Editing Tengiz Field

{{Short description|Oil field in Kazakhstan}}
{{Update|date=February 2015}}
{{Other uses|Tengiz (disambiguation){{!}}Tengiz}}
{{Infobox oil field
| name = Tengiz Field
| location_map       = Caspian Sea
| location_map_width = 
| location_map_text  = Location of the Tengiz Field on the coast of Caspian Sea
| coordinates = {{coord|46|9|10|N|53|23|0|E|type:landmark_source:ruwiki_region:KZ|display=inline,title}}
| coordinates_ref    = 
| country = [[Kazakhstan]]
| locblock = 
| offonshore = Onshore
| operator  = [[Tengizchevroil]] 
| partners = [[Chevron Corporation]] (50%), [[ExxonMobil]] (25%), [[KazMunayGas]] (20%)
| image = 
| caption = 
| discovery = 1979
| start_production = 1993
| peak_year   = 2018{{citation needed|date=June 2012}}{{dubious|date=June 2012}}
| expectedabandonment = 
| oil_production_bbl/d = 720000
| production_gas_mmcuft/d =
| production_gas_mmscm/d =
| production_gas_bcm/y =
| est_oil_bbl = 25500
| est_gas_bft =
| est_gas_bcm =
| formations  =
}}

'''Tengiz field''' ({{langx|kk|Теңіз мұнай кен орны}}, ''Teñız mūnai ken orny'') is an [[oil field]] located in [[Zhylyoi District]], [[Atyrau Region]], northwestern [[Kazakhstan]].

==Geography==
The oil field is located in an area of low-lying wetlands along the northeast shores of the [[Caspian Sea]]. It covers a {{convert|2500|km2|mi2|abbr=on}} project license area which also includes a smaller [[Korolev field]] as well as several exploratory prospects.

Sizewise, Tengiz reservoir is {{convert|19|km|mi|abbr=on}} wide and {{convert|21|km|mi|abbr=on}} long.<ref name=Tengiz1>{{cite web |url=http://www.tengizchevroil.com/en/about/the_tco_field.asp |title=About TCO |publisher=Tengizchevroil.com |access-date=2015-06-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117015002/http://www.tengizchevroil.com/en/about/the_tco_field.asp |archive-date=2015-11-17 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Discovered in 1979, Tengiz [[oil field]] is one of the largest discoveries in recent history.<ref name="SP Times">
 {{cite news
 |url=http://www.sptimes.ru/index.php?action_id=2&story_id=5705 
 |title=Kazakhstan Field's Riches Come With a Price 
 |publisher=The St. Petersburg Times 
 |author=Christopher Pala 
 |date=2001-10-23 
 |volume=82 
 |issue=715 
 |access-date=2009-10-12 
 |url-status=dead 
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131228125654/http://www.sptimes.ru/index.php?action_id=2&story_id=5705 
 |archive-date=2013-12-28 
}}</ref> The city of [[Atyrau]], {{convert|350|km|mi|-1}} north of Tengiz, is the main transport hub of Tengiz oil. Many nations are involved in a large [[geopolitics|geopolitical]] competition to secure access to this source of oil.

==History==
The Tengiz field, first discovered in 1979, has recoverable reserves estimated at between six billion and nine billion barrels. The field was jointly developed in 1993 as a 40-year venture of [[Chevron Texaco]] (50%), [[KazMunayGas]] (20%), US [[ExxonMobil]] (25%) and [[LukArco]] (5%). The joint venture company is known as [[Tengizchevroil]] (TCO). Chevron is the operator of the TCO field.
The Tengiz oil fields entered a new phase of production with the construction of its Second Generation Project (SGP) and the introduction of sour gas injection (SGI). This onshore development, which has been in the planning and approval stage since 2002, began in 2004 and required a total investment of $7.4bn. The integrated project was completed in the second half of 2008.

Prior to its expansion in 2008, the Tengiz oilfield had 53 wells, tapping a column of crude oil around 1.6km thick. When the field was first tapped its oil pressure was 12,000psi, but in 2004 the pressure came down to 10,000psi in most areas and 8,500psi in others. The SGI project used gas injection technology to boost the pressure and increase oil recovery, while the SGP increased the number of producers (wells) and improved and expanded the crude export infrastructure.

