Editing Supercell

{{short description|Thunderstorm that is characterized by the presence of a mesocyclone}}
{{distinguish|Superstorm}}
{{About|the weather phenomenon}}
[[File:Low Precipitation Supercell Thunderstorm.jpg|thumb|right|A low precipitation supercell in rural Northeast [[Colorado]].]]
A '''supercell''' is a [[thunderstorm]] characterized by the presence of a [[mesocyclone]], a deep, persistently rotating [[vertical draft|updraft]].<ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Glickman|editor-first=Todd S.|title=Glossary of Meteorology|publisher=[[American Meteorological Society]]|edition= 2nd |year=2000|url=http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id=supercell1 |isbn= 978-1-878220-34-9 }}</ref> Due to this, these storms are sometimes referred to as rotating thunderstorms.<ref>[http://www.stormchasers.au.com/lemon7.htm "ON THE MESOCYCLONE 'DRY INTRUSION' AND TORNADOGENESIS"], Archived at: {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130730065045/http://www.stormchasers.au.com/lemon7.htm |date=2013-07-30}}, Leslie R. Lemon</ref> Of the four classifications of thunderstorms (supercell, [[squall line]], [[Multicellular thunderstorm|multi-cell]], and [[pulse storm|single-cell]]), supercells are the overall least common and have the potential to be the most severe. Supercells are often isolated from other thunderstorms, and can dominate the local weather up to {{convert|32|km|mi|0}} away. They tend to last 2–4 hours.

Supercells are often put into three classification types: classic (normal precipitation level), low-precipitation (LP), and high-precipitation (HP). LP supercells are usually found in climates that are more arid, such as the high plains of the United States, and HP supercells are most often found in moist climates. Supercells can occur anywhere in the world under the right pre-existing weather conditions, but they are most common in the [[Great Plains]] of the [[United States]] in an area known as [[Tornado Alley]]. A high number of supercells are seen in many parts of Europe as well as in the [[Tornado Corridor]] (<small>[[:es:Pasillo de los Tornados|es]]</small>) of [[Argentina]], [[Uruguay]], southern [[Brazil]], and [[Paraguay]].

==Characteristics==
Supercells are usually found isolated from other thunderstorms, although they can sometimes be embedded in a [[squall line]]. Typically, supercells are found in the warm sector of a low pressure system propagating generally in a north easterly direction{{globalize-inline|date=July 2023}} in line with the cold front of the low pressure system. Because they can last for hours, they are known as quasi-steady-state storms. Supercells have the capability to deviate from the mean wind. If they track to the right or left of the mean wind (relative to the vertical [[wind shear]]), they are said to be "right-movers" or "left-movers," respectively. Supercells can sometimes develop two separate updrafts with opposing rotations, which splits the storm into two supercells: one left-mover and one right-mover.

Supercells can be any size – large or small, low or high topped. They usually produce copious amounts of [[hail]], torrential [[rain]]fall, strong [[wind]]s, and substantial [[downburst]]s. Supercells are one of the few types of clouds that typically spawn [[tornado]]es within the [[mesocyclone]], although only 30% or fewer do so.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.crh.noaa.gov/lmk/soo/docu/supercell.php |title=Louisville, KY|work=NOAA|access-date=24 January 2016}}</ref>

==Geography==
Supercells can occur anywhere in the world under the right weather conditions. The first storm to be identified as the supercell type was the [[Wokingham]] storm over [[England]], which was studied by [[Keith Browning]] and Frank Ludlam in 1962.<ref name="Browning">{{cite journal|last=Browning |first=K.A. |author-link=Keith Browning |author2=F.H. Ludlum |title=Airflow in Convective Storms |journal=Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society |volume=88 |issue=376 |pages=117–35 |date=Apr 1962 |url=http://www.rmets.org/pdf/qj62browning.pdf |doi=10.1002/qj.49708837602 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120307213602/http://www.rmets.org/pdf/qj62browning.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-07 |bibcode=1962QJRMS..88..117B }}</ref> Browning did the initial work that was followed up by [[Leslie R. Lemon|Lemon]] and [[Charles A. Doswell III|Doswell]] to develop the modern conceptual model of the supercell.<ref name="Lemon/Doswell">{{cite journal |last = Lemon |first = Leslie R. |author-link = Leslie R. Lemon |author2=C.A. Doswell  |title = Severe Thunderstorm Evolution and Mesocyclone Structure as Related to Tornadogenesis |journal = Mon. Wea. Rev. |volume = 107 |issue = 9 |pages = 1184–97 |date = Sep 1979 |doi = 10.1175/1520-0493(1979)107<1184:STEAMS>2.0.CO;2 |bibcode = 1979MWRv..107.1184L |doi-access = free }}</ref> To the extent that records are available, supercells are most frequent in the [[Great Plains]] of the central United States and southern Canada extending into the southeastern U.S. and northern [[Mexico]]; east-central Argentina and adjacent regions of Uruguay; Bangladesh and parts of eastern India; South Africa; and eastern Australia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bom.gov.au/inside/services_policy/public/sevwx/vic/20100603_thunder.shtml |title=Thunderstorm in Victoria 06 Mar 2010 |publisher=Bom.gov.au |date=2010-03-06 |access-date=2012-03-11}}</ref> Supercells occur occasionally in many other [[mid-latitude]] regions, including Eastern China and throughout Europe. The areas with highest frequencies of supercells are similar to those with the most occurrences of tornadoes; see [[tornado climatology]] and [[Tornado Alley]].

==Supercell anatomy==
[[File:Supercell02.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Schematic of a supercell's components]]
The current conceptual model of a supercell was described in ''Severe Thunderstorm Evolution and Mesocyclone Structure as Related to Tornadogenesis'' by Leslie R. Lemon and Charles A. Doswell III (see [[Lemon technique]]). Moisture streams in from the side of the precipitation-free base and merges into a line of warm uplift region where the tower of the [[thundercloud]] is tipped by high-altitude shear winds. The high shear causes horizontal [[vorticity]] which is tilted within the updraft to become vertical vorticity, and the mass of clouds spins as it gains altitude up to the cap, which can be up to {{convert|55000|ft|m}}&ndash;{{convert|70000|ft|m}} above ground for the largest storms, and trailing anvil.

Supercells derive their rotation through the tilting of horizontal [[vorticity]], which is caused by [[wind shear]] imparting rotation upon a rising air parcel by differential forces. Strong updrafts lift the air turning about a horizontal axis and cause this air to turn about a vertical axis. This forms a deep rotating updraft, the [[mesocyclone]].

