Editing Timeline of classical mechanics

{{short description|None}}

{{Classical mechanics}}
The following is a '''timeline of the [[history of classical mechanics]]''':

==Antiquity==
* 4th century BC – [[Aristotle]] invents the system of [[Aristotelian physics]], which is later largely disproved
* 4th century BC – [[Babylonian astronomy|Babylonian astronomers]] calculate Jupiter's position using the [[Trapezoidal rule]]<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ossendrijver |first=Mathieu |date=29 Jan 2016 |title=Ancient Babylonian astronomers calculated Jupiter's position from the area under a time-velocity graph |url=https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/science.aad8085 |journal=Science |volume=351 |issue=6272 |pages=482–484 |doi=10.1126/science.aad8085 |access-date=29 January 2016|bibcode = 2016Sci...351..482O |pmid=26823423|s2cid=206644971 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
* 260 BC – [[Archimedes]] works out the principle of the [[lever]] and [[Archimedes' principle|connects buoyancy to weight]]
* 60 – [[Hero of Alexandria]] writes ''Metrica, Mechanics'' (on means to lift heavy objects), and ''Pneumatics'' (on machines working on pressure)
* 350 – [[Themistius]] states, that [[static friction]] is larger than [[kinetic friction]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Sambursky |first=Samuel |date=2014 |title=The Physical World of Late Antiquity |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=9781400858989 |pages=65–66 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yvz_AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA65}}</ref>

== Early mechanics ==
* 6th century – [[John Philoponus]] introduces the concept of [[Theory of impetus|impetus]]<ref>{{cite book|first=Richard |last=Sorabji |chapter=John Philoponus |title=Philoponus and the Rejection of Aristotelian Science |jstor=44216227 |year=2010 |edition=2nd |publisher=Institute of Classical Studies, University of London |isbn=978-1-905-67018-5 |oclc=878730683|page=47}}</ref> and the theory was modified by [[Avicenna]] in the 11th century and [[Ibn Malka al-Baghdadi]] in the 12th century
* 6th century – [[John Philoponus]] says that by observation, two balls of very different weights will fall at nearly the same speed. He therefore tests the [[equivalence principle]]
* 1021 – [[Al-Biruni]] uses three [[orthogonal]] coordinates to describe point in space<ref name="MacTutor">{{MacTutor|id=Al-Biruni|title=Al-Biruni}}: {{blockquote|"One of the most important of al-Biruni's many texts is ''Shadows'' which he is thought to have written around 1021. [...] ''Shadows'' is an extremely important source for our knowledge of the history of mathematics, astronomy, and physics. It also contains important ideas such as the idea that acceleration is connected with non-uniform motion, using three rectangular coordinates to define a point in 3-space, and ideas that some see as anticipating the introduction of polar coordinates."}}</ref>
* 1100–1138 – [[Ibn Bajjah|Avempace]] develops the concept of a fatigue, which according to Shlomo Pines is precursor to Leibnizian idea of force<ref>[[Shlomo Pines]] (1964), "La dynamique d’Ibn Bajja", in ''Mélanges Alexandre Koyré'', I, 442–468 [462, 468], Paris.
<br>(cf. Abel B. Franco (October 2003). "Avempace, Projectile Motion, and Impetus Theory", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '''64''' (4), p. 521-546 [543]: "''Pines has also seen Avempace's idea of fatigue as a precursor to the Leibnizian idea of force which, according to him, underlies Newton's third law of motion and the concept of the "reaction" of forces.''")</ref>
* 1100–1165 – [[Hibat Allah Abu'l-Barakat al-Baghdaadi]] discovers that [[force]] is proportional to acceleration rather than speed, a fundamental law in classical mechanics<ref>{{cite encyclopedia  | last = Pines  | first = Shlomo  | title = Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī, Hibat Allah  | encyclopedia = [[Dictionary of Scientific Biography]]  | volume = 1  | pages = 26–28   | publisher = Charles Scribner's Sons  | location = New York  | year = 1970  | isbn = 0-684-10114-9}}:
<br>(cf. Abel B. Franco (October 2003). "Avempace, Projectile Motion, and Impetus Theory", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '''64''' (4), p. 521-546 [528]: '' Hibat Allah Abu'l-Barakat al-Bagdadi (c.1080- after 1164/65) extrapolated the theory for the case of falling bodies in an original way in his Kitab al-Mu'tabar (The Book of that Which is Established through Personal Reflection). [...] This idea is, according to Pines, "the oldest negation of Aristotle's fundamental dynamic law [namely, that a constant force produces a uniform motion]," and is thus an "anticipation in a vague fashion of the fundamental law of classical mechanics [namely, that a force applied continuously produces acceleration]."'')</ref>

