Editing Tian

{{Short description|Chinese view of Heaven}}
{{other uses}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{Copy edit|date=March 2024}}
{{Confusing|date=March 2024}}
{{Overly detailed|date=March 2024}}
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{{Infobox Chinese
| title = Tian
| pic = 天-bronze-shang.svg
| piccap = Chinese [[Bronze script]] character for Tian.
| picsize = 200px
| c = 天
| l = heaven, nature
| p = tiān
| w = t'ien<sup>1</sup>
| bpmf = ㄊㄧㄢ
| mc = tʰen
| j = tin1
| y = tīn
| ci = {{IPAc-yue|t|in|1}}
| gan = tien<sup>1</sup>
| oc-zz = /*qʰl'iːn/
| poj = thiⁿ
| wuu = thi (T1)
| mi = {{IPA|cmn|tʰi̯ɛn|}}
| altname = 
| kanji = 天
| kana = てん
| romaji = ten
| qn = thiên
| chuhan = 天
| hangul = 천
| hanja = 天
| rr = cheon
}}
{{Chinese folk religion}}
'''Tian''' ({{lang|zh|天}}) is one of the oldest Chinese terms for [[heaven]] and a key concept in [[Chinese mythology]], [[Chinese philosophy|philosophy]], and [[Chinese folk religion|religion]]. During the [[Shang dynasty]] (17th―11th century BCE), the Chinese referred to their highest god as ''[[Shangdi]]'' or ''Di'' ({{lang|zh|帝}}, 'Lord').<ref>{{Cite web |last=Stefon |first=Matt |date=2010-02-03 |title=Shangdi |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shangdi |access-date=2023-05-01 |publisher=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] |language=en}}</ref> During the following [[Zhou dynasty]], Tian became synonymous with this figure. Before the 20th century, worship of Tian was an orthodox [[state religion]] of China.{{Explain|reason=How did it change over the years?|date=April 2023}}

In [[Taoism]] and [[Confucianism]], Tian (the celestial aspect of the [[cosmos]], often translated as "[[Heaven]]") is mentioned in relationship to its complementary aspect of ''[[Dì]]'' ({{lang|zh|[[地]]}}, often translated as "[[Earth]]").<ref>{{cite book|last1=Woodhead|first1=Linda|last2=Partridge|first2=Christopher|last3=Kawanami|first3=Hiroko|title=Religions in the Modern World|date=2016|publisher=[[Routledge]]|location=New York, NY|isbn=978-0-415-85881-6|pages=147–148|edition=Third}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite book |title=World Scripture: A Comparative Anthology of Sacred Texts |publisher=[[Paragon House|Paragon House Publishers]] |year=1995 |isbn=978-1-55778-723-1 |editor-last=Wilson |editor-first=Andrew |edition=1st paperback |location=St. Paul, Minnesota |page=19}}</ref> They are thought to maintain the two poles of the [[Trailokya|Three Realms]] of reality, with the middle realm occupied by Humanity ({{lang|zh|人}}, {{Transliteration|zh|pinyin|rén}}), and the lower world occupied by demons ({{lang|zh|魔}}, {{Transliteration|zh|pinyin|mó}}) and "ghosts", the damned, ({{lang|zh|鬼}}, {{Transliteration|zh|pinyin|guǐ}}).<ref name="Woolf2007">{{cite book|first=Greg|last=Woolf|title=Ancient civilizations: the illustrated guide to belief, mythology, and art|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=94NuSg3tlsgC&q=Heaven+earth+humankind+universe+three+realms+saturn|year=2007|publisher=[[Barnes & Noble]]|isbn=978-1-4351-0121-0|page=212}}</ref> Tian was variously thought of as a "supreme power reigning over lesser gods and human beings"<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":024">{{Cite book |last=Harari |first=Yuval Noah |title=Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind |publisher=Penguin Random House UK |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-09-959008-8 |location=London |page=219 |translator-last=Harari |translator-first=Yuval Noah |oclc=910498369 |author-link=Yuval Noah Harari |translator-last2=Purcell |translator-first2=John |translator-last3=Watzman |translator-first3=Haim |translator-link=Yuval Noah Harari |translator-link3=Haim Watzman}}</ref> that brought "order and calm... or catastrophe and punishment",<ref name=":05">{{Cite book |last=Storm |first=Rachel |title=Myths & Legends of India, Egypt, China & Japan |publisher=Lorenz Books |year=2011 |editor-last=Sudell |editor-first=Helen |edition=2nd |location=Wigston, Leicestershire |page=233}}</ref> a deity,<ref name=":10027">{{Cite book |title=World Religions: Eastern Traditions |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |editor=Willard Gurdon Oxtoby |year=2002 |isbn=0-19-541521-3 |edition=2nd |location=Don Mills, Ontario |page=424 |oclc=46661540}}</ref>{{sfn|Carrasco|Warmind|Hawley|Reynolds|1999|pp=|p=1096}} [[destiny]],{{sfn|Carrasco|Warmind|Hawley|Reynolds|1999|pp=|p=1096}}<ref name=":05" /> an impersonal force that controls events,<ref name=":0" />{{sfn|Carrasco|Warmind|Hawley|Reynolds|1999|pp=|p=1096}} a holy world or [[afterlife]] containing other worlds or afterlives,<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=xian |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/xian-Daoism |access-date=2023-04-29 |publisher=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last1=Carlson |first1=Kathie |title=The Book of Symbols: Reflections on Archetypal Images |last2=Flanagin |first2=Michael N. |last3=Martin |first3=Kathleen |last4=Martin |first4=Mary E. |last5=Mendelsohn |first5=John |last6=Rodgers |first6=Priscilla Young |last7=Ronnberg |first7=Ami |last8=Salman |first8=Sherry |last9=Wesley |first9=Deborah A. |publisher=[[Taschen]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-3-8365-1448-4 |editor-last=Arm |editor-first=Karen |location=Köln |page=280 |editor-last2=Ueda |editor-first2=Kako |editor-last3=Thulin |editor-first3=Anne |editor-last4=Langerak |editor-first4=Allison |editor-last5=Kiley |editor-first5=Timothy Gus |editor-last6=Wolff |editor-first6=Mary}}</ref> or one or more of these.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=tian |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/tian |access-date=2023-04-28 |publisher=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] |language=en}}</ref>

