Editing Tacit knowledge

{{Short description|Skills, ideas and experiences}}
{{Redirect|Tacit|the software company|Tacit Software}}

'''Tacit knowledge''' or '''implicit knowledge''' is [[knowledge]] that is difficult to extract or articulate—as opposed to [[conceptualize]]d, [[Logic translation|formalized]], codified, or [[explicit knowledge]]—and is therefore more difficult to convey to others through verbalization or writing. Examples of this include individual [[wisdom]], [[personal experience|experience]], [[insight]], [[motor skill]], and [[intuition]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tacit and Explicit Knowledge {{!}} Key Concepts in Information and Knowledge Management |url=https://www.tlu.ee/~sirvir/Information%20and%20Knowledge%20Management/Key_Concepts_of_IKM/tacit_and_explicit_knowledge.html |access-date=2024-12-10 |website=www.tlu.ee}}</ref> An example of "explicit" information that can be recorded, conveyed, and understood by the recipient is the knowledge that London is in the United Kingdom. Speaking a language, riding a bicycle, kneading dough, playing an instrument, or designing and operating sophisticated machinery, on the other hand, all require a variety of knowledge that is difficult or impossible to [[knowledge transfer|transfer]] to other people and is not always known "explicitly," even by skilled practitioners.

==Overview==

=== Origin ===
The term '''tacit knowing'''<!--boldface per [[WP:R#PLA]]--> is attributed to [[Michael Polanyi]]'s ''Personal Knowledge'' (1958).<ref name=":3" /> In his later work, ''The Tacit Dimension'' (1966), Polanyi made the assertion that "we can know more than we can tell."<ref>[[Michael Polanyi|Polanyi, Michael]]. 1966. ''The Tacit Dimension''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 4.</ref> He states not only that there is knowledge that cannot be adequately articulated by [[Verbal intelligence|verbal]] means, but also that all knowledge is rooted in tacit knowledge. While this concept made most of its impact on [[philosophy of science]], [[Philosophy of education|education]] and [[knowledge management]]—all fields involving humans—it was also, for Polanyi, a means to show humankind's evolutionary continuity with animals. Polanyi describes that many animals are creative, some even have [[mental representation]]s, but can only possess tacit knowledge.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Héder |first1=Mihály |last2=Paksi |first2=Daniel |title=Non-Human Knowledge According to Michael Polanyi |journal=Tradition and Discovery: The Polanyi Society Periodical |date=2018 |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=50–66 |doi=10.5840/traddisc20184418 |doi-access=free }}</ref> This excludes humans, however, who developed the capability of articulation and therefore can transmit partially explicit knowledge. This relatively modest difference then turns into a big practical advantage, but there is no unexplained evolutionary gap.

=== Definition ===
''Tacit knowledge'' can be defined as skills, ideas and experiences that are possessed by people but are not codified and may not necessarily be easily expressed.<ref name=":0">{{cite book |doi=10.5220/0005585901280135 |chapter=Do Australian Universities Encourage Tacit Knowledge Transfer? |title=Proceedings of the 7th International Joint Conference on Knowledge Discovery, Knowledge Engineering and Knowledge Management |year=2015 |last1=Chugh |first1=Ritesh |pages=128–135 |isbn=978-989-758-158-8 }}</ref> With tacit knowledge, people are not often aware of the knowledge they possess or how it can be valuable to others. Effective transfer of tacit knowledge generally requires extensive personal contact, regular interaction,<ref name="Goffin">{{cite journal |last1=Goffin |first1=K. |last2=Koners |first2=U. |year=2011 |title=Tacit Knowledge, Lessons Learnt, and New Product Development |journal=[[Journal of Product Innovation Management]] |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=300–318 |doi=10.1111/j.1540-5885.2010.00798.x }}</ref> and trust. This kind of knowledge can only be revealed through practice in a particular context and transmitted through [[social network]]s.<ref name="Schmidt">{{cite journal |last1=Schmidt |first1=Frank L. |last2=Hunter |first2=John E. |title=Tacit Knowledge, Practical Intelligence, General Mental Ability, and Job Knowledge |journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science |date=February 1993 |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=8–9 |doi=10.1111/1467-8721.ep10770456 |s2cid=145203923 }}</ref> To some extent it is "[[knowledge capture|captured]]" when the knowledge holder joins a network or a [[community of practice]].<ref name="Goffin" />