{| style="margin:auto;"
|-
|[[File:Meso-1.svg|200px|thumb|[[Wind shear]] (red) sets air spinning (green).]]
|[[File:Meso-2.svg|200px|thumb|The [[updraft]] (blue) 'bends' the spinning air upwards.]]
|[[File:Meso-3.svg|200px|thumb|The updraft starts rotating with the spinning column of air.]]
|}

A ''cap'' or [[capping inversion]] is usually required to form an updraft of sufficient strength. The moisture-laden air is then cooled enough to precipitate as it is rotated toward the cooler region, represented by the turbulent air of the [[mammatus cloud]]s where the warm air is spilling over top of the cooler, invading air. The cap is formed where shear winds block further uplift for a time, until a relative weakness allows a breakthrough of the cap (an [[overshooting top]]); cooler air to the right in the image may or may not form a [[shelf cloud]], but the precipitation zone will occur where the [[heat engine]] of the uplift intermingles with the invading, colder air. The cap puts an inverted (warm-above-cold) layer above a normal (cold-above-warm) [[boundary layer]], and by preventing warm surface air from rising, allows one or both of the following:
* Air below the cap warms and/or becomes more moist
* Air above the cap cools

As the cooler but drier air circulates into the warm, moisture laden inflow, the [[cloud base]] will frequently form a wall, and the cloud base often experiences a lowering, which, in extreme cases, are where [[tornado]]es are formed. This creates a warmer, moister layer below a cooler layer, which is increasingly unstable (because warm air is less dense and tends to rise). When the cap weakens or moves, explosive development follows.

In North America, supercells usually show up on [[Weather radar|Doppler weather radar]] as starting at a point or hook shape on the southwestern side, fanning out to the northeast. The heaviest precipitation is usually on the southwest side, ending abruptly short of the ''rain-free updraft base'' or ''main updraft'' (not visible to radar). The ''[[rear flank downdraft]]'', or RFD, carries precipitation counterclockwise around the north and northwest side of the updraft base, producing a "[[hook echo]]" that indicates the presence of a mesocyclone.

===Structure===
[[File:Supercell.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Structure of a supercell. Northwestward view in the [[Northern Hemisphere]]]]

====Overshooting top====
{{main|Overshooting top}}
This "dome" feature appears above the strongest updraft location on the anvil of the storm. It is a result of an updraft powerful  enough to break through the upper levels of the troposphere into the lower [[stratosphere]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1= Shenk|first1= W. E.|date= 1974|title= Cloud top height variability of strong convective cells|journal= [[Journal of Applied Meteorology]]|volume = 13|issue= 8|pages= 918{{ndash}}922| doi=10.1175/1520-0450(1974)013<0917:cthvos>2.0.co;2 |bibcode = 1974JApMe..13..917S |doi-access= free}}</ref><ref name="Overshooting Tops">{{cite web|url=https://www.eumetsat.int/website/home/Data/Training/TrainingLibrary/DAT_2042700.html|title=Overshooting Tops – Satellite-Based Detection Methods|publisher=[[EUMETSAT]]|date=9 June 2011|access-date=10 May 2019|archive-date=10 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190510090501/https://www.eumetsat.int/website/home/Data/Training/TrainingLibrary/DAT_2042700.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> An observer at ground level and close to the storm may be unable to see the overshooting top because the anvil blocks the sight of this feature. The overshooting is visible from satellite images as a "bubbling" amidst the otherwise smooth upper surface of the anvil cloud.

====Anvil====
An anvil forms when the storm's updraft collides with the upper levels of the lowest layer of the atmosphere, or the tropopause, and has nowhere else to go due to the laws of fluid dynamics- specifically pressure, humidity, and density, in simple terms, the packet of air has lost its buoyancy and cannot rise higher. The anvil is very cold (-30°C) and virtually precipitation-free even though [[virga]] can be seen falling from the forward sheared anvil. Since there is so little moisture in the anvil, winds can move freely. The clouds take on their anvil shape when the rising air reaches {{convert|50000|-|70000|ft|m|sigfig=3|order=flip}} or more. The anvil's distinguishing feature is that it juts out in front of the storm like a shelf. In some cases, it can even shear backwards, called a backsheared anvil, another sign of a very strong updraft.

==== Precipitation-free base ====
This area, typically on the southern side of the storm in North America, is relatively precipitation-free. This is located beneath the main updraft, and is the main area of inflow. While no precipitation may be visible to an observer, large hail may be falling from this area. A region of this area is called the Vault. It is more accurately called the main updraft area.

==== Wall cloud ====
The [[wall cloud]] forms near the downdraft/updraft interface. This "interface" is the area between the ''precipitation area'' and the ''precipitation-free base.'' Wall clouds form when rain-cooled air from the downdraft is pulled into the updraft. This wet, cold air quickly saturates as it is lifted by the updraft, forming a cloud that seems to "descend" from the precipitation-free base. Wall clouds are common and are not exclusive to supercells; only a small percentage actually produce a tornado, but if a storm does produce a tornado, it usually exhibits wall clouds that persist for more than ten minutes. Wall clouds that seem to move violently up or down, and violent movements of cloud fragments (scud or fractus) near the wall cloud, are indications that a tornado could form.

==== Mammatus clouds ====
[[Mammatus cloud|Mammatus]] (Mamma, Mammatocumulus) are bulbous or pillow-like cloud formations extending from beneath the anvil of a thunderstorm. These clouds form as cold air in the anvil region of a storm sinks into warmer air beneath it. Mammatus are most apparent when they are lit from one side or below and are therefore at their most impressive near sunset or shortly after sunrise when the sun is low in the sky. Mammatus are not exclusive to supercells and can be associated with developed thunderstorms and cumulonimbus.

==== Forward flank downdraft (FFD) ====
[[File:Supercell-above.svg|thumb|Diagram of supercell from above. RFD: ''rear flank downdraft'', FFD: ''front flank downdraft'', V: ''V-notch'', U: ''Main Updraft'', I: ''Updraft/Downdraft Interface'', H: ''hook echo'']]

This is generally the area of heaviest and most widespread precipitation. For most supercells, the precipitation core is bounded on its leading edge by a [[shelf cloud]] that results from rain-cooled air within the precipitation core spreading outward and interacting with warmer, moist air from outside of the cell. Between the precipitation-free base and the FFD, a "vaulted" or "cathedral" feature can be observed. In ''high precipitation supercells'' an area of heavy precipitation may occur beneath the main updraft area where the vault would alternately be observed with classic supercells.

==== Rear flank downdraft (RFD) ====
{{Main|Rear flank downdraft}}

The rear flank downdraft of a supercell is a very complex and not yet fully understood feature. RFDs mainly occur within classic and HP supercells although RFDs have been observed within LP supercells. The RFD of a supercell is believed to play a large part in tornadogenesis by tightening existing rotation within the surface mesocyclone. RFDs are caused by mid-level steering winds of a supercell colliding with the updraft tower and moving around it in all directions; specifically, the flow that is redirected downward is referred to as the RFD. This downward surge of relatively cool mid-level air, due to interactions between dew points, humidity, and condensation of the converging of air masses, can reach very high speeds and is known to cause widespread wind damage. The radar signature of an RFD is a hook-like structure where sinking air has brought with it precipitation.