==Characters==
[[File:天-seal.svg|thumb|right|Chinese [[Seal script]] for Tian {{lang|zh|天}} 'heaven']]
[[File:天-oracle.svg|thumb|right|Chinese [[Oracle script]] for Tian {{lang|zh|天}} 'heaven']]
The modern [[Chinese character]] {{linktext|lang=zh|天}} and early [[seal script]] both combine {{Transliteration|zh|pinyin|dà}} {{linktext|lang=zh|大}} {{gloss|great; large}} and {{Transliteration|zh|pinyin|yī}} {{linktext|lang=zh|一}} {{gloss|one}}, but some of the original characters in Shāng [[oracle bone script]] and Zhōu  [[bronzeware script]] anthropomorphically portray a large head on a great person. The ancient oracle and bronze [[ideograms]] for {{Transliteration|zh|pinyin|dà}} {{lang|zh|大}} depict a [[stick figure]] person with arms stretched out denoting "great; large". The oracle and bronze characters for Tian {{lang|zh|天}} emphasize the cranium of this 'great (person)', either with a square or round head, or head marked with one or two lines. Schuessler notes the bronze graphs for Tian, showing a person with a round head, resemble those for {{Transliteration|zh|pinyin|dīng}} {{linktext|lang=zh|丁}} "4th [[Celestial stem]]", and suggests "The anthropomorphic graph may or may not indicate that the original meaning was 'deity', rather than 'sky'."<ref name="harvp|Schuessler|2007|p=495">{{harvp|Schuessler|2007|p=495}}</ref>

Two [[variant Chinese character]]s for {{lang|zh|天}} are {{linktext|lang=zh|二人}} (written with {{linktext|lang=zh|二}} {{Transliteration|zh|pinyin|èr}} 'two' and {{linktext|lang=zh|人}} {{Transliteration|zh|pinyin|rén}} 'human') and the [[Daoist]] coinage {{linktext|lang=zh|靝}}{{sfn|Carrasco|Warmind|Hawley|Reynolds|1999|p=1068}} (with {{linktext|lang=zh|青}} {{Transliteration|zh|pinyin|qīng}} 'blue' and {{linktext|lang=zh|氣}} '[[qi]]', cf. 'blue sky').

==Etymology==
Tian {{lang|zh|天}} reconstructions in [[Middle Chinese]] ({{Circa|6th}}–10th centuries CE) include ''t'ien'',<ref name="ReferenceA">{{harvp|Karlgren|1922}}{{pages needed |date=August 2022}}</ref> ''t'iɛn'',<ref>{{harvp|Zhou |1972}}{{pages needed |date=August 2022}}</ref> ''tʰɛn'' > ''tʰian'',<ref>{{harvp|Pulleyblank |1991}}{{pages needed |date=August 2022}}</ref> and ''then''.<ref>{{harvp|Baxter |1992 }}{{pages needed |date=August 2022}}, {{harvp|Baxter|Sagart|2014}}{{pages needed |date=August 2022}}</ref> Reconstructions in [[Old Chinese]] ({{Circa|6th}}–3rd centuries BCE) include *''t'ien'',<ref name="ReferenceA"/> *''t'en'',<ref>{{harvp|Zhou|1972}}{{pages needed |date=August 2022}}</ref> *''hlin'',<ref>{{harvp|Baxter|1992}}{{pages needed |date=August 2022}}</ref>  *''thîn'',<ref>{{harvp|Schuessler|2007}}{{pages needed |date=August 2022}}</ref> and *''l̥ˤin''.<ref>{{harvp|Baxter| Sagart|2014}}{{pages needed |date=August 2022}}</ref>