Some examples of daily activities and tacit knowledge are: riding a bike, playing the piano, driving a car, hitting a nail with a hammer,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Engel | first1 = P. J. H. | year = 2008 | title = Tacit knowledge and Visual Expertise in Medical Diagnostic Reasoning: Implications for medical education | journal = Medical Teacher | volume = 30 | issue = 7| pages = e184–e188 | doi = 10.1080/01421590802144260 | pmid = 18777417 | doi-access = free }}</ref> putting together pieces of a complex jigsaw puzzle, and interpreting a complex statistical equation.<ref name=":0" />

In the field of [[knowledge management]], the concept of tacit knowledge refers to knowledge that cannot be fully [[explicit knowledge|codified]]. An individual can acquire tacit knowledge without language. [[Apprenticeship|Apprentices]], for example, work with their [[Mentorship|mentors]] and learn craftsmanship not only through language but also by [[observation]], imitation, and practice.

The key to acquiring tacit knowledge is [[experience]]. Without some form of shared experience, it is extremely difficult for people to share each other's [[thinking process]]es.<ref name="Lam">{{cite journal |last1=Lam |first1=Alice |title=Tacit Knowledge, Organizational Learning and Societal Institutions: An Integrated Framework |journal=Organization Studies |date=May 2000 |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=487–513 |doi=10.1177/0170840600213001 |s2cid=146466393 }}</ref>

==== Terrain ====
Tacit knowledge can be divided according to the terrain. Terrains affect the process of changing tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge. Terrains are of three kinds:

* ''Relational tacit knowledge:'' Relational tacit knowledge could be made explicit, but not made explicit for reasons that touch on deep principles that have to do with either the nature or location of knowledge of the way humans are made. This knowledge refers to things we could describe in principle if someone put effort into describing them.
* ''Somatic tacit knowledge:'' Somatic tacit knowledge has to do with properties of individuals bodies and brains as physical things. It includes things our bodies can do but we cannot describe how, like riding a bike. In principle it is possible for it to be explicated as the outcome of research done by human scientists.
* ''Collective tacit knowledge:'' Collective tacit knowledge is a kind of knowledge that we do not know how to make explicit and that we cannot envisage how to explicate. It is the domain of knowledge that is located in society, such as the rules for language - it has to do with the way society is constituted.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Collins |first=Harry M. |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/871293266 |title=Tacit and explicit knowledge |date=2013 |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-00421-1 |oclc=871293266}}</ref>

==== Embodied knowledge ====
Tacit knowledge has been described as “[[know-how]]” as opposed to “know-what” ([[fact]]s).<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=Tacit and Explicit Knowledge {{!}} Key Concepts in Information and Knowledge Management|url=https://www.tlu.ee/~sirvir/Information%20and%20Knowledge%20Management/Key_Concepts_of_IKM/tacit_and_explicit_knowledge.html|access-date=2021-04-15|website=www.tlu.ee}}</ref> This distinction between “know-how” and “know-what” is considered to date back to a 1945 paper by [[Gilbert Ryle]] given to the [[Aristotelian Society]] in London.<ref name="Ryle">{{cite journal |last1=Ryle |first1=Gilbert |title=Knowing How and Knowing That: The Presidential Address |journal=Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society |date=1945 |volume=46 |pages=1–16 |doi=10.1093/aristotelian/46.1.1 |jstor=4544405 }}</ref> In his paper, Ryle argues against the ([[Intellectualism|intellectualist]]) position that all knowledge is knowledge of [[Proposition]]s (“know-what”), and therefore the view that some knowledge can only be defined as “know-how”. Ryle's argument has, in some contexts, come to be called "[[Anti-intellectualism|anti-intellectualist]]". There are further distinctions such as "know-why" (science) or "know-who" (networking).{{Citation needed|date=August 2012}}