==== Flanking line ====
{{Main|flanking line (meteorology)}}
A flanking line is a line of smaller [[Cumulonimbus cloud|cumulonimbi]] or cumulus that form in the warm rising air pulled in by the main updraft. Due to convergence and lifting along this line, [[landspouts]] sometimes occur on the outflow boundary of this region.

=== Radar features of a supercell ===
[[File:Supercell in Wichita Falls.svg|thumb|300px|Radar reflectivity map]]

;[[Hook echo]] (or pendant): The "hook echo" is the area of confluence between the main updraft and the rear flank downdraft (RFD). This indicates the position of the mesocyclone and probably a tornado.
;[[Bounded weak echo region]] (or BWER): This is a region of low radar reflectivity bounded above by an area of higher radar reflectivity with an [[tilted updraft|untilted updraft]], also called a ''vault''. It is not observed with all supercells but it is at the edge of a very high precipitation echos with a very sharp gradient perpendicular to the RFD. This is evidence of a strong updraft and often the presence of a [[tornado]]. To an observer on the ground, it could be experienced as a zone free of precipitation but usually containing large hail.
;Inflow notch: A "notch" of weak reflectivity on the inflow side of the cell. This is not a ''V-Notch.''
;V Notch: A V-shaped notch on the leading edge of the cell, opening away from the main downdraft. This is an indication of divergent flow around a powerful updraft.
;Hail spike: This [[three body scatter spike]] is a region of weak echoes found radially behind the main reflectivity core at higher elevations when large hail is present.<ref name="TBSS">{{cite web
|url=http://www.nws.noaa.gov/glossary/index.php?word=Hail+spike
|title=Hail spike
|work=Glossary
|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
|date=June 2009
|access-date=2010-03-03
|archive-date=2010-12-04
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101204003917/http://www.nws.noaa.gov/glossary/index.php?word=Hail+spike
|url-status=dead
}}</ref>

==== Descending reflectivity core ====
{{Main article|Descending reflectivity core}}

== Supercell variations ==
Supercell thunderstorms are sometimes classified by [[meteorologist]]s and [[Skywarn|storm spotters]] into three categories; however, not all supercells, being hybrid storms, fit neatly into any one category, and many supercells may fall into different categories during different periods of their lifetimes. The standard definition given above is referred to as the '''Classic''' supercell. All types of supercells typically produce severe weather.

=== Low precipitation (LP) ===
[[File:Low precipitation supercell thunderstorm.gif|thumb|left|Schematics of an LP supercell]]
[[File:Front Range LP Supercell.jpg|thumb|A low precipitation supercell near [[Greeley, Colorado]]]]

LP supercells contain a small and relatively light precipitation (rain/hail) core that is well separated from the updraft. The updraft is intense, and LPs are inflow dominant storms. The updraft tower is typically more strongly tilted and the deviant rightward motion less than for other supercell types. The forward flank downdraft (FFD) is noticeably weaker than for other supercell types, and the rear-flank downdraft (RFD) is much weaker—even visually absent in many cases. Like classic supercells, LP supercells tend to form within stronger mid-to-upper level storm-relative wind shear;<ref name="variations">{{cite journal |last= Rasmussen |first= Erik N. |author-link= Erik N. Rasmussen |author2= J. M. Straka |title= Variations in Supercell Morphology. Part I: Observations of the Role of Upper-Level Storm-Relative Flow |journal= Mon. Wea. Rev. |volume= 126 |issue= 9 |pages= 2406–21 |date= 1998 |doi= 10.1175/1520-0493(1998)126<2406:VISMPI>2.0.CO;2 |bibcode= 1998MWRv..126.2406R |s2cid= 59128977 |url= https://zenodo.org/record/1234713 |doi-access= free }}</ref> however, the atmospheric environment leading to their formation is not well understood. The moisture profile of the atmosphere, particularly the depth of the elevated dry layer, also appears to be important,<ref name="Grant">{{cite journal |last = Grant |first = Leah D. |author2 = S. C. van den Heever |title = Microphysical and Dynamical Characteristics of Low-Precipitation and Classic Supercells |journal = J. Atmos. Sci. |volume = 71 |issue = 7 |pages = 2604–24 |date = 2014 |doi = 10.1175/JAS-D-13-0261.1 |bibcode = 2014JAtS...71.2604G |doi-access = free }}</ref> and the low-to-mid level shear may also be important.<ref name="midtropo">{{cite journal |last= Brooks |first= Harold E. |author-link= Harold E. Brooks |author2= C. A. Doswell |author3= R. B. Wilhelmson |title= The Role of Midtropospheric Winds in the Evolution and Maintenance of Low-Level Mesocyclones |journal= Mon. Wea. Rev. |volume= 122 |issue= 1 |pages= 126–36 |date= 1994 |doi= 10.1175/1520-0493(1994)122<0126:TROMWI>2.0.CO;2 |bibcode= 1994MWRv..122..126B |doi-access= free }}</ref>

This type of supercell may be easily identifiable with "sculpted" cloud striations in the updraft base or even a "corkscrewed" or "[[barber pole]]" appearance on the updraft, and sometimes an almost "anorexic" look compared to classic supercells. This is because they often form within drier moisture profiles (often initiated by [[dry line]]s) leaving LPs with little available moisture despite high mid-to-upper level environmental winds. They most often dissipate rather than turning into classic or HP supercells, although it is still not unusual for LPs to do the latter, especially when moving into a much moister air mass. LPs were first formally described by [[Howard Bluestein]] in the early 1980s<ref name="Bluestein LP">{{cite journal |last= Bluestein |first= Howard B. |author-link= Howard Bluestein |author2= C. R. Parks |title= A Synoptic and Photographic Climatology of Low-Precipitation Severe Thunderstorms in the Southern Plains |journal= Mon. Wea. Rev. |volume = 111 |issue= 10 |pages= 2034–46 |date= 1983 |doi= 10.1175/1520-0493(1983)111<2034:ASAPCO>2.0.CO;2 |bibcode= 1983MWRv..111.2034B |doi-access= free }}</ref> although storm-chasing scientists noticed them throughout the 1970s.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Burgess |first= Donald W. |author-link= Donald W. Burgess |author2= R. P. Davies-Jones |title= Unusual Tornadic Storms in Eastern Oklahoma on 5 December 1975 |journal= Mon. Wea. Rev. |volume= 107 |issue= 4 |pages= 451–7 |date= 1979 |doi= 10.1175/1520-0493(1979)107<0451:UTSIEO>2.0.CO;2 |bibcode= 1979MWRv..107..451B |doi-access=  }}</ref> Classic supercells may wither yet maintain updraft rotation as they decay, becoming more like the LP type in a process known as "downscale transition" that also applies to LP storms, and this process is thought to be how many LPs dissipate.<ref>{{cite journal |last = Bluestein |first= Howard B. |author-link= Howard Bluestein |title= On the Decay of Supercells through a "Downscale Transition": Visual Documentation |journal= Mon. Wea. Rev. |volume= 136 |issue= 10 |pages= 4013–28 |date= 2008 |doi= 10.1175/2008MWR2358.1 |bibcode= 2008MWRv..136.4013B |doi-access= free }}</ref>