The Tengiz field’s production of crude in 2004 was 13 million tonnes per year but the SGI and SGP production increased this to over 25 million tonnes. TCO crude oil production capacity was increased by about 80% to 540,000 barrels of crude oil, 46,000 barrels of [[natural gas liquids]] and 760 million cubic feet of natural gas.

The two projects created over 7,000 jobs in [[Kazakhstan]] and aided the development of the economy. A total investment of $20bn is envisaged for the duration of the 40 years of the Tengiz oil field venture.

Tengizchevroil intends to export more of the Tengiz field’s additional capacity via the [[Caspian Pipeline Consortium]] (CPC) pipeline, running the 1,500km from Tengiz to the Russian Black Sea port of Novorossiysk (thus solving the export problem from the remote Tengiz field).

Net daily production in 2019 (Chevron share) averaged 290,000 barrels of crude oil, 419 million cubic feet of natural gas and 21,000 barrels of natural gas liquid.

The integrated Future Growth Project-Wellhead Pressure Management Project (FGP-WPMP) is designed to further increase total daily production from the Tengiz reservoir and maximize the ultimate recovery of resources.

The FGP will use state-of-the-art sour gas injection technology, successfully developed and proven during TCO’s previous expansion in 2008, to increase daily crude oil production from Tengiz by approximately 260,000 barrels per day.

Kazakhstan finalized the consortium agreement with Chevron in 1993.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.petroleumjournal.kz/index.php?p=press-more&owner_id=39&id=169&outlang=3|title=Tengizchevroil Fact Sheet 1H 2015|work=Petroleum Kazakhstan Analytical Journal|access-date=14 November 2015}}</ref> In 1997, Lukoil purchased 5% in the Tengiz project from Chevron,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1997-01-17-fi-19405-story.html|title=Russia's Lukoil Buys 5% of Chevron Project|work=Los Angeles Times|date=17 January 1997 |access-date=14 November 2015}}</ref> and in 2000, Chevron built up its interest in the project to 50% by acquiring additional shares<ref name=Tengiz9>{{cite web|url=http://abarrelfull.wikidot.com/tengiz-oil-field|title=Tengiz Oil Field|work=A Barrel Full|access-date=14 November 2015}}</ref> from Kazakhstan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://caspianenergy.co.uk/en/2013-06-06-19-42-06/73/1641-horizons-of-kazakhstan-s-oil-production |title=Horizons of Kazakhstan's Oil Production |work=Caspian Energy |access-date=14 November 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117032918/http://caspianenergy.co.uk/en/2013-06-06-19-42-06/73/1641-horizons-of-kazakhstan-s-oil-production |archive-date=17 November 2015 }}</ref> In 2003, Fluor was awarded the rights<ref name=Tengiz9/> to develop the Second Generation Plant (SGP) and Sour Gas Injection (SGI) project, which were expected to double production.<ref name=Tengiz11>{{cite web|url=http://www.fluor.com/projects/onshore-oil-gas-epcm-project-management|title=TengizChevroil SGI/SGP Onshore Oil and Gas Projects - Project Management & Engineering|work=Fluor|access-date=14 November 2015}}</ref> In 2004, the Tengiz Consortium raised $1.1 billion in senior secured bonds to finance these two projects. These two projects were expected to finish in 2006,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cbonds.com/news/item/303193|title=Fitch Assigns Tengizchevroil Expected 'BBB-' Rating|work=Financial CBonds Information|access-date=14 November 2015}}</ref> but were delayed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-168448657.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201082156/https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-168448657.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 December 2017|title=Production from Tengiz Recovers in July|work=NEFTE Compass|access-date=25 November 2017}}</ref> In October 2006, the Tengizchevroil joint venture experienced riots.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.kt.kz/rus/state/premjerministr_rk_schitaet_neobhodimim_privlechj_k_otvetstvennosti_vinovnih_v_konflikte_na_tengize_1153402839.html|title=Премьер-министр РК считает необходимым привлечь к ответственности виновных в конфликте на Тенгизе|access-date=3 August 2019}}</ref> Shortly after in 2007, the Republic of Kazakhstan invited [[Maksat Idenov]] as First Vice President<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-166636687.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160910080823/https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-166636687.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=10 September 2016|title=Former Shell Man Takes Top Oil Job.(Maksat Idenov appointed at Kazmunaigas)|work=NEFTE Compass|access-date=25 November 2017}}</ref> of Kazmunaigas and Chairman of the Partnership Council of the Tengizchevroil Joint Venture.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zakon.kz/165774-m.-idenov-transparentnost-glavnoe.html|title=М. Иденов: Транспарентность - главное условие работы для инвесторов в казахстанской "нефтянке"|work=zakon.kz|access-date=25 November 2017|archive-date=1 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201035322/http://www.zakon.kz/165774-m.-idenov-transparentnost-glavnoe.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> During Idenov's tenure,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://photobank.inform.kz/en/photo/28129-Premier%20Kazakhstan%20is%20a%20proved%20vendor%20of%20energy___/|title=Premier: Kazakhstan is a proved vendor of energy resources to global market|work=KazInform|access-date=9 June 2024}}</ref> the SGP and SGI expansion projects (worth over $6.9 billion) were completed in the second part of 2008,<ref name=Tengiz11/> and stakeholder engagement began for the Future Growth Project (FGP) in 2009.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hydrocarbons-technology.com/projects/tengiz-future-growth-project-wellhead-pressure-management-project/|title=Tengiz Future Growth Project-Wellhead Pressure Management Project|work=Hydrocarbons Technology|access-date=25 November 2017}}</ref> In 2012, TengizChevroil began the Future Growth Project (FGP), whose aim is to continue to increase the field's production.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.petroleumjournal.kz/index.php?p=article&aid1=23&aid2=100&id=226&outlang=3|title=Tengizchevroil at the Start of the Future Growth Project|work=Petroleum Kazakhstan Analytical Journal|access-date=14 November 2015}}</ref>
In 2014, Chevron and its partners, KazMunaiGas, ExxonMobil and Lukoil began the process of selecting engineering companies to work on the engineering, procurement and construction (EPC) contract for the Future Growth Project, which will further expand the TCO oil field.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.2b1stconsulting.com/chevron-and-kmg-align-offers-on-kazakhstan-future-growth-project/|title=Chevron and KMG align offers on Kazakhstan Future Growth Project|work=2B1st Consulting|date=23 February 2014|access-date=14 November 2015}}</ref>