Tacit knowledge involves learning and skill but not in a way that can be written down. On this account, knowing-how or “embodied knowledge”<!--boldface per [[WP:R#PLA]]--> is characteristic of the expert, who acts, makes judgments, and so forth without explicitly reflecting on the principles or rules involved. The expert works without having a theory of his or her work; he or she just performs skillfully without deliberation or focused attention.<ref name="Schmidt" /> Embodied knowledge represents a learned capability of a human body's [[nervous system|nervous]] and [[endocrine system]]s.<ref name="40Sensky">{{cite journal |last=Sensky |first=Tom |title=Knowledge Management |journal=Advances in Psychiatric Treatment |year=2002 |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=387–395 |doi=10.1192/apt.8.5.387 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Differences from explicit knowledge==
Although it is possible to distinguish conceptually between [[Explicit knowledge|explicit]] and tacit knowledge, they are not separate and discrete in practice.<ref name="Lam" /> The interaction between these two modes of knowing is vital for the creation of new knowledge.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Angioni|first1=Giulio|title=Fare, dire, sentire: l'identico e il diverso nelle culture|publisher=Il maestrale|year=2011|isbn=978-88-6429-020-1|pages=26–99|language=it|trans-title=Doing, saying, feeling: the identical and the different in cultures}}</ref>

Tacit knowledge can be distinguished from explicit knowledge in three major areas:<ref name=":3">[[Michael Polanyi|Polanyi, Michael]]. 1958. ''Personal Knowledge: Towards a Post-Critical Philosophy''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. {{ISBN|0-226-67288-3}}.</ref>
* ''Codifiability and mechanism of transferring knowledge'': Explicit knowledge can be codified (for example, 'can you write it down' or 'put it into words' or 'draw a picture'), and easily transferred without the knowing subject. In contrast, tacit knowledge is [[Intuition|intuitive]] and unarticulated knowledge that cannot be communicated, understood or used without the 'knowing subject'. Unlike the transfer of explicit knowledge, the transfer of tacit knowledge requires close interaction and the buildup of shared understanding and trust among them.
* ''Main methods for the acquisition and accumulation'': Explicit knowledge can be generated through [[logical deduction]] and acquired through practical experience in the relevant context. In contrast, tacit knowledge can only be acquired through practical experience in the relevant context.
* ''Potential of aggregation and modes of appropriation'': Explicit knowledge can be aggregated at a single location, stored in objective forms, and [[Appropriation of knowledge|appropriated]] without the participation of the knowing subject. Tacit knowledge, in contrast, is personal and contextual; it is distributed across knowing subjects, and cannot easily be aggregated. The realization of its full potential requires the close involvement and cooperation of the knowing subject.

The process of transforming tacit knowledge into explicit or specifiable knowledge is known as codification, articulation, or specification. The tacit aspects of knowledge are those that cannot be codified, but can only be transmitted via training or gained through personal experience. There is a view against the distinction, where it is believed that all [[propositional knowledge]] (knowledge that) is ultimately reducible to [[practical knowledge]] (knowledge how).<ref>Hetherington, S, (2011) How to Know: A Practicalist Conception of Knowledge, Wiley-Blackwell,  {{ISBN|9780470658123}}.{{page needed|date=November 2020}}</ref>

== {{Anchor|Nonaka's model}}Nonaka–Takeuchi model ==
{{Main|SECI model of knowledge dimensions}}
[[Ikujiro Nonaka]] proposed a model of knowledge creation that explains how tacit knowledge can be converted to explicit knowledge, both of which can be converted into organisational knowledge.<ref name=":1">[[Ikujiro Nonaka|Nonaka, Ikujiro]], and [[Hirotaka Takeuchi]]. 1995. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=B-qxrPaU1-MC The Knowledge-creating Company: How Japanese Companies Create the Dynamics of Innovation]''. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-19-509269-1}}. {{Internet Archive|id=knowledgecreatin00nona|name=Available}} {{Registration required}}.</ref> While introduced by Nonaka in 1990,<ref>[[Ikujiro Nonaka|Nonaka, Ikujiro]]. 1990. ''Management of Knowledge Creation''. Tokyo: Nihon Keizai Shinbun-sha.</ref> the model was further developed by [[Hirotaka Takeuchi]] and is thus known as the Nonaka–Takeuchi model.<ref name=":1" /><ref>Xu, F. 2013. "The Formation and Development of Ikujiro Nonaka's Knowledge Creation Theory. Pp. 60-76 in ''Towards Organizational Knowledge: The Pioneering Work of Ikujiro Nonaka'', edited by G. von Krogh, et al. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.</ref> In this model, tacit knowledge is presented variously as uncodifiable ("tacit aspects of knowledge are those that cannot be codified") and codifiable ("transforming tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge is known as codification"). This ambiguity is common in the [[knowledge management]] literature.