LP supercells rarely spawn tornadoes, and those that form tend to be weak, small, and high-based tornadoes, but strong tornadoes have been observed. These storms, although generating lesser precipitation amounts and producing smaller precipitation cores, can generate huge hail. LPs may produce hail larger than [[Baseball (ball)|baseballs]] in clear air where no rainfall is visible.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theweatherprediction.com/habyhints/237/|title=RADAR CHARACTERISTICS OF SUPERCELLS|work=theweatherprediction.com|access-date=24 January 2016}}</ref> LPs are thus hazardous to people and animals caught outside as well as to storm chasers and spotters. Due to the lack of a heavy precipitation core, LP supercells often exhibit relatively weak radar reflectivity without clear evidence of a [[hook echo]], when in fact they are producing a tornado at the time. LP supercells may not even be recognized as supercells in reflectivity data unless one is trained or experienced on their radar characteristics.<ref name="recognition">{{cite journal |last= Moller |first= Alan R. |author-link= Alan Moller |author2= C. A. Doswell |author3= M. P. Foster |author4= G. R. Woodall |title= The Operational Recognition of Supercell Thunderstorm Environments and Storm Structures |journal= Weather Forecast. |volume= 9 |issue= 3 |pages= 324–47 |date= 1994 |doi= 10.1175/1520-0434(1994)009<0327:TOROST>2.0.CO;2 |bibcode= 1994WtFor...9..327M |doi-access= free }}</ref> This is where observations by [[Storm spotting|storm spotter]] and [[Storm chasing|storm chasers]] may be of vital importance in addition to [[Weather radar#Velocity|Doppler velocity]] (and [[Weather radar#Polarization|polarimetric]]) radar data. 

LP supercells are quite sought after by storm chasers because the limited amount of precipitation makes sighting tornadoes at a safe distance much less difficult than with a classic or HP supercell and more so because of the unobscured storm structure unveiled. During spring and early summer, areas in which LP supercells are readily spotted include southwestern [[Oklahoma]] and northwestern [[Texas]], among other parts of the western [[Great Plains]].{{citation needed|date=June 2014}}

=== High precipitation (HP) ===
[[File:High precipitation supercell thunderstorm.gif|thumb|left|Schematics of an HP supercell]]
The '''HP supercell''' has a much heavier precipitation core that can wrap all the way around the mesocyclone. These are especially dangerous storms, since the mesocyclone is wrapped with rain and can hide a tornado (if present) from view. These storms also cause flooding due to heavy rain, damaging [[downburst]]s, and weak tornadoes, although they are also known to produce strong to violent tornadoes. They have a lower potential for damaging hail than Classic and LP supercells, although damaging hail is possible. It has been observed by some spotters that they tend to produce more cloud-to-ground and intracloud lightning than the other types. Also, unlike the LP and Classic types, severe events usually occur at the front (southeast) of the storm. The HP supercell is the most common type of supercell in the [[United States]] east of [[Interstate 35]], in the southern parts of the provinces of [[Ontario]] and [[Quebec]] in [[Canada]], in [[France]], [[Germany]] and the [[Po Valley]] in north Italy and in the central portions of Argentina and [[Uruguay]].
{{clear}}

=== Mini-supercell or low-topped supercell ===
Whereas classic, HP, and LP refer to different precipitation regimes and mesoscale frontal structures, another variation was identified in the early 1990s by Jon Davies.<ref>{{cite conference|first=Jonathan M. |last=Davies |author-link=Jonathan M. Davies |title=Small Tornadic Supercells in the Central Plains |book-title=17th Conf. Severe Local Storms |pages=305–9 |publisher=American Meteorological Society |date=Oct 1993 |location=St. Louis, MO |url=http://www.jondavies.net/1993_SLS_mini-sprcl/1993_SLS_mini-sprcl.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130617101224/http://www.jondavies.net/1993_SLS_mini-sprcl/1993_SLS_mini-sprcl.htm |archive-date=2013-06-17 }}</ref> These smaller storms were initially called mini-supercells<ref>{{cite book |editor-last = Glickman |editor-first = Todd S. |title = Glossary of Meteorology |publisher = American Meteorological Society |edition = 2nd |year = 2000 |url = http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?p=1&query=mini-supercell |archive-url = https://archive.today/20120701115430/http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?p=1&query=mini-supercell |url-status = dead |archive-date = 2012-07-01 |isbn = 978-1-878220-34-9 |access-date = 2012-02-09 }}</ref> but are now commonly referred to as low-topped supercells. These are also subdivided into Classic, HP and LP types.

== Effects ==
[[File:Supercell04.jpg|thumb|left|Satellite view of a supercell]]
Supercells can produce hailstones averaging as large as {{convert|2|in|cm|spell=in}} in diameter, winds over {{convert|70|mph|km/h}}{{Clarify|reason=Is that in gusts or as sustained wind speeds, and, if so, for how long (at a fixed place on Earth)?|date=July 2023}}, [[tornado]]es of as strong as EF3 to EF5 intensity (if wind shear and atmospheric instability are able to support the development of stronger tornadoes), flooding, frequent-to-continuous [[lightning]], and very heavy rain. Many [[tornado outbreak]]s come from clusters of supercells. Large supercells may spawn multiple long-tracked and deadly tornadoes, with notable examples in the [[2011 Super Outbreak]].

Severe events associated with a supercell almost always occur in the area of the updraft/downdraft interface. In the [[Northern Hemisphere]], this is most often the rear flank (southwest side) of the precipitation area in '''LP''' and '''classic''' supercells, but sometimes the leading edge (southeast side) of '''HP''' supercells.
{{clear}}

==Examples worldwide==
{{Weather}}

=== Asia ===
Some reports suggest that the [[The Maharashtra floods of 2005|deluge]] on 26 July 2005 in [[Mumbai]], [[India]] was caused by a supercell when there was a cloud formation {{convert|15|km|mi}} high over the city. On this day {{convert|944|mm|in|abbr=on}} of rain fell over the city, of which {{convert|700|mm|in|abbr=on}} fell in just four hours. The rainfall coincided with a high tide, which exacerbated conditions.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4720343.stm "Maharashtra monsoon 'kills 200' "], BBC News, July 27, 2005</ref>{{Failed verification|date=December 2017}}