===Conflict===

In 2006 during the SGP project an argument between Turkish and Kazakh workers led to an outbreak of violence. 115 Turkish citizens were evacuated for medical treatment. <ref>{{cite web |title=Workers clash at Kazakh oilfield |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2006/10/24/workers-clash-at-kazakh-oilfield/ |access-date=25 May 2021 |work=Al Jazeera}}</ref> 

In 2019 during the 3GP project dozens of Arab expat workers were injured during violence sparked by a photograph shared on social media among foreign workers and was considered offensive by local Kazakh employees..<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/dozens-injured-when-brawl-erupts-during-worker-protest-at-kazakh-oil-field/30027649.html/ |title=Dozens Injured When Brawl Erupts During Worker Protest At Kazakh Oil Field|work=Radio Free Europe|date=29 June 2019 |access-date=25 May 2021}}</ref> Photos of the attacks on Arab expats were spread online throughout the Arab world, leading to a diplomatic dispute between Kazakhstan and several Arab countries including Jordan and Lebanon. <ref>{{cite web|url=https://observers.france24.com/en/20190729-outcry-over-suggestive-photo-leads-workers-attack-arab-expats-kazakstan/|title=Arab expats attacked in Kazakhstan after employee posts suggestive photo|work=France 24 Observers|access-date=25 May 2021|archive-date=8 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108023754/https://observers.france24.com/en/20190729-outcry-over-suggestive-photo-leads-workers-attack-arab-expats-kazakstan|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Reserves and production==
Estimated at up to {{convert|25|Goilbbl}} of oil originally in place, Tengiz is the sixth largest oil field in the world; recoverable crude [[oil reserves]] from Tengiz and [[Korolev fields]] combined have been estimated at {{convert|6|to|9|Goilbbl}}. Korolev field alone holds {{convert|1.5|Goilbbl}} of oil making it one-sixth the size of Tengiz.<ref name=Tengiz1/>  Like many other oil fields, the Tengiz also contains large reserves of [[natural gas]].  The field is one of the world's largest oil fields, rivaling the [[Gulf of Mexico]] in reserves of oil.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/23/business/global/23chevron.html?_r=1&scp=1&sq=Tengiz%20field&st=cse|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150610110252/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/23/business/global/23chevron.html?_r=1&scp=1&sq=Tengiz%20field&st=cse|archive-date = 2015-06-10|title = In Asia, a Gulf's Worth of Oil Awaits Transport|newspaper = The New York Times|date = 22 July 2010|last1 = Kramer|first1 = Andrew E.}}</ref>