* 1340–1358 – [[Jean Buridan]] develops the [[theory of impetus]]
* 14th century – [[Oxford Calculators]] and French collaborators prove the [[mean speed theorem]]
* 14th century – [[Nicole Oresme]] derives the times-squared law for uniformly accelerated change.<ref>Clagett (1968, p. 561), Nicole Oresme and the Medieval Geometry of Qualities and Motions; a treatise on the uniformity and difformity of intensities known as Tractatus de configurationibus qualitatum et motuum. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press. {{ISBN|0-299-04880-2}}.</ref> Oresme, however, regarded this discovery as a purely intellectual exercise having no relevance to the description of any natural phenomena, and consequently failed to recognise any connection with the motion of accelerating bodies<ref>Grant, 1996, [https://books.google.com/books?id=YyvmEyX6rZgC&pg=PA103 p.103].</ref>
* 1500–1528 – [[Al-Birjandi]] develops the theory of "circular [[inertia]]" to explain [[Earth's rotation]]<ref name="Ragep">F. Jamil Ragep (2001), "Tusi and Copernicus: The Earth's Motion in Context", ''Science in Context'' '''14''' (1–2), p. 145–163. [[Cambridge University Press]].</ref>
* 16th century – [[Francesco Beato]] and [[Luca Ghini]] experimentally contradict Aristotelian view on free fall.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.scientus.org/timeline/classical-mechanics.html|title=Timeline of Classical Mechanics and Free Fall|website=www.scientus.org|access-date=2019-01-26}}</ref>
* 16th century – [[Domingo de Soto]] suggests that bodies falling through a homogeneous medium are uniformly accelerated.<ref>Sharratt, Michael (1994). Galileo: Decisive Innovator. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-56671-1}}, p. 198</ref><ref>Wallace, William A. (2004). Domingo de Soto and the Early Galileo. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing. {{ISBN|0-86078-964-0}} (pp. II 384, II 400, III 272)</ref> Soto, however, did not anticipate many of the qualifications and refinements contained in Galileo's theory of falling bodies. He did not, for instance, recognise, as Galileo did, that a body would fall with a strictly uniform acceleration only in a vacuum, and that it would otherwise eventually reach a uniform terminal velocity
* 1581 – [[Galileo Galilei]] notices the timekeeping property of the [[pendulum]]
* 1589 – Galileo Galilei uses balls rolling on inclined planes to show that different weights fall with the same acceleration
* 1638 – Galileo Galilei publishes ''[[Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences]]'' (which were [[materials science]] and [[kinematics]]) where he develops, amongst other things, [[Galilean transformation]]
* 1644 – [[René Descartes]] suggests an early form of the law of [[conservation of momentum]]
* 1645 – [[Ismaël Bullialdus]] argues that "gravity" weakens as the inverse square of the distance<ref>Ismail Bullialdus, ''Astronomia Philolaica'' … (Paris, France: Piget, 1645), [http://diglib.hab.de/drucke/2-1-4-astron-2f-1/start.htm?image=00005 page 23.]</ref>
* 1651 – [[Giovanni Battista Riccioli]] and [[Francesco Maria Grimaldi]] discover the [[Coriolis effect]]
* 1658 – [[Christiaan Huygens]] experimentally discovers that balls placed anywhere inside an inverted [[cycloid]] reach the lowest point of the 	cycloid in the same time and thereby experimentally shows that the cycloid is the [[tautochrone]]
* 1668 – [[John Wallis]] suggests the law of conservation of momentum
* 1673 – [[Christiaan Huygens]] publishes his ''[[Horologium Oscillatorium]]''. Huygens describes in this work the first two [[Newton's laws of motion|laws of motion]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Rob Iliffe & George E. Smith |title= The Cambridge Companion to Newton|date=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn= 9781107015463 |page=75}}</ref> The book is also the first modern treatise in which a physical problem (the accelerated motion of a falling body) is idealized by a set of parameters and then analyzed mathematically.
* 1676–1689 – [[Gottfried Leibniz]] develops the concept of [[vis viva]], a limited theory of [[conservation of energy]]
* 1677 – [[Baruch Spinoza]] puts forward a primitive notion of [[Newton's first law]]