Supercells occur commonly from March to May in Bangladesh, West Bengal, and the bordering northeastern Indian states including Tripura. Supercells that produce very high winds with hail and occasional tornadoes are observed in these regions. They also occur along the Northern Plains of India and Pakistan. On March 23, 2013, a massive tornado ripped through Brahmanbaria district in Bangladesh, killing 20 and injuring 200.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2013/03/22/world/asia/bangladesh-tornado/|title=Deadly tornado strikes Bangladesh |author=Farid Ahmed|date=23 March 2013|work=CNN|access-date=24 January 2016}}</ref>

=== Australia ===
[[File:1947 Sydney hailstorm boat.jpg|thumb|left|Photo of the 1947 Sydney Hailstorm showing the hail hitting the water at Rose bay]]
On New Year's Day 1947 a supercell hit [[Sydney]]. The classic type Supercell formed over the Blue Mountains, mid-morning hitting the lower CBD and eastern suburbs by mid-afternoon with the hail similar in size to a cricket ball. At the time, it was the most [[severe storm events in Sydney|severe storm to strike the city]] since recorded observations began in 1792.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://passingparade-2009.blogspot.com/2009/06/great-sydney-hailstorm-of-1947.html|title=Dick's Blog: The Great Sydney Hailstorm of 1947|last=Whitaker|first=Dick|date=2009-06-28|website=Dick's Blog|access-date=2019-06-28}}</ref>

On April 14, 1999, [[1999 Sydney hailstorm|a severe storm]] later classified as a supercell hit the east coast of New South Wales. It is estimated that the storm dropped {{convert|500,000|t}} worth of hailstones during its course. At the time it was the most costly disaster in Australia's insurance history, causing an approximated A$2.3 billion worth of damage, of which A$1.7 billion was covered by insurance.

On February 27, 2007, a supercell hit [[Canberra, Australia|Canberra]], dumping nearly {{convert|39|cm|in|abbr=off|spell=in}} of ice in [[City, Australian Capital Territory|Civic]]. The ice was so heavy that a newly built shopping center's roof collapsed, birds were killed in the hail produced from the supercell, and people were stranded. The following day many homes in Canberra were subjected to flash flooding, caused either by the city's infrastructure's inability to cope with storm water or through mud slides from cleared land.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bom.gov.au/announcements/media_releases/act/20070301can.shtml|title=Record Stormy February in Canberra - Australian Capital Territory Regional Office|first=Bureau of Meteorology|last=corporateName=Australian Capital Territory Regional Office|website=www.bom.gov.au|access-date=May 30, 2020}}</ref>

On 6 March 2010, [[2010 Victorian storms|supercell storms]] hit [[Melbourne]]. The storms caused flash flooding in the center of the city and tennis ball-sized ({{convert|10|cm|in|0|disp=or|abbr=on}}) hailstones hit cars and buildings, causing more than $220 million worth of damage and sparking 40,000-plus insurance claims. In just 18 minutes, {{convert|19|mm|in|abbr=on}} of rain fell, causing havoc as streets were flooded and trains, planes, and cars were brought to a standstill.<ref name="sevwx">{{cite web |url=http://www.bom.gov.au/inside/services_policy/public/sevwx/vic/20100603_thunder.shtml |title=Severe Thunderstorms in Melbourne 6 March 2010 |work=[[Bureau of Meteorology (Australia)|Bureau of Meteorology]] |access-date=6 March 2010}}</ref>

That same month, on [[2010 Western Australian storms|March 22, 2010]] a supercell hit [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]]. This storm was one of the worst in the city's history, causing hail stones of {{convert|6|cm|in}} in size and torrential rain. The city had its average March rainfall in just seven minutes during the storm. Hail stones caused severe property damage, from dented cars to smashed windows.<ref name=abc>{{Cite news|title=Perth reeling from freak storm
  | publisher = [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC Online]]
  | date = 23 March 2010
  | url = http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2010/03/22/2853076.htm
  | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100325080228/http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2010/03/22/2853076.htm
  | url-status = dead
  | archive-date = March 25, 2010
  | access-date = 27 March 2010}}</ref> The storm itself caused more than 100 million dollars in damage.<ref name=businessweek>{{Cite journal
 |title=Perth Storms Lead to A$70 Mln of Insurance Claims in 24 Hours 
 |publisher=Bloomberg L.P. 
 |last=Saminather 
 |first=Nichola 
 |date=23 March 2010 
 |url=http://www.businessweek.com/news/2010-03-23/perth-storms-lead-to-a-70-mln-of-insurance-claims-in-24-hours.html 
 |access-date=27 March 2010 
 |url-status=dead 
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100401104847/http://www.businessweek.com/news/2010-03-23/perth-storms-lead-to-a-70-mln-of-insurance-claims-in-24-hours.html 
 |archive-date=1 April 2010 
}}</ref>

On [[2014 Brisbane hailstorm|November 27, 2014]] a supercell hit the inner city suburbs including the CBD of [[Brisbane, Queensland|Brisbane]]. Hailstones up to softball size cut power to 71,000 properties, injuring 39 people,<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.couriermail.com.au/news/queensland/brisbane-storm-supercell-storm-that-hit-brisbane-explained-by-meteorologist/news-story/f68aa12367c139c74483ddd41b3e34ed | title=Supercell: Brisbane's hailstorm explained| date=28 November 2014}}</ref> and causing a damage bill of $1 billion AUD.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/national/queensland/brisbane-hail-storm-damage-bill-tops-1-billion-20150115-12r0ek.html|title=Brisbane hail storm damage bill tops $1 billion|first=Jorge|last=Branco|date=15 January 2015|website=Brisbane Times}}</ref> A wind gust of 141&nbsp;km/h was recorded at [[Archerfield Airport]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/current/annual/qld/archive/2014.brisbane.shtml|title=Brisbane in 2014|website=www.bom.gov.au}}</ref>