Assuming that knowledge is created through the interaction between tacit and explicit knowledge, the Nonaka–Takeuchi model postulates four different modes of knowledge conversion:<ref name=":1" />

# from tacit knowledge to tacit knowledge, or ''[[socialization]]'';
# from tacit knowledge to explicit knowledge, or ''externalization'';
# from explicit knowledge to explicit knowledge, or ''[[Combinational logic|combination]]''; and
# from explicit knowledge to tacit knowledge, or ''[[Internalization (sociology)|internalization]]''.

Nonaka's view may be contrasted with Polanyi's original view of "tacit knowing". Polanyi believed that while [[declarative knowledge]] may be needed for acquiring skills, it is unnecessary for using those skills once the novice becomes an expert. Indeed, it does seem to be the case that, as Polanyi argued, when people acquire a skill, they acquire a corresponding understanding that defies articulation.<ref name="Schmidt" />

==Examples==
* One of the most convincing examples of tacit knowledge is [[face perception|facial recognition]]: one knows a person's face, and can recognize it among a thousand, indeed a million. Yet, people usually cannot tell how they recognize that face, so most of this cannot be put into words. When one sees a face, they are not conscious about their knowledge of the individual features (eye, nose, mouth), but rather see and recognize the face as a whole.<ref>[[Michael Polanyi|Polanyi, Michael]]. [1966] 1983. ''The Tacit Dimension''. Gloucester: Doubleday & Company Inc. p. 4.</ref>
* Another example of tacit knowledge is the notion of [[language]] itself: it is not possible to [[language learning|learn a language]] just by being taught the rules of [[grammar]]—a [[native-speaker]] picks it up at a young age, almost entirely unaware of the [[formal grammar]] which they may be taught later.
*Other examples are how to ride a bike, how tight to make a bandage, or knowing whether a senior surgeon feels an intern may be ready to learn the intricacies of surgery; this can only be learned through personal experimentation.
* [[Harry M. Collins]] showed that Western laboratories long had difficulties in successfully replicating an experiment that a team led by [[Vladimir Braginsky]] at [[Moscow State University]] had been conducting for 20 years (the experiment was measuring the quality, ''[[Q factor|Q]]'', factors of [[sapphire]]). Western scientists became suspicious of the Russian results and it was only when Russian and Western scientists conducted the measurements collaboratively that the trust was reestablished. Collins argues that laboratory visits enhance the possibility for the transfer of tacit knowledge.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Collins |first1=H. M. |title=Tacit Knowledge, Trust and the Q of Sapphire |journal=Social Studies of Science |date=February 2001 |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=71–85 |doi=10.1177/030631201031001004 |s2cid=145429576 |url=http://orca.cf.ac.uk/71069/1/wrkgpaper1.pdf }}</ref><ref>Collins, Harry M. 2010. ''Tacit and Explicit Knowledge''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226113807.</ref>
* The [[Bessemer process|Bessemer steel process]] is another example: [[Henry Bessemer]] sold a patent for his advanced [[steelmaking]] process and was subsequently sued by the purchasers after they could not get it to work. In the end, Bessemer set up his own steel company because he knew how to do it, even though he could not convey it to his patent users.<ref>{{cite book | last = Gordon | first = James Edward | title = The new science of strong materials | isbn = 9780691180984 | publisher = Penguin Books }}</ref>
* When [[Matsushita Corporation|Matsushita]] (now Panasonic) started developing its automatic home [[bread machine|bread-making machine]] in 1985, an early problem was how to mechanize the dough-[[kneading]] process, a process that takes a master baker years of practice to perfect. To learn this tacit knowledge, a member of the software development team, Ikuko Tanaka, decided to volunteer herself as an apprentice to the head baker of the Osaka International Hotel, who was reputed to produce the area's best bread. After a period of imitation and practice, one day she observed that the baker was not only stretching, but also twisting the dough in a particular fashion ("twisting stretch"), which turned out to be important in the success of his method. The Matsushita home bakery team drew together eleven members from completely different specializations and cultures: product planning, mechanical engineering, control systems, and software development. The "twisting stretch" motion was finally achieved by a prototype machine after a year of iterative experimentation by the engineers and team members working closely together, combining their explicit knowledge. For example, the engineers added ribs to the inside of the dough case in order to hold the dough better as it is being churned. Another team member suggested a method (later patented) to add yeast at a later stage in the process, thereby preventing the yeast from over-fermenting in high temperatures.<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|284}}