==Newtonian mechanics==
* 1687 – [[Isaac Newton]] publishes his ''[[Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica]]'', in which he formulates [[Newton's laws of motion]] and [[Newton's law of universal gravitation]]
* 1690 – [[James Bernoulli]] shows that the [[cycloid]] is the solution to the tautochrone problem
* 1691 – [[Johann Bernoulli]] shows that a chain freely suspended from two points will form a [[catenary]]
* 1691 – James Bernoulli shows that the catenary curve has the lowest [[center of gravity]] of any chain hung from two fixed points
* 1696 – Johann Bernoulli shows that the cycloid is the solution to the [[brachistochrone]] problem
* 1710 – [[Jakob Hermann]] shows that [[Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector]] is conserved for a case of the inverse-square [[central force]]<ref>{{cite journal| last = Hermann | first = J | author-link = Jakob Hermann | date = 1710 | title = Unknown title | journal = Giornale de Letterati d'Italia | volume = 2 | pages = 447–467}}<br />{{cite journal| last = Hermann | first = J | author-link = Jakob Hermann | date = 1710 | title = Extrait d'une lettre de M. Herman à M. Bernoulli datée de Padoüe le 12. Juillet 1710 | journal = Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Sciences | volume = 1732 | pages = 519–521}}</ref>
* 1714 – [[Brook Taylor]] derives the [[fundamental frequency]] of a stretched vibrating string in terms of its tension and mass per unit length by solving an ordinary [[differential equation]]
* 1733 – [[Daniel Bernoulli]] derives the fundamental frequency and [[harmonic]]s of a hanging chain by solving an ordinary differential equation
* 1734 – Daniel Bernoulli solves the ordinary differential equation for the vibrations of an elastic bar clamped at one end
* 1739 – [[Leonhard Euler]] solves the ordinary differential equation for a [[Harmonic oscillator#Driven harmonic oscillators|forced harmonic oscillator]] and notices the [[resonance]]
* 1742 – [[Colin Maclaurin]] discovers his [[Maclaurin spheroid|uniformly rotating self-gravitating spheroids]]
* 1743 – [[Jean le Rond d'Alembert]] publishes his ''Traite de Dynamique'', in which he introduces the concept of [[generalized forces]] and [[D'Alembert's principle]]
* 1747 – D'Alembert and [[Alexis Clairaut]] publish first approximate solutions to the [[three-body problem]] 
* 1749 – [[Leonhard Euler]] derives equation for [[Coriolis acceleration]]
* 1759 – Leonhard Euler solves the partial differential equation for the vibration of a rectangular drum
* 1764 – Leonhard Euler examines the partial differential equation for the vibration of a circular drum and finds one of the [[Bessel function]] solutions
* 1776 – [[John Smeaton]] publishes a paper on experiments relating [[Power (physics)|power]], [[Mechanical work|work]], [[momentum]] and [[kinetic energy]], and supporting the conservation of energy

== Analytical mechanics ==
* 1788 – [[Joseph-Louis Lagrange]] presents [[Lagrangian mechanics|Lagrange's equations of motion]] in the ''Méchanique Analytique''
* 1798 – [[Pierre-Simon Laplace]] publishes his [[Traité de mécanique céleste]] vol.1 and lasts vol.5 in 1825. In this, he summarized and extended the work of his predecessors
* 1803 – [[Louis Poinsot]] develops idea of [[Angular momentum#Conservation of angular momentum|angular momentum conservation]] (this result was previously known only in the case of conservation of [[areal velocity]])
* 1813 – [[Peter Ewart]] supports the idea of the conservation of energy in his paper "On the measure of moving force"
* 1821 – [[William Rowan Hamilton|William Hamilton]] begins his analysis of [[Hamilton's characteristic function]] and [[Hamilton–Jacobi equation]]
* 1829 – [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]] introduces [[Gauss's principle of least constraint]]
* 1834 – [[Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi|Carl Jacobi]] discovers his [[Jacobi ellipsoid|uniformly rotating self-gravitating ellipsoids]]
* 1834 – [[Louis Poinsot]] notes an instance of the [[intermediate axis theorem]]<ref>Poinsot (1834) ''Theorie Nouvelle de la Rotation des Corps'', Bachelier, Paris</ref>
* 1835 – William Hamilton states [[Hamiltonian mechanics|Hamilton's canonical equations of motion]]
* 1838 – Liouville begins work on [[Liouville's theorem (Hamiltonian)|Liouville's theorem]]
* 1841 – [[Julius von Mayer]], an [[amateur]] scientist, writes a paper on the conservation of energy but his lack of academic training leads to a [[Mechanical equivalent of heat|priority dispute]].
* 1847 – [[Hermann von Helmholtz]] formally states the law of [[conservation of energy]]
* first half of the 19th century – [[Cauchy]] develops [[Cauchy momentum equation|his momentum equation]] and [[Cauchy stress tensor|his stress tensor]]
* 1851 – [[Léon Foucault]] shows the Earth's rotation with a huge [[pendulum]] ([[Foucault pendulum]])
* 1870 – [[Rudolf Clausius]] deduces [[virial theorem]]
* 1890 – [[Henri Poincaré]] discovers the sensibility of initial conditions in the [[three-body problem]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Poincaré |first=H. |date=January 1900 |title=Introduction |url=https://projecteuclid.org/journals/acta-mathematica/volume-13/issue-1-2/Introduction/10.1007/BF02392506.full |journal=Acta Mathematica |volume=13 |issue=1–2 |pages=5–7 |doi=10.1007/BF02392506 |issn=0001-5962|doi-access=free }}</ref>
* 1898 – [[Jacques Hadamard]] discusses the [[Hadamard billiards]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Oestreicher |first=Christian |date=2007-09-30 |title=A history of chaos theory |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.31887/DCNS.2007.9.3/coestreicher |journal=Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience |language=en |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=279–289 |doi=10.31887/DCNS.2007.9.3/coestreicher |issn=1958-5969 |pmc=3202497 |pmid=17969865}}</ref>