For the etymology of Tian, Schuessler links it with the [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] [[Mongolian language|and Mongolian]] word ''[[tengri]]'' 'sky', 'heaven', 'deity' or the [[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burman]] words ''taleŋ'' ([[Adi people|Adi]]) and ''tǎ-lyaŋ'' ([[Lepcha language|Lepcha]]), both meaning 'sky' or 'God'.<ref name="harvp|Schuessler|2007|p=495"/> He also suggests a likely connection between Tian, {{Transliteration|zh|pinyin|diān}} {{lang|zh|巔}} 'summit, mountaintop', and {{Transliteration|zh|pinyin|diān}} {{lang|zh|顛}} 'summit', 'top of the head', 'forehead', which have cognates such as [[Zemeic languages|Zemeic]] [[Naga languages|Naga]] ''tiŋ'' 'sky'.<ref>{{harvp|Schuessler|2007|p=211}}; [https://stedt.berkeley.edu/~stedt-cgi/rootcanal.pl/etymon/6312 #6312 NEIA *t(s)iŋ celestial / sky / weath (provisional)] at Sino-Tibetan Etymological Dictionary and Thesaurus</ref> However, other reconstructions of {{lang|zh|天}}'s OC pronunciation *''qʰl'iːn'' <ref>{{harvp|Zhengzhang|2003}}</ref> or *''l̥ˤi[n]'' <ref>{{harvp|Baxter|Sagart|2011|p=110}}</ref> reconstructed a voiceless lateral onset, either a cluster or a single consonant, respectively. Baxter & Sagart pointed to attested dialectal differences in [[Eastern Han Chinese]], the use of {{lang|zh|天}} as a phonetic component in [[Chinese character classification#Phono-semantic compounds|phono-semantic compound Chinese characters]], and the choice of {{lang|zh|天}} to transcribe foreign syllables, all of which prompted them to conclude that, around 200 CE, {{lang|zh|天}}'s onset had two pronunciations: [[Coronal consonants|coronal]] *''[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives#Varieties|tʰ]]'' and [[Dorsal consonants|dorsal]] *''[[Voiceless velar fricative|x]]'', both of which likely originated from an earlier voiceless lateral *''l̥ˤ''.<ref>{{harvp|Baxter|Sagart|2014|pp=113-114}}</ref> Further etymology is unknown. It is proposed that transcriptions of a [[Xiongnu]] word for "sky", ''haak-lin'' {{wikt-lang|zh|赫連}}, is related.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Sanping |title=Sino-Tokharico-Altaica — Two Linguistic Notes |journal=Central Asiatic Journal |date=1998 |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=24–43 |jstor=41928134 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41928134 |issn=0008-9192}}</ref>

===Compounds===
Tian is one of the components in hundreds of Chinese [[compound (linguistics)|compounds]]. Some significant ones include:
* [[Mandate of Heaven]]
*[[Heavenly Questions]], a section of the ''[[Chu Ci]]''.
*{{Transliteration|zh|pinyin|Tiānzǐ}} ({{lang|zh|天子}} '[[Emperor of China|Son of Heaven]]'), an honorific designation for the Emperor;
*[[All under heaven]]
*{{Transliteration|zh|pinyin|Tiāndì}} ({{lang|zh|天地}}, {{lit|heaven and earth}}) 'the world; the universe'.
*[[Xingtian]]
*{{Transliteration|zh|pinyin|Tiānfáng}} ({{lang|zh|天房}}, {{lit.|House of Heaven}}, a Chinese name for the [[Kaaba]], from ''Bayt Allah'' ({{langx|ar|بَيْت ٱللَّٰه|lit=House of God}}).

==Chinese interpretations==
{{More citations needed section|date=November 2012}}
"Lord Heaven" and "[[Jade Emperor]]" were terms for a supreme deity in Confucianism and Taoism who was an [[Anthropomorphism|anthropromorphized]] Tian,<ref name=":10026">{{Cite book |title=World Religions: Eastern Traditions |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |editor=Willard Gurdon Oxtoby |year=2002 |isbn=0-19-541521-3 |edition=2nd |location=Don Mills, Ontario |pages=326, 393, 401 |oclc=46661540}}</ref> and some conceptions of it thought of the names as synonymous.

Tian was viewed as "the dwelling place of [[Chinese gods and immortals|gods]] and other superhuman beings".<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Zaleski |first=Carol |author-link=Carol Zaleski |date=2023-05-12 |title=Heaven |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/heaven |access-date=2023-05-15 |publisher=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] |language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Carrasco|Warmind|Hawley|Reynolds|1999|pp=|p=1096}} It was also viewed as "the guardian of both the moral laws of mankind and the physical laws of nature...and is synonymous with the divine will."{{sfn|Carrasco|Warmind|Hawley|Reynolds|1999|pp=|p=1096}}

In Chinese culture, heaven tends to be "synonymous with order", "containing the blueprints for creation", "the [[Mandate of Heaven|mandate by which earthly rulers govern]], and the standards by which to measure beauty, goodness, and truth."<ref name=":2" />

