bie.ala.org.au/species/Sugar-glider Sugar glider]—''[[Atlas of Living Australia]]''
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140223183947/http://www.wildlife.org.au/wildlife/speciesprofile/mammals/gliders/sugar_glider.html Sugar glider]—[[Wildlife Preservation Society of Queensland]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121211065257/http://www.wildlife.org.au/wildlife/speciesprofile/mammals/gliders/index.html Gliders in the Spotlight]—[[Wildlife Preservation Society of Queensland]]
* [https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=609841 ITIS report: ''Petaurus breviceps'']—Taxon classification verified by [[Integrated Taxonomic Information System|ITIS]]
* [https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Petaurus_breviceps/ ''Petaurus breviceps'']—[[Animal Diversity Web]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120809214623/http://www.arkive.org/sugar-glider/petaurus-breviceps/video-00.html VIDEOS: sugar gliders in the wild on ARKive.org]—[[BBC Natural History Unit]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070919080114/http://www.museumvictoria.com.au/bioinformatics/mammals/images/Petaurus_breviceps1.htm Enlargement of ''Petaurus breviceps'' skull]—[[Museum Victoria]], [[Bioinformatics]] (photo showing sugar gliders' unusual dentition)

{{Diprotodontia|P.1}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q723435}}

[[Category:Gliding possums]]
[[Category:Least concern biota of Oceania]]
[[Category:Mammals described in 1839]]
[[Category:Mammals of New South Wales]]
[[Category:Mammals of Queensland]]
[[Category:Species that are or were threatened by the pet trade]]
[[Category:Taxa named by George Robert Waterhouse]]