== Modern developments ==
* 1900 – [[Max Planck]] introduces the idea of [[Quantum|quanta]], introducing [[quantum mechanics]]
* 1902 – [[James Jeans]] finds the length scale required for gravitational perturbations to grow in a static nearly homogeneous medium
* 1905 – [[Albert Einstein]] first mathematically describes [[Brownian motion]] and introduces [[relativistic mechanics]]
* 1915 – [[Emmy Noether]] proves [[Noether's theorem]], from which conservation laws are deduced
* 1915 – [[Albert Einstein]] introduces [[general relativity]]
* 1923 – [[Élie Cartan]] introduces the [[Newton–Cartan theory|geometrized Newtonian gravitation]], treating Newtonian gravitation in terms of spacetime.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Malament |first=David B. |url=https://www.google.fr/books/edition/Topics_in_the_Foundations_of_General_Rel/1Cd8yfbvanMC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=newton+cartan+theory&printsec=frontcover |title=Topics in the Foundations of General Relativity and Newtonian Gravitation Theory |date=2012-04-02 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-50247-2 |language=en}}</ref>
* 1931–1932 – [[Bernard Koopman]] and [[John von Neumann]] papers led to the development of [[Koopman–von Neumann classical mechanics]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Joseph |first=Ilon |date=2020-10-19 |title=Koopman--von Neumann approach to quantum simulation of nonlinear classical dynamics |url=https://journals.aps.org/prresearch/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevResearch.2.043102 |journal=Physical Review Research |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=043102 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevResearch.2.043102|arxiv=2003.09980 }}</ref>
* 1952 – Parker develops a [[tensor]] form of the virial theorem<ref>{{cite journal | last = Parker | first = E.N. | year = 1954 | title = Tensor Virial Equations | journal = Physical Review | volume = 96 |issue = 6 | pages = 1686–1689 | doi = 10.1103/PhysRev.96.1686 | bibcode = 1954PhRv...96.1686P}}</ref>
* 1954 – [[Andrey Kolmogorov]] publishes the first version of the [[Kolmogorov–Arnold–Moser theorem]].<ref name=":0" />
* 1961 – [[Edward Norton Lorenz]] discovers [[Lorenz system]]s and establishes the field of [[chaos theory]].<ref name=":0" />
* 1978 – [[Vladimir Arnold]] states precise form of [[Liouville–Arnold theorem]]<ref>V. I. Arnold, Mathematical Methods of Classical Mechanics, Graduate Texts in Mathematics (Springer, New York, 1978), Vol. 60.</ref>
* 1983 – [[Mordehai Milgrom]] proposes [[modified Newtonian dynamics]] as an alternative to the [[dark matter]] hypothesis
* 1992 – Udwadia and Kalaba create [[Udwadia–Kalaba equation]]
* 2003 – [[John D. Norton]] introduces [[Norton's dome]]

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{History of physics}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Classical Mechanics}}
[[Category:Physics timelines]]
[[Category:Mathematics timelines]]