Since the oil from Tengiz contains a high amount of [[sulfur]] (up to 17%), an estimated 6&nbsp;million tons of sulfur byproduct were stored in the form of large sulfur blocks as of December 2002. At the time, about 4,000&nbsp;tonnes a day was being added.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://business.guardian.co.uk/story/0,3604,853310,00.html | work=The Guardian | location=London | title=Byproduct that blights Caspian life | first=Paul | last=Brown | date=2002-12-04 | access-date=2010-05-25}}</ref>  On 3 October 2007, the Kazakh environment ministry was reported to be considering imposing fines against TCO for alleged breaches in the way the sulfur is stored.<ref>[https://www.forbes.com/feeds/ap/2007/10/03/ap4183238.html]{{dead link|date=January 2022|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}} </ref>

In 2002, TCO produced {{convert|285000|oilbbl/d}}, or one third of Kazakhstan's daily production. In January 2003, after contentious negotiations with the government of Kazakhstan, the TCO consortium members initiated a $3&nbsp;billion expansion project designed to boost production to approximately {{convert|450000|oilbbl/d}} by 2006.  In September 2008, [[Chevron Corporation]] announced that the major expansion of Tengiz field was completed and it would boost the production capacity to {{convert|540000|oilbbl/d}}.<ref>{{cite news
 | url= http://www.oilvoice.com/n/Chevron_Achieves_Full_Production_from_Tengiz_Expansion_Projects/3a2b54ca.aspx
 | title= Chevron Achieves Full Production from Tengiz Expansion Projects
 | publisher= OilVoice
 | date= 2008-09-25
 | access-date= 2010-10-24
 | archive-date= 2016-03-05
 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160305124110/http://oilvoice.com/n/chevron_achieves_full_production_from_tengiz_expansion_projects/3a2b54ca.aspx
 | url-status= dead
 }}</ref> In 2012 Chevron announced the field will see its total daily production increase by 250,000-300,000 barrels,<ref>{{cite news
 |url=http://www.tengizchevroil.com/en/news/2012/2011_review.asp 
 |title=2011 Year in Review 
 |publisher=Tengizchevroil 
 |date=2012-02-13 
 |access-date=2012-10-02 
 |url-status=dead 
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120707161449/http://www.tengizchevroil.com/en/news/2012/2011_review.asp 
 |archive-date=2012-07-07 
}}</ref> bringing production above 500,000 barrels per day.

An area of major geopolitical competition involves the [[Pipeline transport|routing]] of oil out of this oil field. Oil from the Tengiz field is primarily routed to the Russian Black Sea port of [[Novorossiysk]] through the [[Caspian Pipeline Consortium]] (CPC) project. The [[Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline]] is an alternative pipeline developed by U.S. and UK interests originating in the Southern Caspian which is the principal export route for crude from Azerbaijan and bypasses dependence on the Russian pipeline. In addition, [[Total S.A.]] is interested in developing a pipeline south through Iran, which is theoretically the cheapest route<ref name=Oxford>
{{cite book
 | url = http://www.oxfordenergy.org/wpcms/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/NG25-KazakhstansgasExportMarketsandExportRoutes-ShamilYenikeyeff-2008.pdf
 | title = Kazakhstan's Gas: Export Markets and Export Routes
 |date=November 2008
 | page = 18
 | publisher= [[Oxford Institute for Energy Studies]]
 | first = Shamil | last = Yenikeyeff
 | access-date = 2011-11-17
 |isbn=978-1-901795-79-0
 }}
</ref> due to the geopolitical climate involving Iran, however, the United States does not favor this route.