Zhou dynasty nobles made the worship of heaven a major part of their [[political philosophy]] and viewed it as "many gods" who embodied order and kingship, as well as the [[Mandate of Heaven|mandate of heaven]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Pearson |first1=Patricia O'Connell |title=World History: Our Human Story |last2=Holdren |first2=John |date=May 2021 |publisher=Sheridan Kentucky |isbn=978-1-60153-123-0 |location=Versailles, Kentucky |page=98}}</ref>

=== Confucianism ===
"Confucianism has a religious side with a deep reverence for Heaven and Earth ([[Di (Chinese concept)|Di]]), whose powers regulate the flow of nature and influence human events."<ref name=":9" /> [[Yin and yang]] are also thought to be integral to this relationship and permeate both, as well as humans and man-made constructs.<ref name=":9" /> This "cosmos" and its "principles" is something that "[t]he ways of man should conform to, or else" frustration will result.<ref name=":9" />{{long quote|date=March 2024}}

Many Confucianists, both historically and in current times, use the ''I Ching'' to [[Divination|divine]] events through the changes of Tian and other natural forces.<ref name=":9" /> Historical and current Confucianists were/are often environmentalists<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=Tucker |first=Mary Evelyn |author-link=Mary Evelyn Tucker |date=1998 |title=Confucianism and Ecology: Potential and Limits |url=https://fore.yale.edu/Publications/Books/Religions-World-and-Ecology-Book-Series/Confucianism-Table-Contents/Confucianism |access-date=2023-04-29 |website=The Forum on Religion and Ecology at Yale |publisher=[[Yale University]]}}</ref> out of their respect for Heaven and the other aspects of nature and the principle that comes from their unity and, more generally, harmony as a whole, which is "the basis for a sincere mind."<ref name=":9" /> The [[Emperor of China]] as ''Tianzi'' was formerly vital to Confucianism.<ref name=":05" />

[[Mount Tai]] is seen as a sacred place in Confucianism and was traditionally the most revered place where [[Chinese emperors]] offered sacrifices to Heaven and Earth.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Spectacular China |publisher=Könemann |year=1999 |isbn=978-3-8290-1077-1 |editor-last=Guangwei |editor-first=He |location=Cologne |page=42 |translator-last=Wusun |translator-first=Lin |editor-last2=Hualing |editor-first2=Tong |editor-last3=Wenzhen |editor-first3=Yang |editor-last4=Zhenguo |editor-first4=Chang |editor-last5=Zeru |editor-first5=Li |editor-last6=Ruicheng |editor-first6=Dong |editor-last7=Weijan |editor-first7=Gong |translator-last2=Zhongping |translator-first2=Wu}}</ref>

==== Confucius ====
The concept of Tian is pervasive in [[Confucianism]]. Confucius had a deep trust in Heaven and believed that Heaven overruled human efforts. He also believed that he was carrying out the will of Heaven, and that Heaven would not allow its servant, Confucius, to be dead until his work was done and complete.<ref>Analects 7.23</ref>  Many attributes of Heaven were delineated in his ''[[Analects]]''.

Confucius honored Heaven as the supreme source of goodness:
<blockquote>The Master said, "Great indeed was Yao as a sovereign! How majestic was he! It is only Heaven that is grand, and only Yao corresponded to it. How vast was his virtue! The people could find no name for it. How majestic was he in the works which he accomplished! How glorious in the elegant regulations which he instituted!"<ref>{{harvp|Confucius|Legge|1893|loc=p.214, VIII, xix}}</ref></blockquote>
Confucius felt himself personally dependent upon Heaven: "Wherein I have done improperly, may Heaven reject me! may Heaven reject me!"<ref>{{harvp|Confucius|Legge|1893|loc=p.193, VI, xxviii}}</ref>

Confucius believed that Heaven cannot be deceived:
<blockquote> The Master being very ill, Zi Lu wished the disciples to act as ministers to him. During a remission of his illness, he said, "Long has the conduct of You been deceitful! By pretending to have ministers when I have them not, whom should I impose upon? Should I impose upon Heaven? Moreover, than that I should die in the hands of ministers, is it not better that I should die in the hands of you, my disciples? And though I may not get a great burial, shall I die upon the road?"<ref>{{harvp|Confucius|Legge|1893|loc=pp. 220-221, IX, xi}}</ref> </blockquote>

Confucius believed that Heaven gives people tasks to perform to teach them of virtues and morality:
<blockquote>The Master said, "At fifteen, I had my mind bent on learning. At thirty, I stood firm. At forty, I had no doubts. At fifty, I knew the decrees of Heaven. At sixty, my ear was an obedient organ for the reception of truth. At seventy, I could follow what my heart desired, without transgressing what was right."<ref>{{harvp|Confucius|Legge|1893|loc=p.146, book II, chapter iv }}</ref> </blockquote>

He believed that Heaven knew what he was doing and approved of him, even though none of the rulers on earth might want him as a guide:
<blockquote>The Master said, "Alas! there is no one that knows me." Zi Gong said, "What do you mean by thus saying - that no one knows you?" The Master replied, "I do not murmur against Heaven. I do not grumble against men. My studies lie low, and my penetration rises high. But there is Heaven - that knows me!" <ref>{{harvp|Confucius|Legge|1893|loc=288-9, XIV, xxxv}}</ref></blockquote>