==See also==
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|
* [[Activity theory]]
* [[Cognitive apprenticeship]]
* [[Concept map]]
* [[Consensus reality]]
* [[Decoding the Disciplines]]
* [[Decision making]]
* [[Descriptive knowledge]]
* [[Dispersed knowledge]]
* [[Fuzzy concept]]
* [[Hidden curriculum]]
* [[Intuition (knowledge)|Intuition]]
* [[Knowledge by acquaintance]]
* [[Knowledge tagging]]
* [[Logical consequence]]
* [[Phronesis]]
* [[Procedural knowledge]]
* [[Situated knowledge]]
* [[Tacit assumption]]
* [[Text and conversation theory]]
* [[Threshold knowledge]]
* [[Unsaid]]
}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}} 23.  Synaply.io | [https://www.synaply.io/types-of-knowledge-sharing/ types of knowledge sharing] Author "Ethan Moore" Posted April 2, 2025.

==Further reading==
* {{Cite book |last=Angioni |first=Giulio |author-link=Giulio Angioni |title=Nature Knowledge |publisher=Berghahm Books |year=2004 |editor-last=Sanga |location=New York |pages=249–261 |chapter=Doing, Thinking, Saying |editor-last2=Ortalli}}
*{{Cite journal |last=Bao |first=Yongjian |last2=Zhao |first2=Shuming |year=2004 |title=MICRO Contracting for Tacit Knowledge: A study of contractual arrangements in international technology transfer |url=https://www.businessperspectives.org/index.php/journals/problems-and-perspectives-in-management/issue-2/micro-contracting-for-tacit-knowledge-a-study-of-contractual-arrangements-in-international-technology-transfer |journal=Problems and Perspectives in Management |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=279–303}}
* {{Cite book |last=Brohm |first=R. |title=Proceedings of the ISMICK Conference |publisher=[[Erasmus University Rotterdam]] |year=1999 |pages=57–69 |chapter=Bringing Polanyi onto the theatre stage: a study on Polanyi applied to Knowledge Management}}
*{{Cite thesis |last=Brohm |first=R. |title=Polycentric Order in Organizations |isbn=9789058920959 |year=2005 |hdl=1765/6911}}
*{{Cite journal |last=Castillo |first=Jose |year=2002 |title=A Note on the Concept of Tacit Knowledge |journal=Journal of Management Inquiry |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=46–57 |doi=10.1177/1056492602111018 |s2cid=145515948}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Collins |first=Harry M. |author-link=Harry Collins |year=2001 |title=Tacit Knowledge, Trust and the Q of Sapphire |url=http://orca.cf.ac.uk/71069/1/wrkgpaper1.pdf |journal=Social Studies of Science |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=71–85 |doi=10.1177/030631201031001004 |s2cid=145429576}}
* {{Cite book |last=Collins |first=Harry M. |title=Tacit and Explicit Knowledge |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2010 |isbn=9780226113807 |location=Chicago}}
* {{Cite book |last=Gladwell |first=Malcolm |author-link=Malcolm Gladwell |title=[[Blink: The Power of Thinking Without Thinking]] |publisher=[[Little, Brown and Company]] |year=2005 |location=New York}}
* {{Cite book |last=Gourlay |first=Stephen |title=Rethinking Knowledge Management: From Knowledge Objects to Knowledge Processes |editor-first=Claire R. |editor-last=McInerney |editor-first2=Ronald E. |editor-last2=Day |publisher=Springer |year=2007 |isbn=978-3-540-71010-3 |chapter=An Activity Centered Framework for Knowledge Management |pages=21–64 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/rethinkingknowle0000unse/page/20/mode/2up}}
* {{Cite magazine |last=Hodgkin |first=R |date=1991-09-27 |title=Michael Polanyi – Prophet of life, the universe and everything |magazine=Times Higher Education Supplement |page=15}}