==Environmental concerns==
The oil from Tengiz field comes out of the wells hot and at a very high pressure, believed to be the highest in the world. It also contains large proportion of gas which is rich in the compound [[hydrogen sulfide]] yielding poisonous sulfur.

=== 1985 explosion ===
On 23 June 1985 an explosion occurred after oil and gas violently made its way to the surface from a depth of 4 km, causing a {{convert|200|m|ft|adj=on}}-high, {{convert|50|m|ft|adj=on}} wide column of fire visible from {{convert|140|km}}, killing one man. The deadly gas made it impossible for Soviet firefighters to quickly extinguish the fire. The well was not extinguished until over a year later on 27 July 1986 and was finally capped. 

The fire caused severe environmental damage, with long lasting pollution in a radius of over 100 km, due to the release of 900,000 tons of soot, 3.4 million tons of oil, 1.7 billion m³ of gas and 850 tons of [[Ethanethiol|mercaptans]].  Illnesses in the Atyrau region increased by 50% and an estimated one million birds died.<ref name="SP Times" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Koshim |first=Asyma G. |last2=Sergeyeva |first2=Aigul M. |last3=Yegizbayeva |first3=Asset |date=2022-06-01 |title=Impact of the Tengiz Oil Field on the State of Land Cover |url=https://www.sciendo.com/article/10.2478/quageo-2022-0022 |journal=Quaestiones Geographicae |language=en |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=83–93 |doi=10.2478/quageo-2022-0022 |issn=2081-6383}}</ref>

=== Later developments ===
The government of the Kazakhstan imposed stricter guidelines for handling the sulfur.{{citation needed|date=June 2012}}{{specify|date=June 2012}} In 2006, Kazakh government threatened TengizChevroil with imposing fines. In 2007, the government imposed a $609&nbsp;million (74.4&nbsp;billion [[Kazakhstani tenge|tenge]]) fine on TengizChevroil. The violations included a slow progress in dealing with vast sulfur stocks at Tengiz. The company had reportedly been fined $71&nbsp;million in 2003 for open air sulfur storage as well, which was then reduced to $7&nbsp;million on an appeal.<ref>
{{cite news
 | url= http://www.upstreamonline.com/live/article141698.ece
 | title= Chevron hit with $609m Tengiz fine
 | newspaper = [[Upstream (newspaper)|Upstream Online]]
 | publisher = NHST Media Group
 | date=2007-10-03
 | access-date=2009-12-10
}}</ref>  According to the Environmental Protection Ministry, over 10&nbsp;million tonnes of sulfur was accumulated near Tengiz oil field as a by-product of crude oil production.

Government had also set a requirement to relocate the village of [[Sarykamys]] which had 3,500 residents to new homes in the vicinity of Atyrau. The relocation program was funded by TengizChevroil and was done in 2004-2006. It cost the company $73&nbsp;million.<ref name="ENS">{{cite news
 | url= http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/aug2006/2006-08-23-02.html
 | title= Environmental Charges Unlikely to Derail Kazakstan's Chevron Contract
 | publisher= Environment News Service
 | author= 
 | date= 2006-08-23
 | access-date= 2009-12-10
 | archive-date= 2010-12-27
 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20101227204903/http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/aug2006/2006-08-23-02.html
 | url-status= dead
 }}</ref>

In his book ''Poor People'', published in 2007, [[William T. Vollmann]] dedicates a significant amount of his attention to the native peoples living in Sarykamys and Atyrau and the effects of TengizChevroil's presence in these towns. Vollmann's account suggests that serious and widespread health risks were imposed upon the people of Sarykamys. Vollmann also suggests that in the corporation's efforts to displace the natives, many were not compensated fairly, so that upon being forced to move from their existing homes, they were unable to find or afford comparable housing in a new town.<ref>Vollmann, William T. ''Poor People''. Ecco, 2007. pp. 173-196.</ref>