Perhaps the most remarkable saying, recorded twice, is one in which Confucius expresses complete trust in the overruling providence of Heaven:
<blockquote>The Master was put in fear in Kuang. He said, "After the death of King Wen, was not the cause of truth lodged here in me? If Heaven had wished to let this cause of truth perish, then I, a future mortal, should not have got such a relation to that cause. While Heaven does not let the cause of truth perish, what can the people of Kuang do to me?" <ref>{{harvp|Confucius|Legge|1893|loc=217-8, 9.5 and 7.12}}</ref> </blockquote>

===Mozi===
For [[Mozi]], Heaven is the divine ruler, just as the [[Son of Heaven]] is the earthly ruler. Mozi believed that spirits and minor demons exist or at least rituals should be performed as if they did for social reasons, but their function is to carry out the will of Heaven, watching for evil-doers and punishing them. Mozi taught that Heaven loves all people equally and that each person should similarly love all human beings without distinguishing between his own relatives and those of others.<ref>{{harvp|Dubs|1960|pp=163-172}}</ref> Mozi criticized the Confucians of his own time for not following the teachings of Confucius.  In Mozi's ''Will of Heaven'' ({{lang|zh|天志}}), he writes:
<blockquote>Moreover, I know Heaven loves men dearly not without reason. Heaven ordered the sun, the moon, and the stars to enlighten and guide them. Heaven ordained the four seasons, Spring, Autumn, Winter, and Summer, to regulate them. Heaven sent down snow, frost, rain, and dew to grow the five grains and flax and silk that so the people could use and enjoy them. Heaven established the hills and rivers, ravines and valleys, and arranged many things to minister to man's good or bring him evil. He appointed the dukes and lords to reward the virtuous and punish the wicked, and to gather metal and wood, birds and beasts, and to engage in cultivating the five grains and flax and silk to provide for the people's food and clothing. This has been so from antiquity to the present."<ref>{{harvp|Mozi|Mei|1929|loc=p. [https://ctext.org/mozi/will-of-heaven-ii 145]}}</ref></blockquote>

===Schools of cosmology===
{{further|Chinese astronomy#Cosmology}}

There are three major schools on the structure of Tian.{{Explain|reason=What is the relation between old Chinese scientific cosmology and thoughts on tian?|date=April 2023}} Most other hypotheses were developed from them.
*''Gaitian shuo'' ({{lang|zh|蓋天說}}) "Canopy-Heavens hypothesis" originated from the text [[Zhoubi Suanjing]]. The earth is covered by a material Tian.
*''Huntian shuo'' ({{lang|zh|渾天說}}) "Egg-like hypothesis". The earth surrounded by a Tian sphere rotating over it. The celestial bodies are attached to the Tian sphere. (See {{section link|Zhang Heng|Astronomy and mathematics}}, [[Chinese creation myth]].)
*''Xuanye shuo'' ({{lang|zh|宣夜說}}) "Firmament hypothesis". The Tian is an infinite space. The celestial bodies were light matters floating on it moved by ''[[Qi]]''. A summary by Ji Meng ({{lang|zh|郗萌}}) is in the astronomical chapters of the [[Book of Jin]].

Tian schools influenced popular conception of the [[universe]] and earth until the [[17th century]], when they were replaced by cosmological concepts imported from [[Europe]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |last=Liu |first=Shu-Chiu |date=2006-12-11 |title=Three early Chinese models |url=https://www.eduhk.hk/apfslt/v7_issue2/liusc/lisc5.htm |website=Asia-Pacific Forum on Science, Learning, and Teaching |series=Historical models and science instruction: A cross-cultural analysis based on students' views |publisher=[[Education University of Hong Kong]]}}</ref>

Sometimes the sky is divided into ''Jiutian'' ({{lang|zh|九天}}) 'nine sky divisions'—the middle sky and the eight directions.

===Buddhism===
The Tian are the [[Trāyastriṃśa|heaven worlds]] and [[pure land]]s in [[Buddhist cosmology]].

Some [[deva (Buddhism)|deva]]s are also called Tian.

===Taoism===
The number of vertical heaven layers in Taoism is different. A common belief in Taoism is that there were 36 Tian "arranged on six levels" that have "different deities".<ref name=":05" /> The highest heaven is the "Great Web" which was sometimes said to be where [[Yuanshi Tianzun]] lived.<ref name=":05" />

After death, some Taoists were thought to explore "heavenly realms" and/or become [[Xian (Taoism)|Taoist immortals]].<ref name=":1" />{{sfn|Carrasco|Warmind|Hawley|Reynolds|1999|p=473}} These immortals could be good or evil,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Helle |first=Horst J. |author-link=Horst Helle |date=2017 |chapter=Daoism: China's Native Religion |title=China: Promise or Threat?: A Comparison of Cultures |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |pages=75–76|jstor=10.1163/j.ctt1w8h29s.12 |jstor-access=free}}</ref> and there were sometimes rivalries between them.