=== South America ===
{{More citations needed section|date=December 2022}}
An area in South America known as the [[:es:Pasillo de los Tornados|Tornado Corridor]] is considered to be the second most frequent location for severe weather, after Tornado Alley in the United States.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zipser |first=E. J. |last2=Cecil |first2=Daniel J. |last3=Liu |first3=Chuntao |last4=Nesbitt |first4=Stephen W. |last5=Yorty |first5=David P. |date=2006-08-01 |title=WHERE ARE THE MOST INTENSE THUNDERSTORMS ON EARTH? |url=https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/bams/87/8/bams-87-8-1057.xml |journal=Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society |language=en |volume=87 |issue=8 |pages=1057–1072 |doi=10.1175/BAMS-87-8-1057 |issn=0003-0007 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brooks |first=Harold E |last2=Lee |first2=James W |last3=Craven |first3=Jeffrey P |year=2003 |title=The spatial distribution of severe thunderstorm and tornado environments from global reanalysis data |url=http://www.regionalclimateperspectives.com/uploads/4/4/2/5/44250401/severeenvironments.pdf |format=PDF |journal=Atmospheric Research |series=European Conference on Severe Storms 2002 |volume=67-68 |pages=abstract & 89-90 |doi=10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00045-0 |issn=0169-8095 |access-date=2025-05-15}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=E. Brooks |first=Harold |year=2006 |title=A Global View Of Severe Thunderstorms: Estimating The Current Distribution And Possible Future Changes |url=https://www.nssl.noaa.gov/users/brooks/public_html/papers/AMS2K6.pdf |journal=American Meteorological Society |pages=3, 7, 9 |access-date=2025-05-15}}</ref> The region, which covers portions of [[Argentina]], [[Uruguay]], [[Paraguay]], and [[Brazil]] during the spring and summer, often experiences strong thunderstorms which may include tornadoes. One of the first known South American supercell thunderstorms to include tornadoes occurred on September 16, 1816, and destroyed the town of Rojas ({{convert|240|km|mi}} west of the city of Buenos Aires).<ref>{{Cite web |title=El huracán de 1816 |trans-title=The "hurricane" of 1816 |url=https://www.historiasderojas.com.ar/index1.php?id=id00002 |access-date=2025-05-15 |website=historiasderojas.com.ar |language=es}}</ref> The region, which covers portions of [[Argentina]], [[Uruguay]], [[Paraguay]], and [[Brazil]] during the spring and summer, often experiences strong thunderstorms which may include tornadoes. One of the first known South American supercell thunderstorms to include tornadoes occurred on September 16, 1816, and destroyed the town of Rojas ({{convert|240|km|mi}} west of the city of Buenos Aires).<ref>{{Cite web |title=El huracán de 1816 |trans-title=The "hurricane" of 1816 |url=https://www.historiasderojas.com.ar/index1.php?id=id00002 |access-date=2025-05-15 |website=historiasderojas.com.ar |language=es}}</ref>

On September 20, 1926, an F4 tornado struck the city of Encarnación (Paraguay), killing over 300 people and making it the second deadliest tornado in South America. On 21 April 1970, the town of Fray Marcos in the Department of Florida, Uruguay experienced an F4 tornado that killed 11, the strongest in the history of the nation. January 10, 1973, saw the most severe tornado in the history of South America: The [[San Justo tornado]], 105&nbsp;km north of the city of [[:es:Ciudad de Santa Fe (Argentina)|Santa Fe]] (Argentina), was rated F5, making it the strongest tornado ever recorded in the southern hemisphere, with winds exceeding 400&nbsp;km/h. On April 13, 1993, in less than 24 hours in the province of [[Buenos Aires]] was given the largest tornado outbreak in the history of South America. There were more than 300 tornadoes recorded, with intensities between F1 and F3. The most affected towns were Henderson (EF3), Urdampilleta (EF3) and Mar del Plata (EF2). In December 2000, a series of twelve tornadoes (only registered) affected the Greater Buenos Aires and the province of Buenos Aires, causing serious damage. One of them struck the town of Guernica, and, just two weeks later, in January 2001, an F3 again devastated Guernica, killing 2 people.

The December 26, 2003, Tornado F3 happened in [[Córdoba, Argentina|Cordoba]], with winds exceeding 300&nbsp;km/h, which hit Córdoba Capital, just 6&nbsp;km from the city center, in the area known as CPC Route 20, especially neighborhoods of San Roque and Villa Fabric, killing 5 people and injuring hundreds. The EF3 tornado that hit the city of [[Palmital, São Paulo|Palmital]], State of [[São Paulo]] in 2004, was one of the most destructive in the state, destroying several industrial buildings, 400 houses, killing four and wounding 25.<ref name="foo">{{cite conference |last=Candido |first=Daniel Henrique |author-link= |date=2012 |title=Tornados e trombas-d'água no Brasil : modelo de risco e proposta de escala de avaliação de danos |url=https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12733/1619415 |conference=T/UNICAMP C161t |location=Campinas, SP |publisher=Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Geociências |pages=236 |doi=10.47749/T/UNICAMP.2012.901142 |id= |access-date=2023-09-22 |doi-access=free |conference-url=https://repositorio.unicamp.br/Acervo/Detalhe/901142 |book-title=Tornadoes and waterspouts in Brazil}}</ref> In November 2009, four tornadoes, rated F1 and F2 reached the town of Posadas (capital of the province of [[Misiones Province|Misiones]], Argentina), generating serious damage in the city. Three of the tornadoes affected the airport area, causing damage in Barrio Belén. On April 4, 2012, the Gran Buenos Aires was hit by the storm Buenos Aires, with intensities F1 and F2, which left nearly 30 dead in various locations.

On February 21, 2014, in Berazategui (province of Buenos Aires), a tornado of intensity F1 caused material damage including a car was, with two occupants inside, which was elevated a few feet off the ground and flipped over asphalt, both the driver and his passenger were slightly injured. The tornado caused no fatalities. The severe weather that occurred on Tuesday 8/11 had features rarely seen in such magnitude in Argentina. In many towns of [[La Pampa Province|La Pampa]], [[San Luis, Argentina|San Luis]], Buenos Aires and Cordoba, intense hail stones fell up to 6&nbsp;cm in diameter. On Sunday December 8, 2013, severe storms took place in the center and the coast. The most affected province was Córdoba, storms and supercells type "bow echos" also developed in Santa Fe and San Luis.

=== Europe ===
{{see also|Spanish plume}}

During the evening of [[August 2008 European tornado outbreak|August 3, 2008]], a supercell formed over northern France. It spawned an F4 tornado in the Val de Sambre area, about 90 kilometers east of [[Lille]], which impacted nearby cities such as [[Maubeuge]] and [[Hautmont]]. This same supercell later went on to generate other tornadoes in the Netherlands and Germany.

In 2009, on the night of Monday May 25, a supercell formed over [[Belgium]]. It was described by Belgian meteorologist Frank Deboosere as "one of the worst storms in recent years" and caused much damage in Belgium – mainly in the provinces of East Flanders (around Ghent), Flemish Brabant (around Brussels) and Antwerp. The storm occurred between about 1:00&nbsp;am and 4:00&nbsp;am local time. An incredible 30,000 lightning flashes were recorded in 2 hours – including 10,000 cloud-to-ground strikes. Hailstones up to {{convert|6|cm}} across were observed in some places and wind gusts over {{convert|90|km/h|abbr=on}}; in Melle near Ghent a gust of {{convert|101|km/h|abbr=on}} was reported. Trees were uprooted and blown onto several motorways. In Lillo (east of Antwerp) a loaded goods train was blown from the rail tracks.<ref>{{Cite news|author=kh|title=Goederentrein van de sporen geblazen in Lillo
  |trans-title=Packtrain blown from tracks in Lillo
  | newspaper = [[De Morgen]]
  | language = nl
  | publisher = [[Belga (news agency)|Belga]]
  | date = 2009-05-26
  | url = http://www.demorgen.be/dm/nl/989/Binnenland/article/detail/865296/2009/05/26/Goederentrein-van-de-sporen-geblazen-in-Lillo.dhtml
  | access-date = 2011-08-22}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hamid
  | first1 = Karim
  | last2 = Buelens
  | first2 = Jurgen
  | title = De uitzonderlijke onweerssituatie van 25-26 mei 2009
  | trans-title = The exceptional situation of thunderstorms 25 to 26 May 2009
  | language = nl
  | journal = Meteorologica
  | volume = 18
  | issue = 3
  | pages = 4–10
  | publisher = Nederlandse Vereniging van BeroepsMeteorologen
  |date=September 2009
  | url = http://www.frankdeboosere.be/nieuws/news2009/extreme%20hagel%2025-26%20mei%202009%20HAMID%20en%20BUELENS.pdf
  | access-date = 2011-08-22}}</ref>