==Geology==
The sedimentary section of the pre-Caspian [[Sedimentary basin|basin]] varies between 5&nbsp;km to 24&nbsp;km and is dominated by the [[Permian]] Kungurian salt, which is overlain by the later (post-salt) deposits of [[Upper Permian]], [[Mesozoic]] and [[Cenozoic]] all deformed by [[salt tectonics]] and earlier (pre-salt) [[Paleozoic]] and upper [[Proterozoic]] [[carbonate minerals|carbonates]] and [[terrigenous sediment]]s.<ref name=Lisovsky>Lisovsky, N.N., Gogonenkov, G.N., and Petzoukha, Y.A., 1992, The Tengiz Oil Field in the Pre-Caspian Basin of Kazakhstan (Former USSR) - Supergiant of the 1980s, inGiant Oil and Gas Fields of the Decade, 1978-1988, AAPG Memoir 54, Halbouty, M.T., editor, Tulsa: American Association of Petroleum Geologists, {{ISBN|0891813330}}</ref>{{rp|102}}  [[Reflection seismology]] in 1975 revealed the Karaton [[tectonic uplift]], which was 400&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> in area and 1&nbsp;km in relief, at a depth of 4&nbsp;km.<ref name=Lisovsky/>{{rp|104}}  An exploratory well was drilled in 1979, discovering "significant oil flow" from the middle [[Carboniferous]] carbonates overlain by Lower Permian clays and the massive Permian salt.<ref name=Lisovsky/>{{rp|106}}

[[Stratigraphy]] starts with the [[Upper Devonian]] Famennian [[Stage (stratigraphy)|Stage]] consisting of homogeneous biogenic [[limestone]] and some thin [[Dolomite (rock)|dolomite]] [[interbedding]], followed by Lower Carboniferous deposits consisting of Tournaisian, Visean and Namurian Stage limestones.<ref name=Lisovsky/>{{rp|108–109}}  Next comes the Middle Carboniferous Bashkirian Stage limestones, and then the Lower Permian Artinksian Stage [[argillaceous minerals|argillaceous]] sediments.<ref name=Lisovsky/>{{rp|108–109}}  The carbonate buildup is up to 4&nbsp;km thick and form an [[angular unconformity]] to the overlying Permian sediments.<ref name=Lisovsky/>{{rp|110}}

==In pop culture==
The Tengiz oil field was mentioned in the film ''[[Syriana]]'' (2005) starring [[George Clooney]].

==See also==
{{Portal|Energy}}
*[[Kashagan Field]]
*[[Kazakhstan-China oil pipeline]]
*[[Oil and gas basins of Kazakhstan]]
*[[Trans-Caspian Oil Pipeline]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20131228125654/http://www.sptimes.ru/index.php?action_id=2&story_id=5705   Kazakhstan Field's Riches Come With a Price - The St. Petersburg Times October 23rd 2001]
* [http://www.searchanddiscovery.com/documents/2008/08044weber/index.htm Stratigraphy, facies, and reservoir distribution, Tengiz Field, Kazakhstan] - (2003) L. James Weber, Brent P. Francis, P.M. (Mitch) Harris, and Michael Clark. In: SEPM Special Publication 78: Permo-Carboniferous Carbonate Platforms and Reefs, Edited By: Wayne M. Ahr, Paul M. (Mitch) Harris, William A. Morgan, and Ian D. Somerville.
* [http://bbs.keyhole.com/ubb/download.php?Number=699927 Sulfur Pads in Google Earth]{{Dead link|date=October 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
{{Resources in Kazakhstan}}

[[Category:Oil fields of Kazakhstan]]
[[Category:Natural gas fields in Kazakhstan]]
[[Category:Chevron Corporation oil and gas fields]]
[[Category:ExxonMobil oil and gas fields]]
[[Category:Lukoil oil and gas fields]]
[[Category:Atyrau Region]]