Some heavens in Taoism were thought to be evil, as in [[Shangqing School|Shangqing Daoism]],{{sfn|Carrasco|Warmind|Hawley|Reynolds|1999|pp=|p=691}} although Tian was mostly thought of as a force for good.<ref name=":04">{{Cite book |last=Dell |first=Christopher |title=Mythology: The Complete Guide to our Imagined Worlds |publisher=[[Thames & Hudson]] |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-500-51615-7 |location=New York |page=38}}</ref>

Heaven is sometimes seen as synonymous with the Dao or a natural energy that can be accessed by living in accordance with the Dao.<ref name=":2" />

A [[Tao]] realm inconceivable and incomprehensible by normal humans and even Confucius and [[Confucianism|Confucianists]]<ref>{{Cite book |title=World Scripture: A Comparative Anthology of Sacred Texts |publisher=[[Paragon House|Paragon House Publishers]] |year=1995 |isbn=978-1-55778-723-1 |editor-last=Wilson |editor-first=Andrew |edition=1st paperback |location=St. Paul, Minnesota |pages=467–468}}</ref> was sometimes called "the Heavens".<ref name=":13">{{Cite book |last=Minford |first=John |title=Tao Te Ching: The Essential Translation of the Ancient Chinese Book of the Tao |publisher=[[Viking Press]] |year=2018 |isbn=978-0-670-02498-8 |location=New York |pages=ix-x |language=en-US |author-link=John Minford}}</ref> Higher, spiritual versions of Daoists such as Laozi were thought to exist in there when they were alive and absorb "the purest [[Yin and yang|Yin and Yang]]",<ref name=":13" /> as well as ''xian'' who were reborn into it after their human selves' spirits were sent there. These spiritual versions were thought to be abstract beings that can manifest in that world as mythical beings such as [[Chinese dragon|dragons]] who eat yin and yang energy and ride [[cloud]]s and their [[qi]].<ref name=":13" />

=== Chinese folk religion ===
Some Tian in Chinese folk religion were thought to be many different or a hierarchy of multiple, sphere-like<ref name=":4" /> realms that contained morally ambiguous creatures and spirits such as [[fox spirit]]s<ref name=":3" /> and fire-breathing [[Chinese dragon|dragons]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hua |first=Sara Lynn |date=2016-06-28 |title=Difference Between A Chinese Dragon and A Western Dragon |url=https://blog.tutorabcchinese.com/expats/chinese-dragon-western-difference-lucky |access-date=2023-05-18 |website=TutorABC Chinese China Expats & Culture Blog |language=en}}</ref>

The Tao realm was thought to exist by many ancient folk religion practitioners.<ref name=":13" />

===Ahom religion===
[[Ahom religion]] ethnically originated from [[Dai people]] of [[Yunnan]] in [[Southwest China]] has a concept of Mong Phi (Heavenly Kingdom) which is often identified as Tian.<ref>"Heaven is here Tien a part Yunnan In Southwest China." {{cite book | last = Gogoi|page = 14| first = Padmeshwar| title = Tai Ahom Religion and Customs| publisher = Publication Board, Gauhati, Assam | year = 1976| url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.99476 }}</ref>

===Yiguandao===
In [[Yiguandao]], Tian is divided into three vertical worlds. ''Li Tian'' ({{lang|zh|理天}}) 'heaven of truth', ''Qi Tian'' ({{lang|zh|氣天}}) 'heaven of spirit' and ''Xiang Tian'' ({{lang|zh|象天}}) 'heaven of matter'.

== Japanese interpretations ==
In some cases, the heavens in [[Shinto]] were thought to be a hierarchy of multiple, sphere-like realms that contained [[kami]] such as [[fox spirit]]s''.''<ref name=":3" />

Myths about the kami were told "of their doings on Earth and in heaven."<ref name=":102">{{Cite book |last=Stevenson |first=Jay |title=The Complete Idiot's Guide to Eastern Philosophy |publisher=[[Alpha Books]] |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-02-863820-1 |location=Indianapolis |page=170 |language=en-US}}</ref> [[Takamagahara|Heaven]] was thought to be a clean and orderly place for nature [[Deity|gods]] in Shinto.<ref name=":102" />

==Interpretation by Western sinologists==
The sinologist [[Herrlee Creel]], who wrote a comprehensive study called "The Origin of the Deity T'ien", gives this overview.