On May 24, 2010, an intense supercell left behind a trail of destruction spanning across three different states in eastern Germany. It produced multiple strong downbursts, damaging hail and at least four tornadoes, most notably an F3 wedge tornado which struck the town of [[Großenhain]], killing one person.<ref>{{Cite web |title=European Severe Weather Database |url=https://eswd.eu/cgi-bin/eswd.cgi |access-date=2023-01-14 |website=eswd.eu}}</ref>

On June 28, 2012, [[2012 Great Britain and Ireland floods#28 June supercell storms|three supercells]] affected England. Two of them formed over the Midlands, producing hailstones reported to be larger than golf balls, with conglomerate stones up to 10&nbsp;cm across. Burbage in Leicestershire saw some of the most severe hail. Another supercell produced a tornado near Sleaford, in Lincolnshire.

On July 28, 2013, an exceptionally long-lived supercell tracked along an almost 400 km long path across parts of [[Baden-Württemberg]] and [[Bavaria]] in southern [[Germany]], before falling apart in [[Czech Republic|Czechia]]. The storm had a lifespan of around 7 hours and produced large hail of up to 8 cm in diameter. The city of [[Reutlingen]] was hit the hardest, houses and cars were severely damaged, dozens of people injured.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Brüning |first=Dennis |date=2021-04-30 |title=Tief "Andreas" - Heftige Hagelunwetter am 27. und 28. Juli 2013 |url=https://www.meteoiq.com/de/2021/04/30/tief-andreas-heftige-hagelunwetter-am-27-und-28-juli-2013/ |access-date=2023-01-14 |website=MeteoIQ |language=de-DE}}</ref> With roughly 3.6 billion euros worth of damage, it was by far the costliest thunderstorm event ever documented in Germany.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=File PDF |doi=10.31289/jiph.v6i2.2989.s278 |doi-broken-date=20 January 2025 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

On 25 July 2019 a supercell thunderstorm affected northern England and parts of Northumberland. Large hail, frequent lightning and rotation were reported by many people. On 24 September 2020 a similar event affected parts of West Yorkshire.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-leeds-54294152|title=Yorkshire 'supercell' storm covers region in hail|work=BBC News |date=25 September 2020 |access-date=28 September 2020}}</ref>

On June 24, 2021, a supercell produced an F4 tornado in [[2021 South Moravia tornado|south Moravia]], Czech Republic. This tornado caused 6 deaths and left more than 200 people injured. With roughly $700 million of damage it was one of the costliest tornadoes to occur outside of the United States.

=== North America ===
[[Tornado Alley]] is a region of the central United States where severe weather is common, particularly tornadoes. Supercell thunderstorms occur more frequently in tornado alley and [[Dixie Alley]] than anywhere else in the world. [[Tornado watch]]es and [[Tornado warning|warnings]] are frequently necessary in the spring and summer. Most places from the [[Great Plains]] to the [[East Coast of the United States]] and north as far as the [[Canadian Prairies]], the [[Great Lakes region]], and the [[Saint Lawrence River|St. Lawrence River]] will experience one or more supercells each year.{{citation needed|date=May 2014}}

The [[1980 Grand Island tornado outbreak]] affected the city of [[Grand Island, Nebraska]] on June 3, 1980. Seven tornadoes touched down in or near the city that night, killing 5 and injuring 200.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.crh.noaa.gov/gid/?n=gi1980tornado |title=1980 Grand Island Tornadoes |publisher=Crh.noaa.gov |access-date=2014-05-21}}</ref>

The [[2007 Elie tornado|Elie, Manitoba tornado]] was an [[Fujita scale|F5]] that struck the town of [[Elie, Manitoba]] on June 22, 2007. While several houses were leveled, no one was injured or killed by the tornado.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://winnipegsun.com/News/Manitoba/2007/09/18/4506223.html|title=Manitoba - Elie tornado now Canada's first F5|date=25 July 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725103026/http://winnipegsun.com/News/Manitoba/2007/09/18/4506223.html|archive-date=25 July 2008}}</ref><ref name="tornado">[http://www.ec.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=714D9AAE-1&news=4B3DE57E-4967-4B09-98D6-EF974B32D6B5 Elie Tornado Upgraded to Highest Level on Damage Scale], Archived at: {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726210641/http://www.ec.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=714D9AAE-1&news=4B3DE57E-4967-4B09-98D6-EF974B32D6B5 |date=July 26, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ctv.ca:80/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20070622/tornado_070623?s_name=&no_ads= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070709102709/http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20070622/tornado_070623?s_name=&no_ads= |url-status=dead |archive-date=9 July 2007 |title=Manitoba twister classified as extremely violent |date=9 July 2007 |access-date=31 March 2017 }}</ref>

The most intense tornado outbreaks on record, known as [[super outbreak]]s, have all occurred in the United States. The [[1974 Super Outbreak]] and [[2011 Super Outbreak]] each spawned over 10 violent tornadoes, killed over 300, and caused billions in damage, most of which can be attributed to tornado damage.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Grazulis |first1=Thomas P. |author1-link=Thomas P. Grazulis |title=Significant Tornadoes 1974–2022 |date=2023 |publisher=The Tornado Project |location=[[St. Johnsbury, Vermont]] |isbn=978-1-879362-01-7}}</ref>