*[[Ikujiro Nonaka|Nonaka, Ikujiro]]. 1990. ''Management of Knowledge Creation''. Tokyo: Nihon Keizai Shinbun-sha.
* {{Cite book |last=Nonaka |first=Ikujiro |url=https://archive.org/details/knowledgecreatin00nona |title=The Knowledge-creating Company: How Japanese Companies Create the Dynamics of Innovation |last2=Takeuchi |first2=Hirotaka |author-link2=Hirotaka Takeuchi |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-19-509269-1 |location=New York}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Nonaka |first=Ikujiro |last2=Toyama |first2=Ryoko |last3=Konno |first3=Noboru |date=February 2000 |title=SECI, ''Ba'' and Leadership: a Unified Model of Dynamic Knowledge Creation |journal=Long Range Planning |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=5–34 |doi=10.1016/s0024-6301(99)00115-6}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Patriotta |first=G |year=2004 |title=Studying organizational knowledge |journal=Knowledge Management Research and Practice |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=3–12 |citeseerx=10.1.1.421.1462 |doi=10.1057/palgrave.kmrp.8500017 |s2cid=62182682}}
* {{cite book |author-link=Michael Polanyi |last=Polanyi |first=Michael |year=1958 |title=Personal Knowledge: Towards a Post Critical Philosophy |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=0-226-67288-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Polanyi |first=Michael |year=1966 |title=The Tacit Dimension |publisher=Doubleday & Co.}}
** {{cite book |last=Polanyi |first=Michael |chapter=Tacit Knowing |title=The Tacit Dimension |year=1983 |location=Gloucester, MA |publisher=Peter Smith}}
* {{cite book |last=Polanyi |first=Michael |year=1997 |title=Science, Economics and Philosophy: Selected Papers of Michael Polanyi |editor-first=R.T. |editor-last=Allen |location=New Brunswick, NJ |publisher=Transaction Publishers}}
* {{cite book |author-link=Arthur S. Reber |last=Reber |first=Arthur S. |year=1993 |title=Implicit learning and tacit knowledge: an essay on the cognitive unconscious |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-510658-X |url=https://archive.org/details/implicitlearning0000rebe}}
* {{cite book |last=Sanders |first=A. F. |year=1988 |title=Michael Polanyi's Post-critical Epistemology: A Reconstruction of Some Aspects of 'Tacit Knowing' |location=Amsterdam |publisher=Rodopi}}
* {{cite web |last=Smith |first=Mark K. |year=2003 |access-date=2024-03-21 |url=https://infed.org/michael-polanyi-and-tacit-knowledge/ |title=Michael Polanyi and tacit knowledge |website=The Encyclopedia of Pedagogy and Informal Education}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Tsoukas |first=H. |year=2003 |entry=Do we really understand tacit knowledge? |pages=411–427 |encyclopedia=The Blackwell handbook of organizational learning and knowledge management |editor-last1=Easterby-Smith |editor-last2=Lyles |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Blackwell Publishing}}
* {{cite book |last=Wenger |first=E. |year=1998 |title=Communities of practice: learning, meaning and identity |location=New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}
* {{cite book |author-link=Timothy Wilson |last=Wilson |first=Timothy D. |year=2002 |title=Strangers to ourselves: discovering the adaptive unconscious |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=0-674-01382-4}}

{{Knowledge management}}{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tacit Knowledge}}
[[Category:Cognitive psychology]]
[[Category:Knowledge management]]
[[Category:Knowledge]]
[[Category:Psychology of learning]]