{{blockquote |For three thousand years it has been believed that from time immemorial all Chinese revered T'ien {{lang|zh|天}}, "Heaven," as the highest deity, and that this same deity was also known as [[Shangdi]], Ti {{lang|zh|帝}}, or Shang Ti {{lang|zh|上帝}}. But the new materials that have become available in the present century, and especially the Shang inscriptions, make it evident that this was not the case. It appears rather that T'ien is not named at all in the Shang inscriptions, which instead refer with great frequency to Ti or Shang Ti.  T'ien appears only with the Chou, and was apparently a Chou deity. After the conquest the Chou considered T'ien to be identical with the Shang deity Ti (or Shang Ti), much as the Romans identified the Greek [[Zeus]] with their [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]].<ref>{{harvp|Creel|1970|p=493}}</ref>}}

Creel refers to the historical shift in ancient Chinese names for 'god' from Shang oracles that frequently used ''Di'' and ''Shangdi'' and rarely used "Tian", to Zhou bronzes and texts that used "Tian" more frequently than ''Shangdi''. The  chapter "Tang Shi" ({{lang|zh|湯誓}} 'Tang's speech') illustrates how early Zhou texts used Tian in contexts with ''Shangdi''.  According to tradition, [[Tang of Shang]] assembled his subjects to overthrow King [[Jie of Xia]], the infamous last ruler of the Xia Dynasty, but they were reluctant to attack.

{{blockquote |The king said, "Come, ye multitudes of the people, listen all to my words. It is not I, the little child &#91;a humble name used by kings], who dare to undertake ''what may seem to be'' a rebellious enterprise; but for the many crimes of the sovereign of Hsiâ &#91;Xia&#93; Heaven has given the charge &#91;...&#93; to destroy him.  Now, ye multitudes, you are saying, 'Our prince does not compassionate us, but (is calling us) away from our husbandry to attack and punish ''the ruler of'' Hsiâ.' I have indeed heard ''these'' words of you all; ''but'' the sovereign of Hsiâ is an offender, and, ''as'' I fear God &#91;''shangdi''&#93;, I dare not but punish him. Now you are saying, 'What are the crimes of Hsiâ to us?' The king of Hsiâ does nothing but exhaust the strength of his people, and exercise oppression in the cities of Hsiâ.  His people have all become idle ''in his service'', and will not assist him. They are saying, 'When will this sun expire? We will all perish with thee.' Such is the course of ''the sovereign of'' Hsiâ, and now I must go ''and punish him''. Assist, I pray you, me, the one man, to carry out the punishment appointed by Heaven &#91;''tian''&#93;. I will greatly reward you. On no account disbelieve me; — I will not eat my words. If you do not obey the words which I have spoken to you, I will put your children with you to death; — you shall find no forgiveness."<ref>{{harvp|Legge|1865|pp=173–5}}</ref>}}

Having established that Tian was not a deity of the Shang people, Creel proposes a hypothesis for how it originated. Both the Shang and Zhou peoples pictographically represented ''da'' {{lang|zh|大}} as 'a large or great man'. The Zhou subsequently added a head on him to denote ''tian'' {{lang|zh|天}} meaning 'king, kings' (cf. ''wang'' {{linktext|lang=zh|王}} 'king', 'ruler', which had oracle graphs picturing a line under a 'great person' and bronze graphs that added the top line). From 'king', Tian was semantically extended to mean 'dead kings', 'ancestral kings', who controlled 'fate; providence', and ultimately a single omnipotent deity ''Tian'' 'Heaven'. In addition, Tian named both 'the heavens' (where ancestral kings and gods supposedly lived) and the visible 'sky'.<ref>{{harvp|Creel|1970|pp=501–6}}</ref>

Another possibility is that Tian may be related to [[Tengri]], hinting at an ultimate origin as a loan word from a prehistoric Central Asian language that contributed to the creation of the word.<ref>{{harvp|Müller|1870}}{{pages needed|date=August 2022}}</ref>

[[Kelly James Clark]] argued that Confucius himself saw Tian as an anthropomorphic god that Clark hypothetically refers to as 'Heavenly Supreme Emperor', although most other scholars on Confucianism disagree with this view.<ref name=":03">{{Cite book |title=Classical Theism: New Essays on the Metaphysics of God |date=2023-02-10 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |editor=Jonathan Fuqua |editor2=Robert C. Koons |isbn=978-1-000-83688-2 |chapter=Searching for the Ineffable: Classical Theism and Eastern Thought about God<!-- pageno unknown -- info is from the e-book--> |oclc=1353836889}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Amenominakanushi]] – the Japanese concept of God as the ultimate creator
* [[Haneullim]] – the Sky God of [[Cheondoism]] 
* [[Hongjun Laozu]]
* [[Shen (Chinese religion)|Shen]] 
* [[Taiyi Tianzun]]
* [[Tengri]]