A massive [[1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak|tornado outbreak]] on May 3, 1999 spawned an [[1999 Bridge Creek–Moore tornado|F5 tornado]] in the area of [[Oklahoma City]] that had the highest recorded winds on Earth.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cswr.org/dow/DOW.htm |title=Doppler On Wheels - Center for Severe Weather Research |website=cswr.org |access-date=24 January 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070205124033/http://www.cswr.org/dow/dow.htm |archive-date=5 February 2007 }}</ref> Another series of tornadoes, which occurred in May 2013, caused severe devastation to Oklahoma City in general. From [[Tornado outbreak of May 18–21, 2013|May 18 to May 21]], a series of tornadoes hit, including [[2013 Moore tornado|a tornado]] which was later rated [[Enhanced Fujita scale|EF5]], which traveled across parts of the Oklahoma City area, causing a severe amount of damage in a heavily populated section of [[Moore, Oklahoma|Moore]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.srh.noaa.gov/oun/?n=events-20130520 |title=The Tornado Outbreak of May 20, 2013 |publisher=Srh.noaa.gov |access-date=2014-05-21}}</ref> Twenty-three fatalities and 377 injuries were caused by the tornado.<ref name="Deaths">{{cite news|date=November 20, 2013 |title=Victims Remembered 6 Months After May 20 Tornado |url=http://www.news9.com/story/24020267/victims-to-be-remembered-6-months-after-may-20-tornado |url-status=live |newspaper=news9.com |publisher=[[KWTV-DT]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140124210907/http://www.news9.com/story/24020267/victims-to-be-remembered-6-months-after-may-20-tornado |archive-date=January 24, 2014 |access-date=January 24, 2014 }}</ref><ref name="AFP">{{cite news|title=Obama offers solace in tornado-ravaged Oklahoma|url=http://au.news.yahoo.com/thewest/a/-/world/17335797/obama-travels-to-tornado-ravaged-oklahoma/|url-status=dead|agency=AFP|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130630003045/http://au.news.yahoo.com/thewest/a/-/world/17335797/obama-travels-to-tornado-ravaged-oklahoma/|archive-date=June 30, 2013|access-date=May 27, 2013|date=May 27, 2013}}</ref> [[List of tornadoes in the tornado outbreak of May 18–21, 2013|Sixty-one other tornadoes]] were confirmed during the storm period. Later on in the same month, on the night of May 31, 2013, another eight deaths were confirmed from what became the [[2013 El Reno tornado|widest tornado on record]] which hit El Reno, Oklahoma, one of [[Tornado outbreak of May 26–31, 2013|a series of tornadoes]] and [[funnel cloud]]s which hit nearby areas.<ref>{{cite web|work=National Weather Service Office in Norman, Oklahoma|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|date=July 28, 2014|access-date=June 14, 2015|title=Central Oklahoma Tornadoes and Flash Flooding – May 31, 2013|url=http://www.srh.noaa.gov/oun/?n=events-20130531}}</ref>

In [[Mexico]], the tallest non-tropical thunderstorm on record occurred as a high-topped supercell near [[Nueva Rosita]], [[Coahuila]] on May 24, 2016. This storm was recorded at a height of {{cvt|68000|ft|mi km}} and produced lightning as far away as {{cvt|50–60|mi|km}} from the center.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://weather.com/news/weather/news/thunderstorm-cruising-altitude-commercial-aircraft |title=Supercell Thunderstorm Towers Nearly 70,000 Feet, About Twice the Cruising Altitude of Commercial Planes |first1=Jonathan |last1=Belles |date=24 May 2016 |access-date=7 September 2024 |publisher=[[The Weather Channel]] }}</ref>

=== South Africa ===
South Africa witnesses several supercell thunderstorms each year with the inclusion of isolated tornadoes. On most occasions these tornadoes occur in open farmlands and rarely cause damage to property, as such many of the tornadoes which do occur in South Africa are not reported. The majority of supercells develop in the central, northern, and north eastern parts of the country. The Free State, Gauteng, and Kwazulu Natal are typically the provinces where these storms are most commonly experienced, though supercell activity is not limited to these provinces. On occasion, hail reaches sizes in excess of [[golf ball]]s, and tornadoes, though rare, also occur.

On 6 May 2009, a well-defined hook echo was noticed on local South African radars, along with satellite imagery this supported the presence of a strong supercell storm. Reports from the area indicated heavy rains, winds and large hail.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.stormchasing.co.za/index.php/articles-and-news/84-hook-echo-durban|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111018105230/http://www.stormchasing.co.za/index.php/articles-and-news/84-hook-echo-durban|url-status=dead|title=Storm Chasing South Africa - 6 May Supercell|archive-date=Oct 18, 2011|access-date=May 30, 2020}}</ref>

On October 2, 2011, two devastating tornadoes tore through two separate parts of South Africa on the same day, hours apart from each other. The first, classified as an EF2 hit Meqheleng, the informal settlement outside Ficksburg, Free State which devastated shacks and homes, uprooted trees, and killed one small child. The second, which hit the informal settlement of Duduza, Nigel in the Gauteng province, also classified as EF2 hit hours apart from the one that struck Ficksburg. This tornado completely devastated parts of the informal settlement and killed two children, destroying shacks and RDP homes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thesouthafrican.com/news/ficksburg-tornado-kills-boy-destroys-more-than-1000-homes.htm |title=Tornadoes kill two, destroy more than 1,000 homes |work=thesouthafrican.com |access-date=30 April 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421125248/http://www.thesouthafrican.com/news/ficksburg-tornado-kills-boy-destroys-more-than-1000-homes.htm |archive-date=21 April 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/113-hurt-in-Duduza-tornado-20111003 |title=113 hurt in Duduza tornado|work=News24|date=3 October 2011|access-date=24 January 2016}}</ref>

==Gallery==
[[File:Supercell-thunderstorm-in-Kansas.jpg|center|frameless|199x199px|Supercell In Kansas]]{{Center|Supercell In Kansas}}<gallery mode="packed">
File:Burza Czestochowa.jpg|Arcus in Poland
File:Supercell7 - NOAA.jpg|Supercell in Oklahoma
File:Isolated supercell - NOAA.jpg|Supercell in Norman, Oklahoma
File:Rotating Thunderstorm Updraft.jpg|Rotating thunderstorm updraft
File:Chaparral Supercell 2.JPG|Chaparral, New Mexico, supercell
File:May 20, 2013 Moore, Oklahoma tornado.JPG|[[2013 Moore tornado]] in Oklahoma
File:Supercell thunderstorm over Needmore, Texas. May 4, 2019.jpg|Supercell in Needmore, Texas
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[Convective storm detection]]
* [[Pseudo-cold front]]
* [[Pseudo-warm front]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{Commons|Supercell}}
{{Wiktionary|supercell}}

* [http://www.crh.noaa.gov/lmk/soo/docu/supercell.php Structure and Dynamics of Supercell Thunderstorms]
* Lemon, Leslie R., (1998) ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20130730065045/http://www.stormchasers.au.com/lemon7.htm On the Mesocyclone "Dry Intrusion" and Tornadogenesis]''
* [http://www.ejssm.org/ Electronic Journal of Severe Storms Meteorology]

{{Cyclones}}

[[Category:Storm]]
[[Category:Mesoscale meteorology]]
[[Category:Severe weather and convection]]
[[Category:Tornadogenesis]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]

[[de:Gewitter#Superzellengewitter]]