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite book |last=Baxter |first=William H. |title=A Handbook of Old Chinese Phonology |publisher=Mouton de Gruyter |year=1992 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Baxter |first1=William |first2=Lauren |last2=Sagart |year=2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927141238/http://crlao.ehess.fr/docannexe.php?id=1207 |archive-date=27 September 2013 |url=http://crlao.ehess.fr/docannexe.php?id=1207 |title=Baxter–Sagart Old Chinese Reconstruction |type=pdf}}
* {{cite book |last1=Baxter |first1=William |first2=Lauren |last2=Sagart |year=2014 |title=Old Chinese: A New Reconstruction |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=113–114 |url=https://ocbaxtersagart.lsait.lsa.umich.edu/BaxterSagartOCbyMandarinMC2014-09-20.pdf}} Supplemental materials available at [http://ocbaxtersagart.lsait.lsa.umich.edu/ their webpage].
* {{cite book |last1=Carrasco |first1=David |title=Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions |last2=Warmind |first2=Morten |last3=Hawley |first3=John Stratton |last4=Reynolds |first4=Frank |last5=Giarardot |first5=Norman |last6=Neusner |first6=Jacob |last7=Pelikan |first7=Jaroslav |last8=Campo |first8=Juan |last9=Penner |first9=Hans |publisher=[[Merriam-Webster]] |editor=[[Wendy Doniger]] |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-87779-044-0 |location=United States |language=en |author-link=David Carrasco |author-link4=Frank Reynolds (academic) |author-link6=Jacob Neusner |author-link7=Jaroslav Pelikan}}
* {{cite journal |last=Chang |first=Ruth H. |year=2000 |title=Understanding ''Di'' and ''Tian'': Deity and Heaven From Shang to Tang |journal=Sino-Platonic Papers |volume=108 |pages=1–54}}
* {{cite book |last=Creel |first=Herrlee G. |year=1970 |title=The Origins of Statecraft in China |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |isbn=0-226-12043-0}}
* {{cite journal |last=Dubs |first=Homer H. |year=1960 |title=Theism and Naturalism in Ancient Chinese Philosophy |journal=Philosophy East and West |volume=9 |issue=3–4 |pages=163–172|doi=10.2307/1397096 |jstor=1397096 }}
* {{cite book |last=Feng |first=Yu-Lan |year=1952 |title=A History of Chinese Philosophy, Vol. I. The Period of the Philosophers |translator-first=Derk |translator-last=Bodde |publisher=Princeton University Press}}
*{{cite journal |last=Karlgren |first=Bernhard |title=The reconstruction of Ancient Chinese |journal=T'oung Pao |year=1922 |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=1–42 |url=https://archive.org/stream/s2tungpaotoungp21corduoft#page/iv/mode/2up |doi=10.1163/156853222X00015}}
* {{cite book |translator-last=Legge |translator-first=James |year=1865 |title=The Chinese Classics, Vol. III, The Shoo King |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://archive.org/details/chineseclassics31legg/ |via=Internet Archive |ref={{harvid|Legge|1865}}}}
* {{cite book |author=Confucius |author-link=Confucius |translator-last=Legge |translator-first=James |year=1893 |title=The Chinese Classics, Vol. I, The Confucian Analects, the Great Learning, and the Doctrine of the Mean |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://archive.org/details/chineseclassics01legg/ |via=Internet Archive |ref={{harvid|Confucius|Legge|1893}}}}
* {{cite book |author=Mozi |author-link=Mozi |translator-first=Y. P. |translator-last=Mei |year=1929 |title=The Ethical and Political Works of Motse |location=London |publisher=Probsthain |ref={{harvid|Mozi|Mei|1929}}}}  
* {{cite book |last=Müller |first=Friedrich Max |year=1870 |url=https://archive.org/details/lecturesonscienc00mlle |title=Lectures on the Science of Religion|publisher=New York, C. Scribner and company }}
*{{cite book |first=Edwin G. |last=Pulleyblank |title=A Lexicon of Reconstructed Pronunciation in Early Middle Chinese, Late Middle Chinese and Early Mandarin |location=Vancouver, BC |publisher=UBC Press |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-7748-0366-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Schuessler |first=Axel |year=2007 |title=ABC Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese |publisher=University of Hawaii Press}}
* {{cite book |author-link=Zhengzhang Shangfang |last=Zhengzhang |first=Shangfang 鄭張尚芳 |script-title=zh:上古音系 |trans-title=Ancient Phonology |date=2003 |publisher=Shanghai Education Press}}
* {{cite journal |last=Zhou |first=Fagao 周法高 |year=1972 |title=Shanggu Hanyu he Han-Zangyu |script-title=zh:上古漢語和漢藏語 |trans-title=Ancient Chinese and Sino-Tibetan Languages |journal=Journal of the Institute of Chinese Studies of the Chinese University of Hong Kong |volume=5 |pages=159–244 |language=zh}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Wiktionary|天}}
*[http://www.internationalscientific.org/CharacterASP/CharacterEtymology.aspx?characterInput=%E5%A4%A9+&submitButton1=Etymology Oracle, Bronze, and Seal characters for 天], Richard Sears

{{Chinese mythology}}
{{Chinese philosophy}}
{{Theology}}
{{Names of God}}
{{Religious Confucianism}}

[[Category:Chinese gods]]
[[Category:Locations in Chinese mythology]]
[[Category:Conceptions of God]]
[[Category:Religious Confucianism]]
[[Category:East Asian traditional religion]]
[[Category:Heaven]]
[[Category:Names of God]]
[[Category:Sky and weather gods]]
[[Category:Taoist cosmology]]
[[Category:Relationship between Heaven and Mankind]]
[[Category:Deities in Chinese folk religion]]
[[Category:Kyōiku kanji]]
[[Category:Concepts in Chinese philosophy]]